UNIT-4

Network Switching:-
Switching is process to forward packets coming in from one port to a port
leading towards the destination. When data comes on a port it is called
ingress, and when data leaves a port or goes out it is called egress. A
communication system may include number of switches and nodes. At broad
level, switching can be divided into two major categories:
 Connectionless: The data is forwarded on behalf of forwarding
tables. No previous handshaking is required and
acknowledgements are optional.
 Connection Oriented: Before switching data to be forwarded to
destination, there is a need to pre-establish circuit along the path
between both endpoints. Data is then forwarded on that circuit.
After the transfer is completed, circuits can be kept for future use
or can be turned down immediately.
Circuit Switching
o Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated
path between sender and receiver.
o In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established
then the dedicated path will remain to exist until the connection is
terminated.
o Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone
works.
o A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes
place.
o In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the
data, voice, video, a request signal is sent to the receiver then the
receiver sends back the acknowledgment to ensure the availability of
the dedicated path. After receiving the acknowledgment, dedicated path
transfers the data.
o Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice
transmission.
o Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.

Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:

 o Circuit establishment
o Data transfer
o Circuit Disconnect

Circuit Switching can use either of the two technologies:

Advantages of Circuit Switching:

It has the following advantages:

1. The main advantage of circuit switching is that a committed transmission

channel is established between the computers which give a guaranteed
data rate.
2. In-circuit switching, there is no delay in data flow because of the dedicated
transmission path.
3. Reliability: Circuit switching provides a high level of reliability since the
dedicated communication path is reserved for the entire duration of the
communication. This ensures that the data will be transmitted without any
loss or corruption.
4. Quality of service: Circuit switching provides a guaranteed quality of
service, which means that the network can prioritize certain types of
traffic, such as voice and video, over other types of traffic, such as email
and web browsing.
5. Security: Circuit switching provides a higher level of security compared to
packet switching since the dedicated communication path is only
accessible to the two communicating parties. This can help prevent
unauthorized access and data breaches.
6. Ease of management: Circuit switching is relatively easy to manage since
the communication path is pre-established and dedicated to a specific
 communication. This can help simplify network management and reduce
the risk of errors.
7. Compatibility: Circuit switching is compatible with a wide range of devices
and protocols, which means that it can be used with different types of
networks and applications. This makes it a versatile technology for various
industries and use cases.
Disadvantages of Circuit Switching:
It has the following disadvantages:

1. It takes a long time to establish a connection.

2. More bandwidth is required in setting up dedicated channels.
3. It cannot be used to transmit any other data even if the channel is free as
the connection is dedicated to circuit switching.
4. Limited Flexibility: Circuit switching is not flexible as it requires a
dedicated circuit between the communicating devices. The circuit cannot
be used Waste of Resources for any other purpose until the
communication is complete, which limits the flexibility of the network.
5. Waste of Resources: Circuit switching reserves the bandwidth and
network resources for the duration of the communication, even if there is
no data being transmitted. This results in the wastage of resources and
inefficient use of the network.
6. Expensive: Circuit switching is an expensive technology as it requires
dedicated communication paths, which can be costly to set up and
maintain. This makes it less feasible for small-scale networks and
applications.
7. Susceptible to Failure: Circuit switching is susceptible to failure as it relies
on a dedicated communication path. If the path fails, the entire
communication is disrupted. This makes it less reliable than other
networking technologies, such as packet switching.
8. Not suitable for bursty traffic: Circuit switching is not suitable for bursty
traffic, where data is transmitted intermittently at irregular intervals. This
is because a dedicated circuit needs to be established for each
communication, which can result in delays and inefficient use of
resources.
Space Division Switches:
o Space Division Switching is a circuit switching technology in which a
single transmission path is accomplished in a switch by using a physically
separate set of crosspoints.
 o Space Division Switching can be achieved by using crossbar switch. A
crossbar switch is a metallic crosspoint or semiconductor gate that can
be enabled or disabled by a control unit.
o The Crossbar switch is made by using the semiconductor. For example,
Xilinx crossbar switches using FPGAs.
o Space Division Switching has high speed, high capacity, and nonblocking
switches.

Space Division Switches can be categorized in two ways:

o Crossbar Switch
o Multistage Switch

Crossbar Switch

The Crossbar switch is a switch that has n input lines and n output lines. The
crossbar switch has n2 intersection points known as crosspoints.

Disadvantage of Crossbar switch:

The number of crosspoints increases as the number of stations is increased.

Therefore, it becomes very expensive for a large switch. The solution to this is
to use a multistage switch.

Multistage Switch
o Multistage Switch is made by splitting the crossbar switch into the
smaller units and then interconnecting them.
o It reduces the number of crosspoints.
o If one path fails, then there will be an availability of another path.

Advantages of Circuit Switching:

o In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication channel is

dedicated.
o It has fixed bandwidth.

Disadvantages of Circuit Switching:

 o Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs in the
speed of data transmission.
o It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10 seconds during
which no data can be transmitted.
o It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated path
is required for each connection.
o It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no data is
transferred, then the capacity of the path is wasted.
o In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other data can be
transferred even if the channel is free.

Message Switching
o Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is
transferred as a complete unit and routed through intermediate nodes
at which it is stored and forwarded.
o In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a
dedicated path between the sender and receiver.
o The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching
provides a dynamic routing as the message is routed through the
intermediate nodes based on the information available in the message.
o Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can
provide the most efficient routes.
o Each and every node stores the entire message and then forwards it to
the next node. This type of network is known as store and forward
network.
o Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.

Advantages of Message Switching

 o Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that
improve the efficiency of using available bandwidth.
o Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily
stored in the nodes.
o Message priority can be used to manage the network.
o The size of the message which is sent over the network can be varied.
Therefore, it supports the data of unlimited size.

Disadvantages of Message Switching

o The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to

enable them to store the messages until the message is forwarded.
o The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility
provided by the message switching technique.

Packet Switching
o The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is
sent in one go, but it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent
individually.
o The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are
given a unique number to identify their order at the receiving end.
o Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source
address, destination address and sequence number.
o Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as
possible.
o All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
o If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to
resend the message.
o If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment
message will be sent.
Approaches of Packet Switching:

There are two approaches to Packet Switching:

Datagram Packet switching:

o It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a
datagram, is considered as an independent entity. Each packet contains
the information about the destination and switch uses this information
to forward the packet to the correct destination.
o The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
o In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.
o Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.
o Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.

Advantages of Packet Switching:

o Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do not

require massive secondary storage to store the packets, so cost is
minimized to some extent. Therefore, we can say that the packet
switching technique is a cost-effective technique.
o Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted. This
ensures that the Packet Switching technique provides reliable
communication.
o Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not require
any established path prior to the transmission, and many users can use
the same communication channel simultaneously, hence makes use of
available bandwidth very efficiently.
Disadvantages of Packet Switching:

o Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those

applications that require low delay and high-quality services.
o The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex
and requires high implementation cost.
o If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires
retransmission of lost packets. It can also lead to the loss of critical
information if errors are nor recovered.

Virtual Circuit Switching

o Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented switching.
o In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is established
before the messages are sent.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection
between sender and receiver.
o In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.

Let's understand the concept of virtual circuit switching through a diagram:

o In the above diagram, A and B are the sender and receiver respectively.
1 and 2 are the nodes.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish a connection
between the sender and receiver.
o When a route is established, data will be transferred.
 o After transmission of data, an acknowledgment signal is sent by the
receiver that the message has been received.
o If the user wants to terminate the connection, a clear signal is sent for
the termination.

Multiplexing?
Multiplexing means multiple sources but one link. An alternative approach to
it is Direct Point to Point Connection but it has several problems as it requires
an I/O port for each device, a need line for each device, and also a large
amount of wiring needed if on different floors. But instead, if we use a
multiplexer approach then all devices are connected to MUX and one line to
the host, the link carries multiple channels of information and a number of
lines equal to the number of lines out.
Why Multiplexing?
Multiplexing is the sharing of a medium or bandwidth. It is the process in
which multiple signals coming from multiple sources are combined and
transmitted over a single communication/physical line.

Multiplexing

The ‘n’ input lines shown above are transmitted via a multiplexer and it
combines the signals to form a composite signal. Now, these signals are
passed through DEMUX and it transfers those signals to their respective
destinations.
Types of Multiplexing
Multiplexing can be classified as:
1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
2. Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)
3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
 Types of Multiplexer

1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

The frequency spectrum is divided among the logical channels and each user
has exclusive access to his channel. It sends signals in several distinct
frequency ranges and carries multiple video channels on a single cable. Each
signal is modulated onto a different carrier frequency and carrier frequencies
are separated by guard bands. The bandwidth of the transmission medium
exceeds the required bandwidth of all the signals. Usually, for frequency
division multiplexing analog signalling is used in order to transmit the signals,
i.e. more susceptible to noise. Assignment of non-overlapping frequency
ranges to each user or signal on a medium. Thus, all signals are transmitted at
the same time, each using different frequencies.
 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

A multiplexer accepts inputs and assigns frequencies to each device. The

multiplexer is attached to the high-speed communication line. The frequency
spectrum is divided up among the logical channels where each user hangs
onto a particular frequency. The radio spectrum is an example of the media
and the mechanism for extracting information from the medium.
Advantages of FDM
 The process is simple and easy to modulate.
 A corresponding multiplexer or de-multiplexer is on the end of the high-
speed line and separates the multiplexed signals.
 For frequency division multiplexing analog signaling is used in order to
transmit the signals.
Disadvantages of FDM
 One problem with FDM is that it cannot utilize the full capacity of the
cable.
 It is important that the frequency bands do not overlap.
 There must be a considerable gap between the frequency bands in order
to ensure that signals from one band do not affect signals in another band.

2. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Each user periodically gets the entire bandwidth for a small burst of time, i.e.
entire channel is dedicated to one user but only for a short period of time. It
is very extensively used in computer communication and telecommunication.
Sharing of the channel is accomplished by dividing available transmission
time on a medium among users. It exclusively uses Digital Signalling instead
of dividing the cable into frequency bands. TDM splits cable usage into time
slots. The data rate of transmission media exceeds the data rate of signals.
Uses a frame and one slot for each slice of time and the time slots are
transmitted whether the source has data or not.

Time Division Multiplexing

There are two types of TDMs which are as follows:

1. Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing
2. Statistical Time Division Multiplexing
3. Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing
4. Interleaving Time Division Multiplexing
1. Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing: It is synchronous because the
multiplexer and the de-multiplexer have to agree on the time slots. The
original time-division multiplexing. The multiplexer accepts input from
attached devices in a round-robin fashion and transmits the data in a never-
ending pattern. Some common examples of this are T-1 and ISDN telephone
lines. If one device generates data at a faster rate than other devices, then
the multiplexor must either sample the incoming data stream from that
device more often than it samples the other devices or buffers the faster
incoming stream. If a device has nothing to transmit, the multiplexor must
still insert a piece of data from that device into the multiplexed stream.
 Synchronous TDM

2. Statistical Time Division Multiplexing: It is a time-division but on-demand

rather than fixed, rescheduling links on a per-packet basis and packets from
different sources interleaved on the link. It allows the connection of more
nodes to the circuit than the capacity of the circuit. Works on the premise
that not all the nodes will transmit at full capacity at all times. It must
transmit a terminal identification i.e destination id no. and may require
storage. A statistical multiplexer transmits only the data from active
workstations. If a workstation is not active, no space is wasted on the
multiplexed stream. It accepts the incoming data streams and creates a frame
containing only the data to be transmitted.

Statistical TDM
3. Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing: It is a type of multiplexing,
where the rate of sampling is different and also does not require a general
clock, it is called Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing. Asynchronous
TDMs have generally low bandwidth. In case when there is nothing to
transmit, this type of TDM gives its time slot to other devices.
4. Interleaving Time Division Multiplexing: Interleaving TDM can be taken as
two switches rotating at high speed, one on the multiplexing and the other
on the demultiplexing surface. These switches can also be rotated in the
reverse direction. At once, when it leaves the surface of multiplexing and
releases at the surface of de-multiplexer, it is called Interleaving.

3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

It is the same as FDM but applied to fibers, only the difference is that here
the operating frequencies are much higher actually they are in the optical
range. There’s great potential for fibers since the bandwidth is so huge. Fibers
with different energy bands are passed through a diffraction grating prism.
Combined on the long-distance link and then split at the destination. It has
got high reliability and very high capacity.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

It multiplexes multiple data streams onto a single fiber optic line. Different
wavelength lasers (called lambdas) transmit multiple signals. Each signal
carried on the fiber can be transmitted at a different rate from the other
signals.
1. Dense wavelength division multiplexing: It combines many (30, 40, 50, or
more) channels onto one fiber. DWDM channels have a very high capacity
and it keeps on improving.
2. Coarse wavelength division multiplexing: It combines only a few lambdas.
In this, channels are more widely spaced and are a cheaper version of
DWDM.
Some Other Types of Multiplexing
There are some more types of multiplexing that are discussed here.

1. Code Division Multiplexing

It is a type of multiplexing where each code is distributed among different

spectrums so that each one of them can work at the same time
simultaneously. It is also called Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA). CDMA
makes use of spectrum technology along with analog-to-digital conversion
(ADC). It is thus used by various radio communication technologies. Mainly, it
is used for mobile communication.
Advantages of Code Division Multiplexing
 It provides enhanced data communication capabilities.
 It does not compress the bandwidth of other frequencies.

2. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing

Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) is a digital

communication technique initially developed for use in cable television
systems. OFDM is similar to the broadcasting technique known as frequency
division multiplexing (also known as FDM), which uses a multitude of
transmitters and receivers to send information on different frequencies over
a single wire, such as an electrical power cable.
 OFDM vs FDM

Uses of OFDM
 OFDM is used in Digital radio, Digital Radio Mondiale, digital audio
broadcasting, and satellite radio.
 OFDM is used in wired data transmission.

3. Space Division Multiplexing

Space Division Multiplexing (SDM) is the combination of Frequency Division

Multiplexing (FDM) and Time Division Multiplexing (TDM). It basically means
that a particular channel is used against a particular frequency band for some
time.
Advantages of Space Division Multiplexing
 It provides a high data transmission rate.
 Some Passive Optical Network (POV) implementations use SDM.

Types of Signalling Techniques

As discussed above, the signalling techniques are categorized into two, the In-
channel signalling and the Common channel signalling. However, these are
further divided into few types depending upon the frequencies and frequency
techniques used.
The division is as shown in the following figure −

In-channel Signalling
This type of signalling is used to carry voice or data and pass control signals
related to a call or connection. There are different types of In-channel
Signalling, as seen in the above figure. The D.C. signalling is simple, cheap and
reliable even for unamplified audio circuits. However, for amplified audio
circuits, low frequency A.C. signalling may be adopted.
The Voice Frequency signalling is used when FDM (Frequency Division
Multiplexing) transmission systems are used, because low frequency signalling
and D.C. signalling cannot be provided. This Voice Frequency signalling may
be In-band or Out-band.
In-band Signalling
In-band voice frequency uses the same frequency band as the voice, which is
300-3400 Hz, which has to be protected against false operation by speech. One
such instant took place when a lady’s voice which has generated a tone at
around 2600Hz lasting for a duration of 100ms was detected as the line
disconnect signal due to which her calls were frequently being disconnected in
the middle of her conversation. Such problems precluded the in-band
signalling during speech phase.
The advantages of In-band signalling are −
 The control signals can be sent to every part where a speech signal can
reach.
 The control signals will be independent of the transmission systems as
they are carried along with the speech signals.
  The Analog to digital and Digital to analog conversion processes will not
affect them.
Out-band Signalling
The out-band signalling uses frequencies which are above the voice band but
below the upper limit of

4000 Hz of the nominal voice channel spacing. The signalling is done

throughout the speech period and thus continuous supervision of the call is
allowed. Extra circuits are needed to handle the extremely narrow band width
of this signalling, due to which it is seldom used. Both of these in-band and
out-band voice frequency signalling techniques have limited information
transmission capacity. In order to provide enhanced facilities, common channel
signalling is used.
Common Channel Signalling
Common Channel Signalling uses a separate common channel for passing
control signals for a group of trunks or information paths as it does not use the
speech or the data path for signalling. The common channel signalling consists
of two types of nodes such as Signalling Transfer Points (STP) and Signalling
Points (SP).
A Signalling point is capable of handling control messages directly addressed to
it but is incapable of routing messages. Signalling transfer point is capable of
routing messages and can perform the functions of SP.
This common channel signalling is implemented in two modes −
 Channel associated mode
 Channel non-associated mode
Channel-associated Mode
In the channel-associated mode, the channel closely tracks the trunk groups
along the entire length of the connection. Here, the signalling is done on a
separate channel; the signalling path passes through the same set of switches,
as does the speech path.
The following figure shows the associated mode of operation in common
channel signalling
The signalling paths for the speech paths A-B, A-C-B and B-D are A-B, A-C-B and
B-D respectively. The advantages of this signalling are −
 The implementation is economic
 The assignment of trunk groups is simple
Channel Non-associated Mode
In the channel non-associated mode, there is no close or simple assignment of
the control channels to trunk groups. It follows a different path from that of
the speech signal as shown in the following figure.

The signalling paths for the speech paths A-B and B-C are A-C-D-B and B-D-C
respectively. The network topologies are different for signalling and speech
networks. Though this scheme offers flexibility as there is no switching centre,
it is a bit complex, as the signal messages may be transferred between the two
end switching systems via any available path in the common channel signalling
network according to its own routing principles.
In Channel Out channel Common Channel

Trunks are held up during signaling. Trunks aren't required for

Signaling
Signal repertoire is limited. Extensive signal repertoire is
possible.
Interference between voice and No interference as the two Channels
Control signals may occur. are physically separate.
Separate signaling Only one set of signaling
Equipment is needed for each trunk equipment’s is essential for a whole
and thus expensive. group of trunk Circuits and hence
CCS is economical
Voice channel being the control Control Channel is in general in
channel, there is a possibility of accessible to users.
potential misuse by the customers.
Signaling is comparatively slow. Signaling is significantly fast.
It is difficult to change or add signals. There is flexibility to change or add
signals.

It is difficult to handle signaling Signals during speech. There is

during speech period. freedom to handle
Reliability of signaling path is not Reliability of the signaling Path is
Critical. critical.
Speech circuit reliability is assured. There is no automatic test of speech
circuit.
Common channel signaling is better than In-channel signaling.

Signalling System-7 (SS-7) is a set of protocols that is used to perform

telecommunication all over the globe. It was developed in 1975. This protocol
is not only limited to telephonic calls but also works like number translation,
local number portability, prepaid billing, Short Message Service (SMS), etc are
all possible because of this protocol only.
In North America, it is known as Common Channel Signalling System-7 (CCSS-
7). In the United Kingdom, it is known as C7 (CCITT number 7), and Common
Channel Interoffice Signalling 7 (CCIS-7). In Germany, it is known as Zentraler
ZeichengabeKanal Number 7 (ZZK-7).
SS7 Probe:
SS7 probe is a physical device which makes it possible to record or to obtain
information from a telecommunication network. A probe is capable of
extracting the information from a network by monitoring the E1/T1 or SDH /
SONET bearer channel. This work is done in a fully lawful manner. Lawful
interception here means the delivery of calls and data to government-
approved reception centers before completing the request.
Example – The phone call made by us to any person is first sent to the
established data centers before meeting the actual person. In the UK this
interception is controlled by UK RIPA (REGULATION OF INVESTIGATORY
POWER ACT 2000) and in Russia interception is done by Russia SORM. Both
these agencies are set up legally.
SS7 Vulnerability:
In 2014 a media report came out according to which there was protocol
vulnerability in SS7 by which anybody can track the movement of cell phone
users from anywhere else in the world with a success rate of approximately
70%. In May 2017 O2, Telefonica which is a German-based company confirmed
the use of SS7 vulnerabilities to achieve unauthorized withdrawals from the
banks.
SS7 Protocol Suite:
It has different protocols that are contained in it. The most important among
them are:
 Message Transfer Protocol (MTP) –
It covers a portion of the OSI network layer and includes the following
functions: network interface, information transfer, message handling, and
routing to the higher levels.

 SCCP –
It completes the function of the OSI network layer, end to end addressing
and routing, connectionless messages (UDTs), and management services for
users.
 Telephone User Part (TUP) –
It is a link by link signaling system used to connect calls.

 Transaction Capabilities Application Part (TCAP) –

It is used to create database queries and call on advanced network
functionality. It also links the Intelligent Network Application Part (INAP) for
intelligent networks or Mobile Application Part (MAP) for mobile services.

Message Transfer Part (M.P.T):

It has 3 parts –

1. Message Transfer Part-1 (MPT1) –

It represents the physical layer, responsible for the connection of SS7
signaling points into the transmission network.

2. Message Transfer Part-2 (MPT2) –

It ensures the exact end to end transmission of a message.

3. Message Transfer Part-3 (MPT3) –

It provides routing functionality to transport messages to the destination.

SCCP and TCAP:

SCCP stands for Signaling Connection Control Part, Connection orientation,
and Error correction facilities in telecommunications segmentation.
TCAP stands for Transaction Capabilities Applications Part. It enables multiple
concurrent dialogues between the same subsystems on the same machine. It
uses transaction IDs to differentiate between them.
MAP and INAP/CAP:
MAP stands for Mobile Application Part. It provides an application layer for
the different GSM modes so that they can communicate with each other.
INAP/CAP stands for Intelligent Application Part. It is an extended form of
INAP and is a Customized Application for Mobile Network Enhanced Logic
(CAMEL). It is also an application layer protocol to communicate with the
service control point.
ISUP/TUP:
ISUP is used to set up telephone calls in the Public Switched Telephone
Network (PSTN). In SS7 ISUP is the only voice-related messages that are used
to generate voice calls between two voice circuits.
Packet Switching and Delays in Computer Network
Packet switching is a method of transferring data to a network in form of
packets. In order to transfer the file fast and efficiently manner over the
network and minimize the transmission latency, the data is broken into small
pieces of variable length, called Packet. At the destination, all these small parts
(packets) have to be reassembled, belonging to the same file. A packet
composes of a payload and various control information. No pre-setup or
reservation of resources is needed.
Packet Switching uses Store and Forward technique while switching the
packets; while forwarding the packet each hop first stores that packet than
forward. This technique is very beneficial because packets may get discarded
at any hop due to some reason. More than one path is possible between a pair
of sources and destinations. Each packet contains the Source and destination
address using which they independently travel through the network. In other
words, packets belonging to the same file may or may not travel through the
same path. If there is congestion at some path, packets are allowed to choose
different paths possible over an existing network.
Packet-Switched networks were designed to overcome the weaknesses of
Circuit-Switched networks since circuit-switched networks were not very
effective for small messages.
Packet switching is a technique used in computer networks to transmit data in
the form of packets, which are small units of data that are transmitted
independently across the network. Each packet contains a header, which
includes information about the packet’s source and destination, as well as the
data payload.
One of the main advantages of packet switching is that it allows multiple
packets to be transmitted simultaneously across the network, which makes
more efficient use of network resources than circuit switching. However,
packet switching can also introduce delays into the transmission process,
which can impact the performance of network applications.

Here are some of the types of delays that can occur in packet switching:

1. Transmission delay: This is the time it takes to transmit a packet over a link.
It is affected by the size of the packet and the bandwidth of the link.
2. Propagation delay: This is the time it takes for a packet to travel from the
source to the destination. It is affected by the distance between the two
nodes and the speed of light.
3. Processing delay: This is the time it takes for a packet to be processed by a
node, such as a router or switch. It is affected by the processing capabilities
of the node and the complexity of the routing algorithm.
4. Queuing delay: This is the time a packet spends waiting in a queue before it
can be transmitted. It is affected by the number of packets in the queue and
the priority of the packets.
While packet switching can introduce delays in the transmission process, it is
generally more efficient than circuit switching and can support a wider range
of applications. To minimize delays, various techniques can be used, such as
optimizing routing algorithms, increasing link bandwidth, and using quality of
service (QoS) mechanisms to prioritize certain types of traffic.
Advantages of Packet Switching over Circuit Switching:
 More efficient in terms of bandwidth, since the concept of reserving a
circuit is not there.
 Minimal transmission latency.
 More reliable as a destination can detect the missing packet.
 More fault tolerant because packets may follow a different path in case any
link is down, Unlike Circuit Switching.
 Cost-effective and comparatively cheaper to implement.
Disadvantage of Packet Switching over Circuit Switching:
 Packet Switching doesn’t give packets in order, whereas Circuit Switching
provides ordered delivery of packets because all the packets follow the
same path.
 Since the packets are unordered, we need to provide sequence numbers for
each packet.
 Complexity is more at each node because of the facility to follow multiple
paths.
 Transmission delay is more because of rerouting.
 Packet Switching is beneficial only for small messages, but for bursty data
(large messages) Circuit Switching is better.
Modes of Packet Switching:
1. Connection-oriented Packet Switching (Virtual Circuit): Before starting the
transmission, it establishes a logical path or virtual connection using a signaling
protocol, between sender and receiver and all packets belongs to this flow will
follow this predefined route. Virtual Circuit ID is provided by switches/routers
to uniquely identify this virtual connection. Data is divided into small units and
all these small units are appended with help of sequence numbers. Packets
arrive in order at the destination. Overall, three phases take place here- The
setup, data transfer and tear-down phases.
All address information is only transferred during the setup phase. Once the
route to a destination is discovered, entry is added to the switching table of
each intermediate node. During data transfer, packet header (local header)
may contain information such as length, timestamp, sequence number, etc.
Connection-oriented switching is very useful in switched WAN. Some popular
protocols which use the Virtual Circuit Switching approach are X.25, Frame-
Relay, ATM, and MPLS (Multi-Protocol Label Switching).
2. Connectionless Packet Switching (Datagram): Unlike Connection-oriented
packet switching, In Connectionless Packet Switching each packet contains all
necessary addressing information such as source address, destination address,
port numbers, etc. In Datagram Packet Switching, each packet is treated
independently. Packets belonging to one flow may take different routes
because routing decisions are made dynamically, so the packets that arrived at
the destination might be out of order. It has no connection setup and
teardown phase, like Virtual Circuits.
Packet delivery is not guaranteed in connectionless packet switching, so
reliable delivery must be provided by end systems using additional protocols.

A---R1---R2---B

A is the sender (start)

R1, R2 are two routers that store and forward data
B is receiver (destination)
To send a packet from A to B there is delays since this is a Store and Forward
network.
Delays in Packet switching:

1. Transmission Delay: Time required by station to transmit data to the link.

2. Propagation Delay: Time of data propagation through the link.
3. Queuing Delay: Time spend by the packet at the destination’s queue.
4. Processing Delay: Processing time for data at the destination.

X.25 Structure
X.25 is generally a protocol that was developed by Telecommunication
Standardization Sector (ITU-T) of International Telecommunication Union. It
usually allows various logical channels to make use of same physical line. It
basically defines a series of documents particularly issued by ITU. These
documents are also known as X.25 Recommendations. X.25 also supports
various conversations by multiplexing packets and also with the help of virtual
communication channels. X.25 basically encompasses or suits to the lower
three layers of the Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model for
networking. These three protocol layers are:
1. Physical Layer
2. Frame Layer
3. Packet Layer

These are explained as following below.

1. Physical Layer: This layer is basically concerned with electrical or signaling.
The physical layer interface of X.25 also known as X.21 bis was basically
derived from RS-232 interface for serial transmission. This layer provides
various communication lines that transmit or transfer some electrical
signals. X.21 implementer is usually required for linking.
2. Data Link Layer: Data link layer is also known as Frame Layer. This layer is
an implementation or development of ISO High-Level Data Link Layer
(HDLC) standard which is known as LAPB (Link Access Procedure Balanced).
It also provides a communication link and transmission that is error-free
among any two physically connected nodes or X.25 nodes. LAPB also allows
DTE (Data Terminal Equipment) or DCE (Data Circuit-Terminating
Equipment) simply to start or end a communication session or start data
transmission. This layer is one of the most important and essential parts of
X.25 Protocol. This layer also provides a mechanism for checking in each
hop during the transmission. This service also ensures a bit-oriented, error-
free, and also sequenced and ordered delivery of data frames or packets.
There are many protocols that can be used in frame-level as given below :
 Link Access Procedure Balanced (LAPB) – It is specified by ITU-T
Recommendation X usually derived from HDLC. It is the most commonly
used protocol that allows establishing a logical connection.
 Link Access Protocol (LAP) – This protocol is very rarely used. This is
usually used for framing and transferring data packets across point-to-
point links.
 Link Access Procedure D-channel (LAPD) – It is used to convey or
transfer data over D-channel. It also enables and allows transmission of
data among DTEs through D channel especially among a DTE and an
ISDN node.
 Logical Link Control (LLC) – It is used to manage and ensure the integrity
of transmissions of data. It also allows transmission of X.25 data packets
or frames through a LAN (Local Area Network) channel.
3. Packet Layer: Packet layer is also known as Network Layer protocol of X.25.
This layer generally governs the end-to-end communications among various
DTE devices. It also defines how to address and deliver X.25 packets among
end nodes and switches on a network with the help of PVCs (Permanent
Virtual Circuits) or SVCs (Switched Virtual Circuits). This layer also governs
and manages set-up and teardown and also flow control among DTE
devices as well as various routing functions along with multiplexing multiple
logical or virtual connections. This layer also defines and explains the
format of data packets and also the procedures for control and
transmission of data frames. This layer is also responsible for establishing a
 connection, transmitting data frames or packets, ending or terminating a
connection, error and flow control, transmitting data packets over external
virtual
circuits.

Data Encoding Techniques

Encoding is the process of converting the data or a given sequence of
characters, symbols, alphabets etc., into a specified format, for the secured
transmission of data. Decoding is the reverse process of encoding which is to
extract the information from the converted format.
Data Encoding
Encoding is the process of using various patterns of voltage or current levels to
represent 1s and 0s of the digital signals on the transmission link.
The common types of line encoding are Unipolar, Polar, Bipolar, and
Manchester.
Encoding Techniques
The data encoding technique is divided into the following types, depending
upon the type of data conversion.
 Analog data to Analog signals − the modulation techniques such as
Amplitude Modulation, Frequency Modulation and Phase Modulation of
analog signals, fall under this category.
  Analog data to Digital signals − this process can be termed as
digitization, which is done by Pulse Code Modulation PCM. Hence, it is
nothing but digital modulation. As we have already discussed, sampling
and quantization are the important factors in this. Delta Modulation
gives a better output than PCM.
 Digital data to Analog signals − the modulation techniques such as
Amplitude Shift Keying ASK Frequency Shift Keying FSK Phase Shift
Keying PSK, etc., fall under this category. These will be discussed in
subsequent chapters.
 Digital data to Digital signals − these are in this section. There are
several ways to map digital data to digital signals.

Digital Transmission in Computer Network

Data or information can be stored in two ways, analog and digital. For a
computer to use the data, it must be in discrete digital form. Similar to data,
signals can also be in analog and digital form. To transmit data digitally, it
needs to be first converted to digital form.

Digital-to-Digital Conversion

It can be done in two ways, line coding and block coding. For all
communications, line coding is necessary whereas block coding is optional.

Line Coding

The process for converting digital data into digital signal is said to be Line
Coding. Digital data is found in binary [Link] is represented (stored)
internally as series of 1s and 0s.

Digital signal is denoted by discreet signal, which represents digital [Link]

is three types of line coding schemes available:
Uni-polar Encoding
Unipolar encoding schemes use single voltage level to represent data. In this
case, to represent binary 1, high voltage is transmitted and to represent 0, no
voltage is transmitted. It is also called Unipolar-Non-return-to-zero, because
there is no rest condition i.e. it either represents 1 or 0.

Polar Encoding
Polar encoding scheme uses multiple voltage levels to represent binary values.
Polar encodings is available in four types:
 Polar Non-Return to Zero (Polar NRZ)
It uses two different voltage levels to represent binary values. Generally,
positive voltage represents 1 and negative value represents 0. It is also
NRZ because there is no rest condition.
NRZ scheme has two variants: NRZ-L and NRZ-I.
 NRZ-L changes voltage level at when a different bit is encountered
whereas NRZ-I changes voltage when a 1 is encountered.
 Return to Zero (RZ)
Problem with NRZ is that the receiver cannot conclude when a bit ended
and when the next bit is started, in case when sender and receiver’s
clock are not synchronized.

RZ uses three voltage levels, positive voltage to represent 1, negative

voltage to represent 0 and zero voltage for none. Signals change during
bits not between bits.
 Manchester
 This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ and NRZ-L. Bit time is
divided into two halves. It transits in the middle of the bit and changes
phase when a different bit is encountered.
 Differential Manchester
This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ and NRZ-I. It also transit at
the middle of the bit but changes phase only when 1 is encountered.
Bipolar Encoding
Bipolar encoding uses three voltage levels, positive, negative and zero. Zero
voltage represents binary 0 and bit 1 is represented by altering positive and
negative voltages.

Block Coding

To ensure accuracy of the received data frame redundant bits are used. For
example, in even-parity, one parity bit is added to make the count of 1s in the
frame even. This way the original number of bits is increased. It is called Block
Coding.
After block coding is done, it is line coded for transmission.

Analog-to-Digital Conversion

Microphones create analog voice and camera creates analog videos, which are
treated is analog data. To transmit this analog data over digital signals, we
need analog to digital conversion.
Analog data is a continuous stream of data in the wave form whereas digital
data is discrete. To convert analog wave into digital data, we use Pulse Code
Modulation (PCM).
PCM is one of the most commonly used methods to convert analog data into
digital form. It involves three steps:
 Sampling
 Quantization
 Encoding.
Sampling

The analog signal is sampled every T interval. Most important factor in

sampling is the rate at which analog signal is sampled. According to Nyquist
Theorem, the sampling rate must be at least two times of the highest
frequency of the signal.
Quantization

Sampling yields discrete form of continuous analog signal. Every discrete

pattern shows the amplitude of the analog signal at that instance. The
quantization is done between the maximum amplitude value and the minimum
amplitude value. Quantization is approximation of the instantaneous analog
value.
Encoding
In encoding, each approximated value is then converted into binary format.

Transmission Modes

The transmission mode decides how data is transmitted between two

[Link] binary data in the form of 1s and 0s can be sent in two
different modes: Parallel and Serial.
Parallel Transmission

The binary bits are organized in-to groups of fixed length. Both sender and
receiver are connected in parallel with the equal number of data lines. Both
computers distinguish between high order and low order data lines. The
sender sends all the bits at once on all [Link] the data lines are equal to
the number of bits in a group or data frame, a complete group of bits (data
frame) is sent in one go. Advantage of Parallel transmission is high speed and
disadvantage is the cost of wires, as it is equal to the number of bits sent in
parallel.
Serial Transmission
In serial transmission, bits are sent one after another in a queue manner. Serial
transmission requires only one communication channel.
Serial transmission can be either asynchronous or synchronous.
Asynchronous Serial Transmission
It is named so because there’is no importance of timing. Data-bits have specific
pattern and they help receiver recognize the start and end data [Link]
example, a 0 is prefixed on every data byte and one or more 1s are added at
the end.
Two continuous data-frames (bytes) may have a gap between them.
Synchronous Serial Transmission
Timing in synchronous transmission has importance as there is no mechanism
followed to recognize start and end data [Link] is no pattern or
prefix/suffix method. Data bits are sent in burst mode without maintaining gap
between bytes (8-bits). Single burst of data bits may contain a number of
bytes. Therefore, timing becomes very important.
It is up to the receiver to recognize and separate bits into [Link] advantage
of synchronous transmission is high speed, and it has no overhead of extra
header and footer bits as in asynchronous transmission.
Digital to Analog Conversion

Digital Signal – A digital signal is a signal that represents data as a sequence of

discrete values; at any given time it can only take on one of a finite number of
values.
Analog Signal – An analog signal is any continuous signal for which the time
varying feature of the signal is a representation of some other time varying
quantity i.e., analogous to another time varying signal.
The following techniques can be used for Digital to Analog Conversion:
1. Amplitude Shift keying – Amplitude Shift Keying is a technique in which
carrier signal is analog and data to be modulated is digital. The amplitude of
analog carrier signal is modified to reflect binary data.
The binary signal when modulated gives a zero value when the binary data
represents 0 while gives the carrier output when data is 1. The frequency and
phase of the carrier signal remain constant.

Advantages of amplitude shift Keying –

 It can be used to transmit digital data over optical fiber.
 The receiver and transmitter have a simple design which also makes it
comparatively inexpensive.
 It uses lesser bandwidth as compared to FSK thus it offers high bandwidth
efficiency.
Disadvantages of amplitude shift Keying –
 It is susceptible to noise interference and entire transmissions could be lost
due to this.
 It has lower power efficiency.
2. Frequency Shift keying – In this modulation the frequency of analog carrier
signal is modified to reflect binary data.
The output of a frequency shift keying modulated wave is high in frequency for
a binary high input and is low in frequency for a binary low input. The
amplitude and phase of the carrier signal remain constant.

Advantages of frequency shift Keying –

 Frequency shift keying modulated signal can help avoid the noise problems
beset by ASK.
 It has lower chances of an error.
 It provides high signal to noise ratio.
 The transmitter and receiver implementations are simple for low data rate
application.
Disadvantages of frequency shift Keying –
 It uses larger bandwidth as compared to ASK thus it offers less bandwidth
efficiency.
 It has lower power efficiency.
3. Phase Shift keying – In this modulation the phase of the analog carrier signal
is modified to reflect binary [Link] amplitude and frequency of the carrier
signal remains constant.
It is further categorized as follows:
1. Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK):
BPSK also known as phase reversal keying or 2PSK is the simplest form of
phase shift keying. The Phase of the carrier wave is changed according to
the two binary inputs. In Binary Phase shift keying, difference of 180 phase
shift is used between binary 1 and binary 0.
This is regarded as the most robust digital modulation technique and is
used for long distance wireless communication.
2. Quadrature phase shift keying:
This technique is used to increase the bit rate i.e we can code two bits onto
one single element. It uses four phases to encode two bits per symbol.
QPSK uses phase shifts of multiples of 90 degrees.
It has double data rate carrying capacity compare to BPSK as two bits are
mapped on each constellation points.
Advantages of phase shift Keying –
 It is a more power efficient modulation technique as compared to ASK and
FSK.
 It has lower chances of an error.
 It allows data to be carried along a communication signal much more
efficiently as compared to FSK.
Disadvantages of phase shift Keying –
 It offers low bandwidth efficiency.
 The detection and recovery algorithms of binary data are very complex.

Analog to Analog Conversion –

Analog-to-analog conversion, or modulation, is the representation of analog
information by an analog signal. It is a process by virtue of which a
characteristic of carrier wave is varied according to the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal. This modulation is generally needed when
a bandpass channel is required. Bandpass is a range of frequencies which are
transmitted through a bandpass filter which is a filter allowing specific
frequencies to pass preventing signals at unwanted frequencies.
Analog to Analog conversion can be done in three ways:
1. Amplitude Modulation
2. Frequency Modulation
3. Phase Modulation
1. AMPLITUDE MODULATION:
The modulation in which the amplitude of the carrier wave is varied according
to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal keeping phase and
frequency as constant. The figure below shows the concept of amplitude
modulation:

AM is normally implemented by using a simple multiplier because the

amplitude of the carrier signal needs to be changed according to the amplitude
of the modulating signal.
AM bandwidth:
The modulation creates a bandwidth that is twice the bandwidth of the
modulating signal and covers a range centered on the carrier frequency.
Bandwidth= 2fm
2. FREQUENCY MODULATION –
The modulation in which the frequency of the carrier wave is varied according
to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal keeping phase and
amplitude as constant. The figure below shows the concept of frequency
modulation:
FM is normally implemented by using a voltage-controlled oscillator as with
FSK. The frequency of the oscillator changes according to the input voltage
which is the amplitude of the modulating signal.
FM bandwidth:
1. The bandwidth of a frequency modulated signal varies with both deviation
and modulating frequency.
If modulating frequency (Mf) 0.5, wide band Fm signal.
2. For a narrow band Fm signal, bandwidth required is twice the maximum
frequency of the modulation, however for a wide band Fm signal the
required bandwidth can be very much larger, with detectable sidebands
spreading out over large amounts of the frequency spectrum.
3. PHASE MODULATION:
The modulation in which the phase of the carrier wave is varied according to
the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal keeping amplitude and
frequency as constant. The figure below shows the concept of frequency
modulation:
Phase modulation is practically similar to Frequency Modulation, but in Phase
modulation frequency of the carrier signal is not increased. It is normally
implemented by using a voltage-controlled oscillator along with a derivative.
The frequency of the oscillator changes according to the derivative of the input
voltage which is the amplitude of the modulating signal.
PM bandwidth:
1. For small amplitude signals, PM is similar to amplitude modulation (AM)
and exhibits its unfortunate doubling of baseband bandwidth and poor
efficiency.
2. For a single large sinusoidal signal, PM is similar to FM, and its bandwidth is
approximately, 2 (h+1) Fm where h= modulation index.
Thus, Modulation allows us to send a signal over a bandpass frequency range.
If every signal gets its own frequency range, then we can transmit multiple
signals simultaneously over a single channel, all using different frequency
ranges.
Transmission Modes in Computer Networks (Simplex, Half-Duplex and Full-
Duplex)
Transmission mode means transferring data between two devices. It is also
known as a communication mode. Buses and networks are designed to allow
communication to occur between individual devices that are interconnected.
There are three types of transmission mode:-

These are explained as following below.

1. Simplex Mode –
In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street.
Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive.
The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in
one direction.
Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The keyboard can only introduce
input, the monitor can only give the output.

Advantages:
 Simplex mode is the easiest and most reliable mode of communication.
 It is the most cost-effective mode, as it only requires one communication
channel.
 There is no need for coordination between the transmitting and receiving
devices, which simplifies the communication process.
 Simplex mode is particularly useful in situations where feedback or
response is not required, such as broadcasting or surveillance.
Disadvantages:
 Only one-way communication is possible.
 There is no way to verify if the transmitted data has been received
correctly.
 Simplex mode is not suitable for applications that require bidirectional
communication.
2. Half-Duplex Mode –
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the
same time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice
versa. The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for
communication in both directions at the same time. The entire capacity of the
channel can be utilized for each direction.
Example: Walkie-talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages
are sent in both directions.
Channel capacity=Bandwidth * Propagation Delay

Advantages:
 Half-duplex mode allows for bidirectional communication, which is useful in
situations where devices need to send and receive data.
 It is a more efficient mode of communication than simplex mode, as the
channel can be used for both transmission and reception.
 Half-duplex mode is less expensive than full-duplex mode, as it only
requires one communication channel.
Disadvantages:
 Half-duplex mode is less reliable than Full-Duplex mode, as both devices
cannot transmit at the same time.
 There is a delay between transmission and reception, which can cause
problems in some applications.
 There is a need for coordination between the transmitting and receiving
devices, which can complicate the communication process.
3. Full-Duplex Mode –
In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. In
full duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link
with signals going in another direction, this sharing can occur in two ways:
 Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one
for sending and the other for receiving.
 Or the capacity is divided between signals traveling in both directions.

Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required

all the time. The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between
the two directions.
Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication between two
persons by a telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at the
same time.
Channel Capacity=2* Bandwidth*propagation Delay

Advantages:
 Full-duplex mode allows for simultaneous bidirectional communication,
which is ideal for real-time applications such as video conferencing or
online gaming.
 It is the most efficient mode of communication, as both devices can
transmit and receive data simultaneously.
 Full-duplex mode provides a high level of reliability and accuracy, as there is
no need for error correction mechanisms.
Disadvantages:
 Full-duplex mode is the most expensive mode, as it requires two
communication channels.
 It is more complex than simplex and half-duplex modes, as it requires two
physically separate transmission paths or a division of channel capacity.
 Full-duplex mode may not be suitable for all applications, as it requires a
high level of bandwidth and may not be necessary for some types of
communication.