.

The noturol number5 are the numbers we cou nt with: The real numbers can be represented as points on the number
' 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. ti. ... . 27. 26. . . line..All rational numbers are real, but the real number line has Real numbers
The whole numbers are the numbers we count with and zero: many points that are "between" rational numbers and are called

The lmoqlnory numbers are square roots of negative numbers. Irrationals

! The Integers are the numbers we count with, their negotlves,
They don't appear on the real number line and are written in 5 n
and zero: —3. —2. —4 . iJ. 4 . 2. 3.
terms of / = —1. £x: is imaginary and equal to i or 7/. n"+3
The positive integers are the natural numbers.
The negative integers are tHe "minus" natural numbers: The complex numbers are all possible sums of real and etc.
— t. —2. —:J. —4. . . . imaginary numbers; they are written as ‹ 6/. where H and /› are
„ real and = — 1 is imaginary. All reals are complex (with
The rational numbers are all numbers expressible as '','*
' /a =. II) and all imaginary numbers are complex (with u — t1).
fractions. The fractions may be proper (less than one; £x: ' ) or The fiundomentol Theorem of Algebra says that every
improper (more than one; Ex: --- ). Rational n umbers can be
polynomial ot degree J/ has exactly i i complex roots (counting
positive (Ex: 5.125 — ‘J ) or negative (Ex: ' ). All integers are
multiple roots).

Intersection of two sets: .A ."i ñ is the set of all the

elements that are both in .4 and in I £n: If .4 = { 1 .
A Benn Dlo9rom is a visual way to
:'. 3} and fi — | 2. 4 . t ) . then .4 O ñ = { 2 } . Two sets
represent the relationship between two
n>nl‹o ‹:eunslhul i,›n \ . m nn?en«l›i” n with no elements in common are dlstoint; their intersection
or more sets. Each set is represented by
is the empty set. Complement of a set: .4 is the set of all
a circle-like shape; elements of the set
elements that are not in .ñ. £x: If we're talking aboui the set
are pictured inside it. Elements in an
£mply set or null set: 0 or { ) : The set without anv elements. ( i. -›. .i. 4. ñ. ti}. and overlapping section of two sets helong I
Beware: the set (IJ) is a set ›•;th one element, IN. It is not . t — ( 1. 2. .1}. then .I { 1. 5. (› } . It is a1ways true
to both sets (and are in the 9p 5; , J,„; ,
the same as the empty set. that
intersection). ]
Union of two sets: .1 O D is the set of all elements that are .4 °i . = 0 and .4 .4 is everything.
Counting elements: t ize I a u ] = /—,'
in either set (or in both). Ex: If .4 { 1.2.'J} and 6 (2. - —Subset: .4 y 6’: .ñ is a subset of (” if all the elements of .A
t. b| . are also elements of C’.
then .1 U D —— \ t. 2. .J. !. I›). £x: If .4 ] 1. U". 3 ) and U =—( [Link]. 1. 2. :1. 4. fi. 8}.
then

Other properties: Suppose n. 1›. and r' are real numbers.

Property fiquolity (=) lnequolity (< .iiitl

(of additon over (f2 r) ri = f4 ri c ri

Real numbers satisfy II properties: '5 for addition, › matching multiplication) Symmetric If n = 6. then '› = u .
ones for multiplication, and 1 that connects addition and
multiplication. Suppose «, I . and ‹ are real numbers. There are also two (derivative) properties having to do with [Link].

Zero product property: If «6 = 0 then u = p or /› = o (or

both).
Properly Addition ( — j n\u1tiplicotion If o = 0 and 6 = ‹'. If o < 6 and I c. ‹
or }
s( then ri = ‹ then « < r'.
Sign Meaning Exompla
Addition end If c = 6. then If n < G. then
subtroction ‹i r = 6 ‹ and c r < ñ - ‹ and
ldenMes IN is a real number. I is a real number.

I) is the oddflive 1 is the muttiplkolive Multiplicoflon If /›. then

-«
klentfly identity. and di•bion cc = ñr'
and
Inverses -ri is a real number. If r U, - is a real
‹o
‹o exist rt * (— rt ) number.
If ‹I < /› and ‹' < IN.
then switch the
inequality: «' .› l›r'
Closure n 6 is a real n umber. n h is a real Jticbotomy: For any two real numbers « and G, exactly one of the
number. followin8 is true: n < I›. o = I›. or ‹ > b.

Distribute the right-side parentheses: -.r — 0 = 3

o 4.i . Any linear equation can be simplified into the form ua = I› l'ur
—5
Combine like terms on the right side: :-,.‹ — 9 - — 1.i some u and 1›. If « t4. then u = * (exactly one solution). 11'
0
3. Repent os necesnry to 9ot the form ‹ia h = c - - ‹/. n H but h X iJ. then there is no solution. If « - -6 i+, then all
l8 = 77 — G.r. real numbers are solutions.
Multiply by 2 to get rid of fractions: 5.—i
4. wove vofioble terms ond confirm terms to different sldes.
Usually, move variables to the side that had the larger variable
z- @ Linem- eqii‹itions its one ucirioble will always haue (a) exactly cne coefficient
real numbertosoluifion,
begin with.
(ifi) Equation should
no solutions, look
ur (c) ulllike
realu.r = /›. cs sc/urions.
num6ei's Vse the same procedure as for equalities, exeeql fiip the
mozO Add b.i to both sides to get âi 8.—i lb = 77 or ineguofitp alien mii ltip ly iti y vr dix idin9 by u neyutiue
number. Ex: —.r > ro is equivalent to .r < —0.
Add i b io both sides to get I -lr = ?* ltd or 1:i4 = 95. —The inequality may have rio solution if it reduces to an
5. Dicide both sides by the reliable‘s coefficient. S!top /« impossible statement. £x: .r 1 > s' 9 reduces to 1 9.
— u. Divide by I'i to get .r = The inequality may have oIl renl numbers as solutions i1' it
6. Check the solution by plugging into Jhe original equation. reduces to a statement that is always true. Ex: 5 — .r • i
Does j ( !tt — ñ) * *, = 9— ( — p)” Yes! Hooray. reduces to fi 3 and has infintely many solutions.
[Link] rid ot fractions outside parentheses. Solutions given the reduced Inequality and the condMon:
Multiply through by the LCM of the
denominators.
Ex: Multiply by fl to get :1—( .1) -lr = 3U— 4 {.—r )
2. Simplify using erder of operations {PEMDAS). The original equation has no solutlen if, afler legal none
Use the distributive property and combine like terms on each transformations, the new equation is false.
side. Remember to distribute minus signs. all
£n: 2 = 3 or .3 i — 7 = 2 * :l.› .
£x: Distribute the left-side parentheses:
All real numbers are solutions to the original equation if, / .r < z >' all none none
Combine like terms on the left side: -a' — 9 = 3b — a (.—r after legal transformations, the new equation is an identity.
-) £x: 2.r — flu— s or 1 = L , '' ' none all
 I “I WOULD ADVISE YOU , SIR, TO STUDY ALGEBRA
YOUR B
E

The volt+a of a number n, denoted | i›

|. is its distance horn H. II is olwoys equalities and inequalities hold true in .r — • . .r > — . and :r < . The firsi condiiion
nonneqalive. forces the second. and the solulions are all .r with '
-bul3i-5|=2i.N2i>[Link]
, Ihus }3| — .3 ond | — fi| = F›. Also. |tl| = u. Change ihe equation unfil the absolute
fiormally, value 'expression is alone on one side.

' £c | 2*- 4| = G iaequivaleritto|z — 2| = 3. To

—m 2: |3 ' 5 = ñ. If fi- > 0. then we can Grid and . Unravel every absolute valu,e
rewrite this as 3z*5=3z or by replacing every eyres•ioii| vritli
TheoMtorslriweencanddisleposññe Thus |—I'— l|= 4 is equivalent to
3z 5 = —:ls . The lust, 3z + 0 — 3z z( czptv••ion). Find all solutions to the ,
vMue -d|= b—o|be|5—d|=J
z I| = +4. (The e:buttons ure {3. —5}; the
gives no solutions. The second seems to associated equalities. Also, find all solutions '
—Absolute vWue bars am Wke p&rentheses
equation |:i- + I | = —4 has no solutions.)
give the solution i = — *. But wait! The that the equation obtains by replacing the '
w6endetemñNsgt6eo‹derofopnadoos
—Use the Properilies of Absolute Volue lo equation 3u 5 = — a r only holds if absolute value with 0. All of these are '
unrovel the obsolete volue expression. There 3i ¿ 0, or z k 0. So —' does not work. potential boundary poinu. Determine the ,
• • $ No solution.
will be two equalities unless using the solution intervals by testing a point in ever.y
property that |n | = 0 implies n = 0. interval and every boundary point. The poin,
= |f›| means a = 6 or ‹i = — h. Solve eoch one seporolely. There may be t z = 0 is often good to test.
—- a means a = 0. no solutions, i or 2 aolutlOnS, OI• Nl It's simplest to lmrp track of your
C d > 0. If+an Uiwuvoling trt&s: informa0on, by graphing everything on the
m&1 numbers raay be solutions. |n| < I› is mie when 6 0 and —6 < o < 6.
= é mearis o = 6 or n = —G. ! —Check specific solutions by plugging them in. real number line.
< 6 means —6 < o < b. |o| > I› is true when 6 < 0 OR {6 > 0 and
' It there are infinitely many solutions or
> £ means o < —ñ or n > ñ. o > h) OR {6 > 0 and « < —é}. Solve the three equations 1tJv + I — Tz + .t. ,
no solutions, check two numbers of large
magnitude, positive and negative. £n: | lit.i' i < 7.r 3 is equivolenf to — it» — 1 — Tv- + 3. ond 7• :t = i› to find :
u < £ is impossible. —Be especiolly careful if the eqUolion contains
polenlial boundory points. The lhree points are.
}o| > /› means c could be anything. not surprisingly. -. — - . and — ' . Testing lhe
variables bolh inside and outside the Thus lhe equations ?i'+: > i›.
Ihree boundary points and a poini from eoch of
obsolute value bars. Keep track of wkicb —7.› — J < IU.*‘ * t. ond II):‹' * I < 7.r 'J the four intervals gives fhe solution— - < a- < ,.
must oll hold. Solving the equalions, we see that

The raol numbar line is a pictorial ,

representation of the reol numbers: every, :r a: Sbaded closed ray: everything to tbe
number corresponds to a point. SoJutions to one- left of aad iacluding n.
variable equations and tespeciallyl inequalities 0 a InMractIon: Inequalities joiaed by AND. Both
Absolute value is distonce. — ‹i| - 6 meons
may be graphed on the real number line. The ’ (or all) of the inequalities must true.
that the distance between n and .r is 5.
idea is la shade in those ports of the line thot £x: |z — 1| < 4 is really z > —3 AND z <
z > o: Shaded open ray: everything to the Throughout, /› musl be non-negative.
! represent solutions. ' 5. Equivalently, it is {z r: > —3) O {z : s
right of (and not including) n. An open |z — r | = ñ: ’The distaace from a to z is 6. Plot
< â). The graph is the intersection of the
: A special point repmenting 0. By, circle around the point n represents the graphs of both inequalities. Shade the
not- included endpoint. portions that would be shaded by both if
replant negative numbers, and poinmto the . 0 o graphed independently.
b b
right of the origin represent positive , Union: Inequalities joined by OR. At least one
* < u: Shaded open ray: everything to the lefi of the inequalities must be true.
w i > a is ready * < —z or > s.

contributors: JoshLo urito. Anno Medvedovsky

boy: A half-line; everything to the left or the of (and not including) ri. Open circie around n.

Series Edlfom: Sarah Friedberg, Justin Kestler

right of a given point. The endpoint may , The distance from • to z is less than (no Equivaletitly, it is{z : z < —3} U {z- : z > 0}.

Illustration: I?orter Mason, Mall Daniels

0 o more than) b: or z is closer than 6 to «. The graph is the union of the graphs of the
or may not be included.
Plot the interval (open or closed) individual inequalities. Shade the portions
UI: A piece of the line;
ri — 1 < a' < n + b (or o — b < z < ‹i b.) that would be shaded by either one (or both)
everything, between two endpoints, z o: Everything is shaded except for «. if graphed independently.
which may or may not be included. around wbich thece is an open circle. —Endpoints may disappear. £n: z > 5

Design: Dan O. Williams

o-d 0 o o+d
Open (ray or interval): Endpoints not ' OR z > fi just means that z > 5. The
included. 0 o
z — ‹i.| < t' lopen iniervoll point fi is no longer an endpoint.
Oomd (ray or interval): Endpoints included. '
—4 0 2 6
A whole range of values can be solutions. The distance from u toi is mure than (no less
• finn) ñ: or z is Nñber thao b away ñom o. NO lie
This is represented by shading in a portion
doub1e tags (opeo or closed) < n - b and , z >
of the number line: a + d (or z’ < a— b and z > u + d)
z = n: Filled-in dot at n. Shaded interval between u and 6.
0 o Only works it o < 6.
Filled-in circie if the endpoint is included,
' '
' open circle if the endpoint is not
z 2 c: Sbaded dosed ray: ever rthing to tbe z-axis and the 9-axis. included. second, t6e on nole.
right of and including c.
0 o 0 o

Ouudrnrrls: The four regions of the

' the Collation lor Al p a is o plane cut by the two axes. By
melhod tor giving a name io eoch poinl in convention, they are numbered
lhe plane on counterclockwise starting with the
, the basis of how for it is from two special upper right (see the diagram at right).
' perpendicular lines, called oxas. Pokit: A location on a plane identified by
an ordarad pdr of coordhiolM
enclosed in parentheses. The first
coordinate is measured along the
x•oxls: Usually, the horizorrtei axis of the z-axis; the second, along the y-axis.
coordinate plane. Positive distances are £n: The point 1. 2) is 1 unit to the
measnred to the right; negative, to the right and 2 units up from the origin.
left. p•enls: Usually, the vertical axis Occasionally (rarely), the first
of the coordinate plane. Positive oordinate is called the obtcitro;
distances are the
raeasured up; oegaove, dowu.
Origin: (0, 0), tbe point of intersectioa of tbe
 o—6 0 o o+b Plot the points
and test all
Ihe intervals
b b one by one
by plugging a
sample point
inlo the
equation. Also
test all
endpoints to
determine i(
they're

20593 36 1 9
included. See
example in
Solving
Inequalities
with Absolute
Value. above.

Cohesion plane with Ouodrants 1. #, l#, IV: point (u. I›).

7
Gign (-£) of tbe z- and y-coordinates ia tbe

# + + —

A straight line is
uniquely
identified by any
two points, or by
any one point
and the ’ incline,
or slope, of the
line.
Siepo ct o
line: The
slope of a
line in the
Cartesian
plane
measures
how steep
it is—
 ‘ a measure of how fast the line moves ’up” , Leos &oclleri of find with Pepe m: ,.
for every bit tbat it zaoves "over" (left or Rmdthestopem= , ,
• rtght). If (a, 6) aoâ (c, d) ate two poiots on
, Any line in the Carteainn plane represent
' the line, then the slope is
some linear relahonship between z and p
' values. The relationship always can be *-o= (•-•)
, change in z * r — o’ GwwnsbQeniond*-nlercepto:
, expressed as Ar + ftp = G’ for sotrie re•1
Anypaiofpoiotsooa,tnñghtBoewillgñe . numbers A, B,C'. The coordinates of every
thesameetopevatue. Given z-inlercepl a and //-inlercegt 6:
—Horizontal Hries have s1ope 0. , point on the line will aatiafy the equauom ; + _ ;
‘ —The gloge of a valfcol hne is unda nad4 it Given a polnl on the line and the equation of a
is ‘infinitely large." ; The z-coordinate of the point A va•IIoaI ¥ra witb *-intercept a bas
parallel lhe:
—Lines that go ’up right” and ’down left’ ' where a line crosses the z-axis. The z- , Given slope ›n and y-intercePi b ' Ptad tbe elope of tbe paialtét ltae (eee Gzapkta$
(eoding in I ant III) have Pod0ea slopa. ' iateroept of a tiae that crosses tbe z-axis , Liztear Eguatjoas). Tbe slope of the ori$ioal liae is
—Lines that go ‘up left” and ”down right’ , at (n. 0) is n. Horizontal lines have no Equation: y = mz + b.
z- tending in H and IV) have ring tHo , intercept. ' Gwen a point ou fhe line ond the equation of a
—i*otu4oi M have the came slope. , p•I torcopt: The 9-coordinate of the point
—The slopes of M are , where a line crosses the p-axe The p- ' Find the slope of the perpendicular line.
negaave reciprocate of each other: ii • , intercept of a line that the p-axis The alope of the original line is ,j . Uae
at (0. 6) is b. Verticei lines have no 9- Altemaavely, write down 9o = mso + h and
linee of slope m and m are perpendicular, ' point-slope for
intercept. solve for b = 9o — ture to 8et the slope-
, intercept form.

A h the ls'ay z ond

con be moniputoi 1/[Link] p-.
oll ihe =-terms
, teens or›d consum ierms ore hoi'e been
One of the easiest-to-graph forms of a linear ' Lori ttilnklng: Solve for p and put th,
grouped together—into the form dz + ftp = U. 2—0 2
e equation. ' equaaon into slope-intercept form.
ltte groph ot the e9uolion is o slroighl line 0 — t—5) '
m is tbe grope. work4 'i0d tbe z- aad tbe y-iatercepts. ,
lheoce the nomel.
6 is tbe y-iatercept. (0, 6) is a poiat oa tbe , Plot thezo aad connect the liae.
—Using Ore dope to eph: Pint one point of
line. ' Slope:
the line. If the slope is expressed as a ratio
. q p-intercept: y.
of small whole numbers +,. keep plotting
points r up and -1-s over from the previous
|
m is the slope.
point until you have enough to draw the '
line.
••-binding Pftoroop&i To find the p-intercept,
(/i, k) is a point on the If you are aure that an equation is linear,
, act z = 0 and aolve for p. To find the z-
line. but,it isn‘t in a nice form, find a couple of - +2
: intercept, set 9 = 0 and eolve for z. solution,s. Plot thoae points. Connect them - s
with .a straight line Done.

A lineor equoiion in two variobies Isay —Plug the solved-for variable into one of th,e
her + 6y — r. with o end ‹' nor both zerol hm original etpiations to solve for the other ,
infinaely mony ordered poir (i. r) eoi , Using the first equation to sohe fof y in tems variable. '
values of :r ond // thot make the [Link] , ., -4g= 1
, gives p = (z — i). f'lu9qing in to the suorid ,
simultoneous linear equations in two voriobles will ' , , .„ , , equation gives 2z — II = 2 (t(z — 1)) . 5olYin, g — 11 =2y
hove:
—ExacGy one solution if their graphs ;
intezaect—tbe osost cozaraoA soenArio.
for z gives • — 7. Plugging in for y give, s
y - {(7 — I) = ,. Check tf›ot (7, ,) words. , -°° I
—No solutions if tbe graphs of tbe two The z-coefficXmt in lhe flm equolion is i. so we '
equaaozts are parallel. no solutions — multiply the trsl equdlon by I to get 2z — by — 2,.
—Inflnhaly many aolUflons if their grapks t and subtroct this equotion from the original ,

Express both equations in the same fa , (2-2)a+(-l-(-8)g=11-2 or 6y=9, ,

oz + @ = c worm well. whihgwesy=;.mbdme
—If the line coincide, there are infinitely, Look for ways to add or subtract th, e
Graph
' both equabons on the same Cartesian many solutions. Effectively, the two equations to eliminate one of the variable,s.
; plane. The intersection of the graph givea equaBons convey the same information. , —If the coefficients on a variable in the two, The solution to the simultaneous equations
the, simultaneous solutions. (Since points equaoons are the same, subtract the'
on each graph correspond to solutions to —— eis oisdecent
There givenchonce
by ihol a system of linear
the, appropriate equation, points on both ' —If the coefficients on a variable in the two ' equations hos o uni9ue solution only il Ihere ore
gropes ' ' equations differ by a aign, add the ›
, are solutions to both equa0oris.) eguaaons.
' —Sometimes, the exact solution ecu be —If one of the coetficienta Og OTte Of tb.e
, determined from the graph; other times variables ta•y• z) in one of the equnfions ,is
the graph gives an estimate only. Plug in
infinitely mony i, multiply that whole equation by the s- ;
If the lines intersect in exactly one point os mnny emotions os Wriobies.
sdUlions
is the unique —If there are too many equaaons, then t h e,
solution to the syste ' —Tf the
no tvro equations.
simple combination is obvious, conditions src likely to be too restrictive,,
simply pick a variable (say, s). Multiply the ' resulting in no solubons. (This is only !
fñm equation by tbe z-coefficient of the , actually true if the equations are ,
secoad equation, zaulfipty tbe secoa.d “independent"—each new equation '
equaaoa by the =-‹x›efbcieat of tbe first. provides new information about the ,
Uae one equaaon to aolve for one variable . uatioa aad subtract the atiooe. ' relationship of the variables.)
e (say, y) in terms of the other (z): isolate y
‹-1.1› If all went well, the sum or dittérenoe —If there are too few equations, then there .
, on one side of the equnaon. equaao,n is in one variable (and easy io will be too few restrictions; if the equations ,
° - Plug the expression for y into the other ' solve if the ' original e9uAtions had hem are not contradictory, there wilt be '
in o:r + @ =, c infinitely many aolubOnS.
exo‹:tly one solution ' —Solve the resulting one-variable linea,r , If by eliminatipg one variable, the other is '
the solution eliminated too, then there is no uniqu, e
worla by solution to the ayatem. If there are no '
,
there are no dilutions to the phigging it , solutions to the sum (or difference, )
—U all real numbers are solutions to the into the equation, there is no solution to the ,
' " new equaaon, there are inbnitely origind system. If all real numbers are
many If the lines are parallel, they do not ' solutions; the two equations "< , equations. the sum (or difference) equaaon,
intersect; the system has no solutions. ' - two original equaaons are dependent and '
Parallel fines hone the same slope; if the, —SOUR f0r p by plugging the z-value into the, express the same relationship between th, e
slope is not the same, the lines will expreaaion for r in terms of s. variables; there are infinitely many'
aolutioni to the .
used to aolve eyatems of more than
two . linear equations. In practice.
graphing only : worka in tvro
dimensions. It's too hard to

—Snbatltuaon words fine for three

variables,;
it becomes cumbersome with more.

-hddñqorgubtracângequxñoos(ormGer,
emyAofcoeFideote‹mhedmeMbs0istbe '
metlaodtbati#uatdforlergesysteoma.
 E XPONENTS .,AND, POWE R5

In the notation
, exponent The whole ezpresoion is ”e to the rith
, power," or the"ntb power ofo, or, ei/ztply,"a to t the n."
o’ zs "a aguazed;" a’ ie "a osbed."
'

t—4)* = 16, whereas —(4’) = —t6.

= “ . J1zea redu‹e: tBe 6oal index sboutd b,e

ting & the 0 \z¥dtees '

r‹xAx sips e 0a U8e tbe tbe ntle = @.

3’=(-3’=9,webiowt&M =1 1.Ifd6eesmen€]cabioAedcoorñonor,oombMetbem,

’”will Jaave a & r of a“i• tbe deao ator aad, '

' e8ectñ'éIy, pull the m¥cel up iota tbe Buazerator.

, ouMidedfieegumrero‹EsigA
Ee B= 2 J = 2 =27T
—If the simplified radical in the denominator is an oth

POLYNOMIALS

Sues Edl>h s: SarahF ñedberg. Jusi in Kesller

ControMot s: Josh Louñ to, Anna Medve dov

II/ d ta otIn: Por ler Mason, Matt Daniels

Design: Don O. Williams
sky
3 tezzos: trhtom

4
0593 361 9
7

’"””‹ lioss2.54cm;'lmoJ.28h;1oñm1.6lIoo