CE 315

Highway development and planning,

importance, classification of roads, road
patterns, planning surveys, highway alignment
and surveys.

GROUP 2:
HELMA JOY VILLALOBOS
ANGEL MAE LOCSIN
RODJE MONTAÑO
SEAN HAROLD GASENDO
JOHNXIS JINON
BSCE3-EC8

ENGR. QUIEM BRYAN MAHILUM

INSTRUCTOR
 I. Highway Development and Planning

Highway engineering involves the planning, design, construction, operation, and maintenance of
roads, bridges, and tunnels. Highway planning is a prerequisite for the development of a highway
network and involves estimating traffic volumes and considering environmental impacts. The
objectives of highway planning include ensuring safe and efficient movement of people and goods,
minimizing construction and maintenance costs, planning for future development and traffic needs,
and implementing a financing system. Highway alignment is determined through engineering
surveys, and planning models can be used to analyze different design and maintenance strategies.

A. Importance

The objectives of highway planning are to (a) plan a highway network for safe, efficient,
and fast movement of people and goods, (b) minimize the overall cost of construction and
maintenance, (c) plan for future development and traffic needs, (d) phase road
development programs, and (e) establish a compatible financing system.
The principles that highway engineers should keep in mind include ensuring that
proposed road links are part of the planned road network, considering the current state of
the area's road plan, classifying roads based on traffic demand, prioritizing maintenance
needs, and implementing statutory provisions for traffic regulation.
The importance of highway planning is briefly given below:

• To plan a road network for efficient and safe traffic operation, but a minimum coast. Here the
costs of construction, maintenance and renewal of pavement layers and the vehicle operation
costs are to be given due construction.
• To arrive at the road system and the lengths of different categories of road which could
provide maximum utility and could be constructed within the available resource during the
plan period under construction.
• To fix up date wise priorities for development of each road link based on utility as the main
criterion for phasing the road development program.
• To plan for future requirements and improvement of roads in view of anticipated
developments.
• To work out financing system

B. Classification of Roads
The classification of roads depends on various criteria.
One criterion is the ability to be used throughout the year, making them all-weather
roads.
On the other hand, fair-weather roads are only usable during certain seasons, such as
monsoon, when water overflows at course ways.
Another criterion is the type of carriage-way or road pavement. Paved roads have awater-
bound macadam layer, while unpaved roads include earth roads and gravel roads.
 Superior paved roads have either a bituminous surface or a concrete surface for the
carriage-way, commonly known as black-top roads.
Additionally, traffic volume, load transported per day, location, and function are
important factors in classifying roads.
The Nagpur Plan and the Lucknow Plan have recommended classifications based on
these criteria, including categories such as NH, SH, MDR, ODR, VR, Primary, Secondary, and
Tertiary roads. Urban roads are classified based on their function and location, such as
expressways for heavy traffic, arterial streets for connecting central areas, sub-arterial
streets with less spacing, collector streets for traffic distribution in residential areas, and
local streets for access to private properties. During the route planning phase, it is
important to consider environmental and economic tradeoffs, including sediment control
and erosion impacts. Qualified individuals should conduct objective analyses to determine
the best road location and design to minimize negative social and environmental costs.

Urban roads are classified based on their function and location:

1. Expressways - for movement of heavy volume of traffic.
2. Arterial streets- for connecting the central area expressways.
3. Sub-arterial streets- similar arterial roads but to with less spacing.
4. Collector streets- for collection and distribution of traffic through local streets in
residential areas.
5. Local streets - access private property like residences, shops and industries. Traffic
originates here ends here.
In this context, certain definitions are relevant:
1. Road - A convenient way over which vehicles may lawfully pass for going from one place
to another.
2. Service road - Used f servicing a means access adjacent property; constructed parallel the
main road adjacent to roadside buildings.
3. Street-A Road within a town a residential locality with buildings on one or both sides.
4. Country Road - Road connecting place another on the country-side.
5. Urban Road-A Road within a town or a city.
6. Bypass Road-A Road constructed skirting a village or a small town, taking off through a
highway joining after bypassing the inhabited area; this helps through traffic move fast
without having to enter the village or town.
7. Highway -Any public road a street may called a highway.
8. Arterial Road -Road passing within a city and linking the state national highway, with
limited access.
9. Freeway –An arterial highway with controlled access crossing other roads at different
levels.
10. Boulevard -Very wide road with avenue on its either side; generally used for ceremonial
processions considered prestigious roads a or as in city.

C. Road Patterns and Planning Surveys

Urban Road Patterns:
 Although road patterns a country are historically inherited, later additions can be
planned bearing in mind the requirements of the day. Road patterns are great use urban
highway planning. The choice a road of pattern depends upon the extent of land use or the
distribution residential, industrial and business areas a city, the nature of the terrain, and the
and planner’s preferences
The factors considered when choosing a road pattern for urban highway planning include the
minimum pattern of travel, specific goals and prescriptions for road network development,
coordination with various experts and stakeholders, extent of land use and distribution of
residential, industrial, and business areas, nature of the terrain, and the planner's preferences.
Additionally, urban roads are classified based on their function and location, including
expressways, arterial streets, sub-arterial streets, collector streets, and local streets.

A. Road Patterns and Planning Surveys

Urban Road Patterns:
Although road patterns a country are historically inherited, later additions can be planned
bearing in mind the requirements of the day. Road patterns are great use urban highway planning. The
choice a road of pattern depends upon the extent of land use or the distribut ion residential, industrial
and business areas a city, the nature of the terrain, and the and planner’s preferences
The factors considered when choosing a road pattern for urban highway planning include the minimum
pattern of travel, specific goals and prescriptions for road network development, coordination with
various experts and stakeholders, extent of land use and distribution of residential, industrial, and
business areas, nature of the terrain, and the planner's preferences. Additionally, urban roads are
classified based on their function and location, including expressways, arterial streets, sub -arterial
streets, collector streets, and local streets.
The main patterns use urban areas are:
1. Grid Iron Pattern:
This is also known as the rectangular block pattern and is perhaps the simplest. Both the Romans and
the Americans adopted it in many of their cities. Straight lines and rectangular coordinates can be
easily set out, and it is suitable for flat terrain.
 Advantages:
• Construction and maintenance are quite easy.
• Rectangular plots may be further divided into small rectangles blocks for construction of
buildings.
Disadvantage:
• Increases the rate of accident due to poor visibility.
.
2. Radial Pattern:
The radial pattern of the road network is the circular type of pattern.

Depending on its layout, the radial pattern is further divided into three types. They are as follows:

1. Radial or star and block pattern.

2. Radial or star and circular pattern.
3. Radial or star and grid pattern.

A. Radial or star and block pattern

In this pattern, roads emanate from a central focal area, which may be a business center or a
significant public building. In order to ease the congestion in the focal area, ring roads are
provided; there can be several such routes-inner, intermediate, and outer—depending on the
traffic requirements. This type of road pattern is basically the combination of radial and block
patterns. A network of roads radiates from the center in the outwards direction with a block
pattern.

Advantage:
• It is safer compared to a rectangular pattern.
• Less obstacles.
Disadvantages:

• Only effective in areas where major traffic is flowing toward a hub.

 B. Radial Or Star and Circular Pattern:

The star and circular pattern, also known as the radial circular pattern, has been adopted certain
cases, although in a limited way. A classic example is the Connaught Place area New Delhi.

Advantages:

• This pattern is safer than the above-listed patterns as the vehicles travel in the same direction.
• Better traffic management due to the presence of roundabouts.
Disadvantages:

• Its design is complex and it is quite challenging to provide a good and required curve.
• Driving ability is affected due to its circular shape.

C. Radial Or Star and Grid Pattern:

It is a network of roads consisting of a combination of radial and grid patterns. A radial network of
roads spreads out from the center to the outwards directions. Then the radial streets are
connected using a grid pattern.
Advantages:

• Reduction of cut-through traffic.

• Efficient use of land.
Disadvantages:

• Construction cost is higher.

3. Hexagonal Pattern:

This basic figure of the road network in this case is a hexagon; each hexagon has at least one
side in common with an adjacent pattern shown in fig. 1.8.

Through link roads, the hexagon can be divided into six triangle units; facilities travel from one
location to another.

Advantages:

• The distance and the travel time are reduced.

• Congestion of traffic is minimized.
Disadvantages:

• Traffic signs, lighting, and road markings should be properly and adequately provided. To
minimize the risk of accidents

Planning Surveys
For assessing the road length requirements, following studies are made:

1. Economic Studies
- Details data on the distribution of the current population in the area,
population growth trends, agricultural and industrial product availability,
future development trends in those sectors, communication.
 2. Financial Studies
- Source of income: A number of financial factors are taken into account,
including funding sources, projected tax revenue from car and toll fees, and
the indirect effects of the proposed road network on people’s living
standards.
3. Traffic or Road Used Studies
- It in necessary to undertake traffic – related studies that include information
on the current road infrastructure, daily vehicle traffic volume, traffic flow
patterns and future trends of traffic increase.
4. Engineering Studies
- This includes an examination of the geography, the soil the longevity of the
roads, and any unique issues with construction, drainage, and upkeep.
The planner’s ability to create a plan will be aided by a systematic examinationof all those data.
Master plan to meet the region’s demands for say, 20 years ofdesign to 25 years old.

Saturation system for calculating optimum road length

This option bases its calculation of road length for an area on the idea ofmaximizing utility peer unit
length of road. This system is therefore a calls saturation system of maximum utility.
Factors for obtaining the utility per length of roads are:
1. Population served by the road
2. Productivity served be the road network
a. Agricultural product
b. Industrial product
The final step in the road development plan is to be placed in by setting the priorities for the
building of various road links after determining the ideal roadlength for the plan period.

Route Planning
Planning with respect to road construction takes into account present and futureuses of
the transportation system to assure maximum service with a minimum offinancial and
environmental cost. The main objective of this initial phase of road development is to establish
specific goals and prescriptions for road network development along with the more general
location needs. These goals must result from a coordinated effort between the road engineer and
the land manager, forester, geologist, soil scientist, hydrologist, biologist and others who would
have knowledgeor recommendations regarding alternatives or solutions to specific problems.
The pattern of the road network will govern the total area disturbed by road construction.

The road pattern which will give the least density of roads per unit area while maintaining minimum
hauling distance is the ideal to be sought. Keeping the densityof roads to an economical minimum
has initial cost advantages and future advantages in road maintenance costs and the acreage of land
taken out ofproduction. Sediment control design criteria may be the same as, or parallel to, other
designcriteria which will result in an efficient, economical road system. Examples of overlap or
parallel criteria are:
 1. Relating Road location and design to total forest resource, including short- and
long-term harvest patterns, reforestation, fire prevention, fish and wildlife
propagation, rural homestead development, and rangeland management.
2. Relating Road location and design to current and future timber harvesting
methods.
3. Preparing Road plans and specifications to the level of detail appropriate and
necessary to convey to the road builder, whether timber purchaser or independent
contractor, the scope of the project, and thus allow for proper preparation of
construction plans and procedures, time schedules, and cost estimates.

4. Writing instructions and completing companion design decisions so as to

minimize the opportunity for "changed conditions" during construction with
consequent costs in money and time.
5. Analyzing specific road elements for "up-front" cost versus annual maintenance
cost (for instance, culvert and embankment repair versus bridge installation, ditch
pavement or lining versus ditches in natural soil, paved or lined culverts versus
unlined culverts, sediment trapping devices ("trash racks", catch basins, or sumps)
versus culvert cleaning costs, retaining walls or end hauling side cast versus
placingand maintaining large embankments and fill slopes, roadway ballast or
surfacing versus maintenance of dirt surfaces, and balanced earthwork quantities
versus waste and borrow).
The route planning phase is the time to evaluate environmental and economic
tradeoffs and should set the stage for the remainder of the road development
process. Although inclusion of design criteria for sediment control may increase
initial capital outlay, it does not necessarily increase total annual cost over the life of
the road which might come from reductions in annual maintenance, reconstruction,
and repair costs (see Section 2.2). If an objective analysis by qualified individuals
indicates serious erosional problems, then reduction of erosional impacts should be
a primary concern. In some areas, this may dictate the location of control points or
may in fact eliminate certain areas from consideration for road construction as a
result of unfavorable social or environmental costs associated with developing the
area for economic purposes.

Highway Alignment and SurveysHighway

Alignment:
The laying the center line a proposed highway on the ground called its ‘alignment’. Anew road
should be aligned carefully since any change in alignment may not be possible or may expensive at a
later stage, owing in to increased land acquisition costs and roadside structures constructed after the
road has taken shape.
Requirements Ideal Alignment:
1. Directness: The aligned route between end points should be as direct as and
result in the minimum possible length under the circumstances.
2. Ease Construction, Maintenance Operation: The alignment should be such that
it is easy construct, maintain and operate the highway. The curves and gradients
should easy
3. Safety: Safety for the road-users should be the primary consideration; the
stability of natural slopes and man-made slopes for embankments and cuttings
should be ensured prevent possible accidents.
4. Economy: The overall cost of construction and maintenance of the road, as also
the operation cost of the vehicles should be as low as possible.
5. Special Considerations: Depending upon the purpose of the highway and the
characteristics of the terrain, special considerations may be needed as in the case of
hill roads ghat roads.
Horizontal Alignment

This is how the road is aligned in the horizontal plane; while a direct path between
the two end points would be ideal, there are a number of obstacles that make this
very impossible. The usage of horizontal curves is necessary for a smooth flow of
traffic when there is a direction shift.

It is possible to adopt a horizontal alignment for low traffic highways with design
speeds of 24 kph (15 mph) or less if it roughly resembles the geometric criteria of
circular curves and tangents. Check alignment to ensure that other designs are
accurate. Considerable factors are curve widening and stopping sight distance.
Roads should have a minimum centerline radius of curvature of 15 meters (50 feet),
with some recreational and administrative roads being an exception. For design
speeds under 32 kph (20 mph), superelevation shouldn't be employed. The
superelevation rate should not be greater than 6% if snow and ice are present, and it
should be further decreased on gradients to accommodate the slowly moving trucks.
To prevent abrupt changes in the highway template, transition portions should be
given into and out of superelevated parts.

Although it is desirable to have a roadway at the same elevation all the way along,
this is practically impossible and requires gradients or slopes all the way along the
length. Curves in the vertical plane are required when the gradient changes; vertical
curves should be based on a number of parameters, and built for easy traffic flow.
 Vertical Alignment

Because of the potential for environmental harm, vertical alignment, or grade, is a serious
concern. It also becomes more significant for grades above 10%. The squareof the slope and the
cube of the water velocity both affect erosion potential. Early inthe road location phase, the most
ideal grade and other design components should be considered, with extra caution being used when
grades are more than 8%. Light vehicle speed is often governed by vertical alignment for gradients
greater than 15%favorable and 11% negative and of loaded trucks for grades greater than 8%
favorable and 3% negative. A vehicle's capacity to climb a certain grade depends onthe weight,
horsepower, and traction coefficient of the vehicle.

Horizontal alignment, such as curve radius and road width, affects travel time and expense.
The association between average truck speed and curve is depicted in Figure 9. for a variety of road
widths. For instance, the average truck speed on a 30.5 m (100 ft) radius curve for a 3.7 m wide road
differs by 15% from that of a 4.3 m wide road. Depending on the radius and quantity of curves,
horizontal alignment hasbeen divided into different categories. For instance, the U.S. Forest Service
classifies things using the following system:

Figure 10 depicts the impact of grade on truck speed (both loaded and unloaded). A loaded
truck's speed is particularly sensitive to gradient changes of 0 to 7 percent in the hauling direction.
Other factors take precedence over the impact on speed for
hills steeper than 7%.

Engineering Surveys for Highway Location Before highway alignment is finalized in highway
project, the engineering surveys are to be carried out.
The stages of engineering surveys are:
1. Map Study. Topographic maps are available with 15 to 30 meters contour intervals. Valleys,
ponds or lakes etc. can be avoided and approximate position of bridges etc. can be planned.
2. Preliminary Survey. This is carried out to collect all the physical information which are
necessary in connection with the proposed highway alignment.
This works consists of:
a. Primary transverse
b. Topographical features
c. Leveling work
d. Drainage studies & hydrological data
e. Soil survey
f. Determinations of final center line
g. Traffic Survey
3. Final location and detailed survey. The center line of road finalized is translated on the ground
during location survey. Detailed survey is done to fix temporary bench mark and leveling work is
used for drainage and earthwork calculations
References
Aleman, G. (2019). Highway Planning PDF. Retrieved from
[Link]

Aziz, M.A. "Environmental Impact Assessment of Highway Development." The Handbook of Highway
Engineering. Ed. T.W. Fwa. CRC Press, 2005.[Link]
engineering/highway-planning-introobjectives-principle-process-necessity-and-importance/48327. 2019

EduRev. (n.d). Highway Development Planning. Retrieved from

[Link] -Planning- and
Highway/c78f14cb-8d79-40ed-a3cf-7f091112c4ba_t
Highway engineering." McGraw-Hill Concise Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.”
Sperling, D.; Bissonette, J.A.; Clevenger, A.P.; Cutshall, C.D.; Dale, V.H.; Fahrig, L.; France, R.L.;
Goldman,C.R.; Heanue, K. (2002). Road Ecology: Science and Solutions. Island Press.
New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006. Credo Reference. Web. 13 February 2013.

United States. National Research Council. Washington, DC. "Urban Stormwater Management in the
United States." October 15, 2008. pp. 5, 110.
[Link] 2019
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]?sequence=2&isAllowed=y/002_Chapter1_p001-[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
introobjectives-principle-process-necessity-and-importance/48327
[Link]