Criminology
Police Science and Law Enforcement
Recent approaches in policing - Community and
problem oriented Policing, Team Policing, and Cyber
policing-computerization of policing.
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Role Name Affiliation
Principal Investigator Prof.(Dr.) G.S. Bajapai Professor/Registrar, National Law
University, Delhi
Paper Coordinator Dr. Mithilesh Narayan Assistant Professor, Sardar Patel
Bhatt University of Police, Security and
Criminal Justice, Jodhpur
Content Writer/Author Dr. Swikar Lama Assistant Professor, Sardar Patel
University of Police, Security and
Criminal Justice, Jodhpur
Content Reviewer Prof. Mohan Kishan Ex. Head and Dean (retd.), Faculty of
Vyas Law, Jai Narayan Vyas
University,Jodhpur
DESCRIPTION OF MODULE
Items Description of Module
Subject Name Criminology
Paper Name Police Science and Law Enforcement
Module Name/Title Recent approaches in policing - Community and problem oriented
Policing, Team Policing, Cyber policing-computerization of policing
Module Id Crim/PSLE/XXXI
Objectives Learning Outcome:
To make the learners understand the recent approaches in
policing - Community and problem oriented Policing, Team
Policing, Cyber policing-computerization of policing.
To make the learners understand various forms of recent policing
practices
To familiarize the learners with various advantages of these
policing approaches
Prerequisites General understanding of recent approaches in policing - Community and
problem oriented Policing, Team Policing, Cyber policing-
computerization of policing.
Key words Recent approaches in policing, Community policing, problem oriented
Policing, Team Policing, Cyber policing, computerization of policing.
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Module 31: Recent approaches in policing - Community and problem oriented Policing,
Team Policing, Cyber policing-computerization of policing.
1. Introduction
As important as innovative approaches to policing and public safety are, it is equally important
to recognize that all of these approaches represent in some respects improvements on what is
known in the policing profession as the “traditional” or “professional” policing model. The
traditional or professional policing model emphasized crime control through high visibility
policing, random police patrols, rapid response to all citizen calls to the police, and follow-up
criminal investigations by detectives. All of these elements were intended to discourage crime
by increasing the likelihood that police would catch offenders, who would then be punished
through criminal prosecution. While it is not a completely flawed model, the evidence is quite
strong that it has not controlled crime, increased the public’s sense of safety and security, or
enhanced public confidence in the police and local government as much as was hoped. That is
why most police scholars and many police officials have long concluded that while the traditional
policing model represented a vast improvement over approaches that preceded it, more of the
same is not likely to improve policing or public safety.
2. Community Policing
Community policing encompasses a variety of philosophical and practical approaches and is still
evolving rapidly. Community policing strategies vary depending on the needs and responses of
the communities involved; however, certain basic principles and considerations are common to
all community policing efforts. Policing strategies that worked in the past are not always
effective today. The desired goal, an enhanced sense of safety, security, and well-being, has
not been achieved. Practitioners agree that there is a pressing need for innovation to curb the
crises in many communities. Communities must take a unified stand against crime, violence,
and disregard for the law, and must make a commitment to increasing crime-prevention and
intervention activities. Police agencies must help build stronger, more self-sufficient
communities—communities in which crime and disorder will not thrive. Community policing is
democracy in action. It requires the active participation of local government, civic and business
leaders, public and private agencies, residents, schools, and hospitals. All who share a concern
for the welfare of the neighborhood should bear responsibility for safeguarding that welfare.
The implementation of community policing necessitates fundamental changes in the structure
and management of police organizations. Community policing differs from traditional policing in
how the community is perceived and in its expanded policing goals. While crime control and
prevention remain central priorities, community policing strategies use a wide variety of methods
to address these goals. The police and the community become partners in addressing problems
of disorder and neglect (e.g., gang activity, abandoned cars, and broken windows) that,
although perhaps not criminal, can eventually lead to serious crime. As links between the police
and the community are strengthened over time, the ensuing partnership will be better able to
pinpoint and mitigate the underlying causes of crime.
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Analyses of crime statistics show that the current emphasis on crime fighting has had a limited
effect on reducing crime. In addition, the concept of centralized management of most police
organizations has often served to isolate police from the communities they serve. This isolation
hampers crime-fighting efforts. Statistics on unreported crime suggest that in many cases police
are not aware of existing problems. Without strong ties to the community, police may not have
access to pertinent information from citizens that could help solve or deter crime. Helpful
information will be forthcoming from community members when police have established a
relationship of trust with the community they serve. Establishing this trust will take time,
particularly in communities where internal conflicts exist or where relations with the police have
been severely strained. Community policing offers a way for the police and the community to
work together to resolve the serious problems that exist in these neighborhoods. Only when
community members believe the police are genuinely interested in community perspectives and
problems will they begin to view the police as a part of that community. Experience and
research reveal that “community institutions are the first line of defense against disorder and
crime.” Thus, it is essential that the police work closely with all facets of the community to
identify concerns and to find the most effective solutions. This is the essence of community
policing.
3. Problem Oriented Policing
Problem-oriented policing is an approach to policing in which discrete pieces of police
activities (each consisting of a cluster of similar incidents, whether crime or acts of disorder, that
the police are expected to handle) are subject to microscopic examination (drawing on the
especially honed skills of crime analysts and the accumulated experience of operating field
personnel) in hopes that what is freshly learned about each problem will lead to discovering a
new and more effective strategy for dealing with it. Problem-oriented policing places a high
value on new responses that are preventive in nature, that are not dependent on the use of the
criminal justice system, and that engage other public agencies, the community, and the private
sector when their involvement has the potential for significantly contributing to the reduction of
the problem. Problem-oriented policing carries a commitment to implementing the new strategy,
rigorously evaluating its effectiveness, and, subsequently, reporting the results in ways that will
benefit other police agencies and that will ultimately contribute to building a body of knowledge
that supports the further professionalization of the police
Problem-oriented policing (POP) is an analytic method used by police to develop strategies that
prevent and reduce crime. Under the POP model, police agencies are expected to
systematically analyze the problems of a community, search for effective solutions to the
problems, and evaluate the impact of their efforts. POP represents police-led efforts to change
the underlying conditions at hot spots that lead to recurring crime problems. It also requires
police to look past traditional strategies and consider other possible approaches for addressing
crime and disorder (Weisburd and Eck 2004). Today, it is one of the most widely used strategies
among progressive law enforcement agencies (Weisburd et al. 2010).
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3.1 Practice Theory
The POP approach was first advanced by Herman Goldstein (1979), who argued that the
standard model of policing (which is primarily reactive and incident driven) should be replaced
with a more proactive approach to identifying and targeting problems that contribute to crime,
disorder, and other community issues. Eck and Spelman (1987) later developed a framework for
implementing POP through the use of the SARA (for Scanning, Analysis, Response, and
Assessment) model, which is discussed below. SARA is just one of numerous potential
methodologies for implementing POP in practice.
3.2 Practice Components
POP interventions can take on many different forms and will vary depending on the specific
problems being combated. One of the most popular methods for implementing POP in practice
is a four-step process known as the SARA model.
In the first step, Scanning, police rely on several different sources to identify and prioritize
potential problems associated with crime and disorder in a jurisdiction. This can include
identifying problems of concern to the community, confirming that the problem exists, figuring
out the consequences of the problem, and determining how frequently the problem occurs.
Once the problem is identified, the next step is Analysis. This stage of the process involves
identifying and analyzing relevant data to learn more about the problem, including potentially
narrowing its scope and figuring out possible explanations why the problem is occurring. This
information is essential for selecting the most effective and appropriate response to the
problem, which occurs in the next step.
During the third step, Response, police and their partners select one or more responses or
interventions based on the results from the Analysis conducted in the previous step. A response
plan is outlined that includes the nature of each response, the specific objectives these
responses are intended to achieve, and the responsibilities of the various partners involved in
implementing the response. Once the response is selected, it is implemented by the police and
their partners.
Finally, the Assessment step involves evaluating whether the responses were implemented in a
way that was consistent with the Response plan, and whether the responses achieved their
intended effects. Thus, the assessment phase includes both process evaluation and impact
evaluation components.
POP approaches can take on a variety of forms. Strategies may focus on crime hot spots or
they may target nongeographic concentrations in crime and other problems, including repeat
offenders, repeat victims, and repeat times. The key ingredients in POP are the selection of a
narrowly defined problem type and the application of a wide range of targeted responses
intended to reduce the incidence or severity of that problem type. Other important ingredients
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include the inclusion of partners outside of the police agency and the central role of data and
information in selecting a problem type, analyzing it, evaluating the responses, and adjusting as
needed.
POP relies primarily on a diverse range of tightly focused policing strategies, some of which
involve traditional law enforcement approaches and some of which involve alternative
approaches. POP overlaps to some extent with other recent innovations in policing, including
community policing, third-party policing, focused deterrence, and hot spots policing.
Nonetheless, POP’s central elements are distinctive. Problem-oriented policing combines the
resource targeting strategies of hot spots policing with the diverse approaches of community
policing. Community policing draws on a variety of approaches to address crime and disorder
issues, including partnerships between police and other organizations and community groups.
However, community policing does not necessarily involve the intense degree of focus on a
specific problem type like POP. Third-party policing involves the mobilization of third parties to
assist the police in solving community problems. Hot spots policing strategies rely mostly on
traditional law enforcement approaches. However, police powers and resources are directed
toward dealing with a specific crime-ridden area or group of offenders (National Research
Council 2004, 249). Finally, focused deterrence strategies often rely heavily on problem-
oriented policing approaches, but they have several distinctive elements that fall outside the
most common definitions of POP. A visual representation of the relationship between the
diversity of the POP approach and its degree of emphasis compared with other policing
strategies, such as community-oriented and hot spots policing, can be found in Weisburd and
Eck (2004, 45).
4. Team Policing
Team policing was introduced in the early 1970s in New York City. Patterned after earlier efforts
in Britain, the approach emphasized the delivery of round-the-clock decentralized patrol
services by a team of officers, usually under the direction of a sergeant or lieutenant, in a
specific geographic area. Team commanders were responsible for conditions in the patrol area,
regardless of whether they were on duty. Deployment decisions were made in consultation with
local leaders and residents. The fixed territorial responsibility of the teams, it was hoped, would
break down barriers between residents and police, enable police to provide services tailored to
the needs of residents, and improve the job satisfaction of police officers.
Team policing is a modification of Community Oriented policing where relationships are built
within the community they serve. The main difference here is that every officer on the Police
Department belongs to a team, and the teams are responsible for various areas of the city. The
main component of team policing is for the officers to work together with the community to
establish partnerships. Communication is a key factor, and it is important for the officers to
share information with each other as well as to share information with citizens. It is so much
easier to work on problems and find a solution when all the parties involved know each other.
The teams focus on problem-solving and assisting neighborhoods with improving quality of life
issues. Policing has generally been reactive; Team Policing is proactive in addressing problem
and other nuisance type situations. Several of the teams have distributed crime prevention
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information and safety tips to the businesses in their areas and have held Neighborhood Watch
meetings.
Some of the benefits of Team Policing come from the officers truly getting to know their team
area better and feeling a sense of ownership for what goes on there. They are more aware of
"the little things" as well as the bigger problems. The officers have developed a sense of pride
for positive interaction and activity in their area. The citizens also know they can go to one of
their team officers, and no matter what the issue, they have someone who will listen and help
work out a solution. The team approach allows officers to continue the day-to-day patrol
functions such as responding to calls for service. The major change is what the officers do when
they have "down time" and are not assigned to a specific call or duty.
5. Intelligence-Led Policing
Originating in British police forces, intelligence-led policing helps police managers to better use
crime and intelligence data to direct police resources and investigations aimed at disrupting
organized crime networks and activities, and apprehending active and prolific offenders. The
concept has become a standard police management model among British police forces under
its official title, the National Intelligence Model. The model heavily emphasizes data collection
and analysis to inform policing operations. This approach, too, is generally considered
compatible with community policing and problem-oriented policing, although its practice in
American police agencies is still evolving.
6. Broken Windows Policing
“Broken Windows” is a phrase coined by political scientist James Q. Wilson and police scholar
George Kelling. It asserts that unaddressed signs of minor disorder can cause more serious
crime in an area. The idea has significantly influenced American policing over the past several
decades, leading police to address lower-level disorder problems more than they previously
have. This thesis has been the subject of significant critique by some criminologists who do not
believe that low-level disorder causes serious crime, and that excessive police enforcement of
low-level offenses can overwhelm the criminal justice system without necessarily reducing
serious crime. Other scholars and practitioners firmly believe that police attention to minor
disorder has substantially reduced more serious crime. Regardless of whether disorder causes
more serious crime, it is more firmly established that disorder can generate apprehension
among citizens, a matter worthy of police attention in its own right.
7. Cyber Policing
Cyber policing may refer to the usage of Information and communications technology (ICT) in
policing to prevent and control crimes as well as the policing of cyber-crimes. A safe and secure
online environment enhances trust and confidence and contributes to a stable and productive
community. Information and communications technology (ICT) is an integral part of our daily
lives. Whether people have a computer at home, use online banking services or simply receive
electricity supplies, the community's reliance on technology is increasing.
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Government and business also take advantage of opportunities for economic development
through increased use of information technology and a technology aware population with
internet connections locally and overseas. ICT impacts on law enforcement because of the way
in which it can facilitate both lawful and unlawful activities. Crimes such as fraud, scams, and
harassment can be facilitated by using technology which brings unique challenges to old crimes.
The use of computers in law enforcement has changed and developed rapidly, especially in
recent years. Computers are used to hold databases of information, to run sophisticated
software that can recognize faces or identify fingerprints and to connect to the Web, an avenue
for communication and a rich source of intelligence. As well as desktop computers, law
enforcement personnel also use mobile devices, such as laptops and tablets, to do their job.
These are the ways in which policing and the cyber-world get inter-twined with each other:
a. Database
Computer technology allows law enforcement services to store and retrieve vast amounts of
data. This information can include details of incident reports, criminals' descriptions, fingerprints
and other identifying marks. It can also include descriptions and registrations of vehicles
involved in criminal activity. Another crucial pool of information is DNA data taken from
suspects. DNA databases allow samples of DNA taken from suspects to be matched with
samples taken from crime scenes.
b. Sharing Information
Computers are an invaluable tool for communication between individuals, departments and law
enforcement agencies. Documents, photographs and other material can be sent almost
instantaneously from one location to another, saving valuable time. Email is a good example:
Encrypted emails can be used to send important data securely while mitigating the risk that the
information they contain will fall into the wrong hands.
c. Crime Scene Computing
Mobile computing devices -- laptops, notebook computers and tablet PCs -- are very useful to
law enforcement. Armed with a laptop, a police officer can take notes, access records or contact
colleagues in other districts, all without leaving a vehicle. Mobile devices can be used to check
the identity or other credentials of individuals at the scene of a crime, as well as recording and
tracking vital data such as vehicle license plates. Computers can also be used to track the
position of GPS devices, helping law enforcement officers to find vehicles.
d. The Internet
The Internet is used by law enforcement agencies in innumerable regards. Web sites can be
used by law enforcement agencies to educate and inform the public, appeal for information or
alert people to ongoing situations such as a missing child or a felon at large. Because criminals
often use the Internet to share information, it can be very useful in crime prevention and
detection. For instance, those responsible for a crime sometimes incriminate themselves by
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discussing it on social sites such as Facebook or Twitter -- this information can be used to
prosecute them.
e. Cyber Crime
Law enforcement agencies must also use the Internet when tackling online crime. This can
include the sharing of illegal material, such as pirated commercial movies or music. "Phishing"
and other forms of identity theft that use email or the Internet must also be addressed using
computer technology, as must attacks using viruses and hacking attacks. Law enforcements
from different countries must often work together to tackle cybercrime.
8. Conclusion
The above mentioned recent approaches of policing have been implemented in various with
varying results. Every approach must be implemented taken into consideration, the problem in
hand, the circumstances prevalent and the resources available.
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