Chapter 1.

Introduction
Hydropower potential in Nepal
Nepal is endowed with significant hydropower potential due to its
abundant water resources from the Himalayan rivers. The country's
rugged terrain and ample water supply make it suitable for hydropower
development. Here are some key points about Nepal's hydropower
potential:
1. Abundant Water Resources: Nepal is home to numerous rivers
originating from the Himalayas, including the Koshi, Gandaki, and
Karnali rivers. These rivers have high flow rates, particularly during the
monsoon season, providing ample water supply for hydropower
generation.
2. Himalayan Terrain: The steep gradients and elevation differences
within Nepal's terrain create favorable conditions for the construction
of hydropower projects, such as dams and run-of-the-river schemes
3. Untapped Potential: As of my last update in September 2021, Nepal
had only utilized a fraction of its estimated hydropower potential. The
exact figures can change over time due to ongoing developments, but
estimates suggest Nepal's potential hydropower capacity could exceed
80,000 megawatts (MW), making it one of the richest countries of per
capita hydropower potential.
4. Domestic and Export. Developing its hydropower potential has the
potential to meet Nepal's domestic electricity demand and also
generate surplus electricity for export to neighboring countries like
India
5. Challenges: Despite its immense potential, there are several
challenges to fully realizing Nepal's hydropower potential. These
challenges include funding constraints, technical and engineering
hurdles, environmental concerns, and regulatory issues. Additionally,
the geopolitical context and coordination with neighboring countries
for cross-border river can also be complex.
6. Development Efforts: Over the years, Nepal has been working on
developing its hydropower projects. Projects like the Upper Tamakoshi
Hydropower Project and the Upper Karnali Hydropower Project are
notable examples. The government has also sought foreign investments
and partnerships to accelerate the development of these projects.

Major problems in hydropower: While hydropower has significant

potential in Nepal, there are several challenges and problems
associated with its development and operation. As of my last
knowledge update in September 2021, here are some of the major
problems faced by the hydropower sector in Nepal
1. Geographical Challenges: Nepal's rugged and mountainous terrain
poses significant logistical and engineering challenges for the
construction of hydropower projects. Building infrastructure in such
areas can be complex, time-consuming, and expensive.
2. Financing and Investment: The high upfront costs of developing
hydropower projects. coupled with the financial risks associated with
project delays and cost overruns, can deter both domestic and foreign
investors. Securing adequate financing for these projects can be a
major challenge.
3. Regulatory and Policy Issues: Regulatory frameworks and policies
related to hydropower development can sometimes be unclear or
subject to changes, leading to uncertainty for investors. Delays in
project approvals and difficulties in obtaining necessary permits can
also hinder progress
4. Environmental Concerns. The construction of dams and other
hydropower infrastructure can have significant environmental impacts,
including altering river ecosystems, affecting aquatic habitats, and
potentially leading to deforestation and land degradation. Balancing
energy needs with environmental conservation is a complex issue
5. Social and Cultural Factors: Hydropower projects often require land
acquisition and resettlement of local communities. In some cases, this
can lead to displacement, loss of livelihoods, and conflicts between
project developers and affected communities. Ensuring the well-being
and inclusion of local populations is crucial
6. Technical and Engineering Challenges: Developing and maintaining
hydropower infrastructure in challenging terrains requires specialized
technical expertise. Adequate training, technology transfer, and
capacity-building are essential to ensure the safe and efficient
operation of these projects.
7. Infrastructure and Connectivity: building transmission lines and other
infrastructure to connect hydropower projects to the national grid can
be logistically challenging, especially in remote areas. Insufficient grid
capacity and transmission constraints can hinder the distribution of
generated power.
8. Monsoon Dependency: Nepal's hydropower generation is
significantly influenced by the monsoon season. During the dry season,
water flow in rivers can be reduced, leading to decreased power
generation. This intermittency in generation can affect the reliability of
the power supply.
9. Political Instability: Political instability and changes in government
can impact the consistency of policies and regulations, affecting
investor confidence and project continuity
10. Cross-Border Issues Nepal's plans to export surplus hydropower to
neighboring countries, such as india, involve complex negotiations and
agreements.
Pondage runoff river: A Pondage Runoff River (PROR) type
hydropower project with storage is a specific type of hydropower
facility that combines characteristics of both a traditional Run-of-River
(ROR) hydropower project and a storage-based hydropower project.
Here are the main features of a PROR type hydropower project with
storage:
1. Run-of-River Characteristics: Like a typical Run-of-River (ROR)
project, a PROR project utilizes the natural flow of a river or stream to
generate electricity. It doesn't involve large- scale dam construction
that creates a reservoir. Instead, it diverts a portion of the river's flow
through a canal or penstock to drive turbines and generate power
2. Storage Capacity: the project includes some form of reservoir or
pondage to store excess water during periods of high flow. This stored
water can then be released during times of lower flow to supplement
the river's natural discharge and maintain consistent power generation
3. Control Mechanisms: PROR projects typically incorporate control
mechanisms such as gates, valves, and other infrastructure to regulate
the flow of water into and out of the storage reservoir. This allows
operators to manage the release of stored water strategically.
optimizing power generation based on demand and flow conditions.
4. Seasonal Variation Management: The storage capacity of the project
helps manage the seasonal variation in river flow. During wet seasons
or periods of higher flow, excess water is stored in the reservoir. During
drier seasons or periods of lower flow, the stored water is released to
ensure a steady and reliable power output
5 Steady Power Generation: The combination of run-of-river and
storage characteristics allows PROR projects to provide a more
consistent and predictable power output compared to pure ROR
projects. This is because they can generate power even during low-flow
periods when a traditional ROR project might not be able to generate
sufficient electricity.
6. Environmental Considerations: PROR projects often have lower
environmental impacts compared to large dam-based storage projects.
They minimize disruptions to river ecosystems and fish habitats by
maintaining a natural flow regime, even though some alteration of the
river's flow pattern occurs due to the diversion and storage
mechanisms
7. Hydraulic Structures: PROR projects require the construction of
hydraulic structures, such as diversion weirs, intake structures, canals,
penstocks, and tailrace channels. These structures facilitate the
controlled diversion of water, its storage, and its release to drive
turbines and generate electricity.
X. Local Benefits: PROR projects can provide local benefits in terms of
clean energy generation, job opportunities, and potential community
development, much like other forms of hydropower
Pumped Storage: Pumped storage hydropower projects involve two
reservoirs positioned at different elevations. During periods of low
electricity demand or excess supply, surplus electricity is used to pump
water from the lower reservoir to the upper reservoir. When electricity
demand is high, water is released from the upper reservoir to the lower
reservoir through turbines, generating electricity. Pumped storage acts
as a kind of energy storage system, helping to balance the grid by
providing electricity during peak demand periods.
Pumped storage hydropower features: Here are the main
features of a pumped storage hydropower project:

1-Dual Reservoir System Pumped storage projects consist of two

reservoirs positioned at different elevations. The upper reservoir is
situated at a higher elevation, while the lower reservoir is located at a
lower elevation. The height difference between the two reservoirs
creates the potential energy required for power generation
2-Pumping and Generation, During periods of low electricity demand or
excess electricity supply on the grid, excess electricity is used to pump
water from the lower reservoir to the upper reservoir. This process
consumes energy but stores potential energy in the form of elevated
water. During periods of high electricity demand, water is released
from the upper reservoir to the lower reservoir, flowing through
turbines to generate electricity.
3-Reversible Turbines and Generators: Pumped storage projects use
reversible turbines and generators that can switch between pumping
and generating modes. When pumping, the turbines act as water
pumps to move water uphill, and when generating, the turbines reverse
to produce electricity from the falling water.
4-Grid Stabilization: One of the significant advantages of pumped
storage projects is their ability to provide rapid-response, large-scale
energy storage. They can quickly switch from pumping to generating
mode, making them valuable for stabilizing the grid during peak
demand er sudden drops in electricity supply. This feature helps to
balance supply and demand and enhances grid reliability.
5-Energy Efficiency: Pumped storage projects are known for their
relatively high energy efficiency. Despite some energy losses during the
Pumping and generation processes, they can recover a substantial
portion of the input energy. This efficiency is due to the use of water as
the energy storage medium and the reversible nature of the turbines.
6-Flexible Operation: Pumped storage projects can quickly adjust their
output to meet fluctuations in demand. They can be used for load-
following, which means they can ramp up or down their electricity
generation based on the grid's needs, making them valuable for
integrating renewable energy sources like wind and solar that have
variable output.
7-Environmental Considerations. While pumped projects offer several
benefits, they can also have environmental impacts. The construction
of reservoirs and transmission lines can lead to land use changes and
potential disruption to local ecosystems. Additionally, the water
balance of the natural ecosystem can be affected, especially in arid
regions.
8-Long Lifespan: Pumped storage projects are designed for long-term
operation, often with lifespan of several decades. Their robust design
and relatively simple mechanics contribute to their durability and
longevity.
Power Situation in Nepal: Nepal's power situation is characterized
by a significant gap between electricity demand and supply. The
country has substantial hydropower potential due to its mountainous
terrain and abundant water resources. However, due to challenges in
infrastructure development, financing, and political factors, Nepal has
struggled to harness this potential effectively. The power sector in
Nepal faces frequent electricity shortages and load shedding, leading to
disruptions in daily life and hindering economic growth. The country
has been heavily reliant on imports of electricity from neighboring
countries, such as India, to meet its demand Efforts have been made to
develop domestic hydropower projects and improve the power
infrastructure, but progress has been gradual
Power Situation Worldwide: Globally, the power situation varies
significantly from region to region. Developed countries generally have
well-established power grids with a mix of energy sources, including
fossil fuels (coal, natural gas), nuclear power, and renewable energy
sources (solar, wind, hydro, etc.). In recent years, there has been a
growing emphasis on transitioning to cleaner and more sustainable
energy sources to address environmental concerns, reduce carbon
emissions, and mitigate climate change. This has led to increased
investments in renewable energy technologies, particularly solar and
wind power. Developing countries are often working to expand their
energy infrastructure to support economic growth and improve living
standards. They face challenges such as energy access, affordability,
and the balance between meeting growing energy demand and
reducing environmental impact. Overall, the power situation worldwide
is undergoing significant transformation due to shifts towards
renewable energy, advancements in technology, and efforts to create a
more sustainable and reliable energy supply
Types of hydropower on the basis of Head 1)-High Head Hydropower:
High head hydropower systems are characterized by a significant
vertical drop between the water source and the turbine. The head in
these systems is usually greater than 500 meters (1640 feet). Due to
the substantial head, the potential energy of the falling water is high,
allowing for efficient energy conversion. High head hydropower plant
often use dam structures to create a reservoir that stores water at a
higher elevation, creating the necessary head for power generation.
2). Medium Head Hydropower: Medium head hydropower systems
have a head ranging from around 30 to 500 meters (95 to 1640 feet).
These systems strike a balance between the extreme height of high
head systems and the minimal height of low head systems. Medium 40
head hydropower plants are often designed to harness the energy of
flowing rivers or canals without the need for extensive dam structures.
They can be run-of-the-river or storage-based systems, depending on
the specific geography and water flow patterns.
3). Low Head Hydropower: Low head hydropower systems have a
relatively small vertical drop typically less than 30 meters (98 feet). Due
to the lower head, the potential energy of the water is comparatively
lower. These systems are commonly found in areas with gently flowing
rivers, tidal currents, or canals. Low head hydropower plants often use
designs the accommodate the lower energy potential by utilizing larger
quantities of water flow generate electricity.
The trend of hydropower development in Nepal at current
situation. Here are some trends that were prominent up to 2021.
1. Increasing Investment: Nepal has been attracting both domestic and
foreign investment in its hydropower projects. Several bilateral
agreements and partnerships have been established with neighboring
countries and international organizations to support the development
of hydropower infrastructure.
2. Large and Small Projects: The hydropower projects in Nepal range
from large-scale projects, like the Upper Tamakoshi and Upper Karnali
hydropower projects, to smaller run of-the-river projects. This
diversified approach allows for a mix of energy generation capacities
and technologies.
3. Export Potential: Nepal's hydropower potential extends beyond
domestic consumption. The country has explored the possibility of
exporting excess electricity to neighboring countries like India through
cross-border transmission lines. This export potential has the potential
to provide a substantial economic boost.
4. challenges related to project delays due to various reasons including
technical, financial, and regulatory issues Land acquisition,
environmental concerns, and lack of adequate infrastructure have also
contributed to these challenges.
5. Government Initiatives: The Nepalese government has launched
policies and initiatives to encourage private sector participation in
hydropower development. Favorable regulations, subsidies, and
incentives have been introduced to attract investors and streamline the
project approval process.
6. Renewable Energy Goals: Nepal has set ambitious renewable energy
targets as part of its commitment to sustainable development.
Hydropower plays a crucial role in achieving these goals, reducing
reliance on fossil fuels and increasing energy security.
7. Environmental Considerations: The environmental impact of
hydropower projects has gained attention, leading to a focus on
ensuring sustainable development Proper environmental impact
assessments and mitigation measures are being implemented to
minimize negative effects on local ecosystems and communities.
8. innovation and technology ; advancements in hydropower
technology such as improved turbine design and remote monitoring
systems have been incorporated to enhance the efficiency and
reliability.
Sources of energy
a) Thermal power
b) Nuclear power
c) Hydropower
a) Thermal power: In thermal power plant, fossil fuels (coal, oil or gas)
are burnt in the boiler to produce steam, which is utilized to drive a
turbine coupled to generator. Because of complexicity of their
operating system, it requires long time to put into action. It requires
about five weeks of maintenance each year. Overall efficiency of the
plant is about 30%. Initial cost is relatively low with compare to other
type of power plant. It is about $ 1000 per kW but costlier in operating
cost. The average calorific value of coal is about 6700 kCal/kg. Calorific
value represents the amount of energy in a given mass (1 kWh 860
kCalories).
b) Nuclear power: These are similar to thermal plant except that the
heat energy is liberated by fission of nuclear disintegration of
fissionable materials like Uranium to generate steam. (U-235) is
equivalent to about 3x10 kg of coal having calorific value of 6000
kcal/kg). Efficiency is slightly lower than thermal plant. It required
about 8 weeks of maintenance per year. Initial capital cost is higher
than thermal plant. It is about $1200 per kW. But operating cost is quite
low. That's why; it is always operated as base load plant. The nuclear
plant is usually not operated at a load factor less than 0.8. The first
atomic power plant was commissioned in USSR in 1954.
c) Hydropower: It is the power obtained from the energy of falling
water and utilizing the potential energy of water at higher elevation for
the generation of electrical energy. Fuel cost for the plant is zero as it
utilized water as a fluid. The output of such plant is not constant. It
depends on the rate of flow available in the river and may affect the
power supply in dry season. So, to meet the power demand, sometimes
storage or poundage is provided. Initial cost quite high for such plant its
about $2000 per kW and takes long time for erection. But plant is highly
reliable and cheapest in operation and maintenance. Overall efficiency
is much higher; it is about 80 to 90%. The load on the plant can be
varied quickly and the rapidly changing load demand can be met
without difficulty. It is very neat and clean plant compare to others,
because no smoke or ash is produce and in addition to generation of
electric power also serve other purposes such as irrigation, flood
control, navigation etc.
In addition to the above mentioned conventional sources, there are
many other unconventional
Sources of power Some of them are listed below.
(a) Tidal power (b) Solar power (c) Wind power (d) Geothermal power
a) Tidal power
Peaking run off river plant (PROR): Run off river plants are
provided with poundage to regulate flow to the plant which enables
them to take care of our to hour fluctuation in load on the plant
throughout the day or week. The water in river are stored at the head
pond during non peak load or off peak load hours of a day to with draw
or use the stored water for power production during the peak hours of
load. The PROR power plants may operates at full capacity for all hours
during high flow or rainy season but it produces power at full capacity
at peak load hours. The power plant may shut down or operate at
lower capacity during the off peak hours in dry season. At the same
location, the installed capacity of the PROR plants are higher than the
ROR type plants and operate at full capacity only at peak load hours.
Marshyangdi 69 MW, Middle Marshyangdi 70 MW and Kaligandaki A
144 MW are PROR project in Nepal.
Reservoir storage plant : Hydropower plants which draw water from
large storage reservoirs developed by constructing dam across the river
are called reservoir or storage project. Depending upon the storage
volume, these plants can hold surplus water from periods when the
stream flow exceeds demands for utilization during the period when
demand exceeds the stream flow. Better utilization of hydropower
potential is thus achieved with such plants. The water flow stores in
wet season to supply in dry season. Kulekhani reservoir project is only
one storage project in Nepal Kulekhani-I 60 MW and Kulekhani-II 32
MW.
Chapter -2 Power Regulation
Components of power system
A). Generators: Generators are machines which generate electrical
power when rotated about by external sources of power such as
water; steam etc. generators of hydro power stations have a speed
range of 70-1000rpm. The generators can have either a vertical shaft
alignment or a horizontal shaft alignment. The main components of
the generators are
• Stator-stationary part of generator it consists of frame, core,
winding
• Rotor-rotating element of generators it consists of hub, rim, poles,
• excitation Bearings it minimized frictional losses while operating
the generator and improves the efficiency
 B). Transformers: These are devices which increase or decrease the
voltages. It consists of a core made from laminated silicon alloy steel
having 0.35mm to 0.50mm thick each layer being insulated by thin
paper or varnish. Two coils of insulated copper wire known as the
primary and secondary coils are wound around the core. A voltage in
the primary coil produces a magnetic field in the core and induces
voltage in the secondary coils. The generation voltage of a hydro-
generators may vary from 6kV to about 20kV, whereas the
transmission voltage in case of long transmission line losses can be
minimized and a transformer has to be provided for stepping up the
generator voltage to transmission voltage.
C). Switchgear: houses are designed to give continuous service
without interruption of power. But sometimes faults may develop in
the system due to manmade or natural causes. In such cases suitable
protective devices have to be provided to locate the faults, isolate
the faulty circuits from the system and to clear the faults as quickly
as possible. The switching and protective equipment used for this
purpose is known as switchgear. It consists of circuit breakers, relays
and equipment for controlling and measuring such as current and
potential transformers, isolators, lightening arresters, control panels,
switches and fuses etc.
D). Substations: It is generally located just outside the power station
building on the ground or sometimes on the RCC roof of the power
house. It consists of incoming line, outgoing line, busbars,
transformer, high and low voltage switchgear like circuit breakers,
isolators and lightening arresters, metering panels, dropout fuses,
station earthing system etc.
Load curve: It is a graphical representation of load consumption with
respect to time. It may be daily, weekly, monthly, yearly etc. it shows
the variation of load during any time. It also gave information whether
the installation is working efficiently or not. The area under the curve
represents the total number of units generated at that duration.
Firm power/primary power: The minimum power which can be
generated throughout the year from the hydroelectric plant under the
most adverse hydraulic conditions and consumer can always be sure of
getting this power. The firm power would correspond to the minimum
stream flow and is available for all times. The firm power could be
increased by the use of poundage. The firm power does not necessarily
correspond to the continuous 24 hrs flow available (100% of time) thus
the firm capacity depends on the minimum stream discharge at the
time of peak load, poundage available, shape and size of connected
load curve and the interconnection of other existing plants. It is also
known as primary power and the energy generated from the firm
power is known as base energy. For a Run-off-River plant without any
storage, the firm power would correspond to the minimum flow of the
river which would be available throughout the year. By providing the
storage (poundage), the firm power can be considerably increased. The
primary energy is reliable and available throughout the year and hence
has high value for reliable supply of energy.
Secondary power: The power in addition to the firm power would be
generated for only a part of the year is known as secondary or non firm
power. The power is also known as surplus power and the energy is
known as surplus energy. The secondary power is available
intermittently at unpredictable time and hence has less value compared
to that of primary power. There is no guarantee for secondary power
and it is supplied to the consumers on 'as and when available' basis.
The secondary power is useful in an interconnected system of power
plants. At off peak hours, the secondary power station (captive plant or
thermal plants acting as stand by station) may call upon to relieve inter
connected station thus affecting economy.
Duration curve: factor and utilization factors are possible only for
short period of particular duration like daily weekly and monthly. For
longer duration greater than five years, it becomes cumbersome to plot
the curves and to utilize them for various calculations on yearly basis.
Complexity will be added to account variations of daily load curves for
different season and varying demand. Duration curve is the plot of
loads or power supply/production and the percentage of time
(generally 1 year) during which those loads or power supply/production
is equal or higher occurred. Depending upon the parameter like load,
flow or power the duration curve is called as Load Duration Curve or
Flow Duration Curve or Power Duration Curve. The Duration curve may
be constructed for any duration of times. The load or flow or power
occurred during the time period is arranged in descending order along
with the time during which they occurred.
Demand factor: The ratio of actual maximum demand on the system
to the total rated load connected to the system is called the demand
factor. It is always less than unity.
Demand factor= maximum demand/ connected load
Average load: The average load or average demand on the power
station is the average of load occurring at the various events. It can also
be stated as energy delivered in a given period divided by the number
of hours in that period. Depending upon the duration of time period
such as a day, a month or a year we get daily, monthly or annual
average load.
Annual average load= kWh supplied in a year /24x365
Load factor: It is the ratio of the average load during a certain period
to the maximum or peak load during that period. The load factor is thus
related to the certain period of time consideration and therefore, there
will be daily load factor, weekly load factor, monthly load factor and
yearly load factor depending upon the time period.
Load factor (LF) =Average load / peak load
Load factor of a power plant that has been used to supply the power in
a system would vary greatly with the character of the load. High load
factor in Industrial area is nearly 1 while it is low in residential area as
low as 0.25 to 0.30.
Capacity factor: Capacity factor is the ratio of average output of the
plant to the installed capacity of the plant in other words, it is the ratio
of energy actually produced by the plant to the energy it is capable of
producing at full capacity. It usually varies from 0.25-0.75
Capacity factor = actually produced energy/ potential capacity of
energy produced
Utilization factor: Utilization factor is the power corresponding to
peak load over a certain period of time Alternatively, it is the ratio of
water actually utilized for power production to that available in river
Represent maximum utilization of installed capacity during the peak
demand.
Mathematically, UF=power at peak load/installed capacity.
It generally varies from 0.4-0.9
Chapter -3 Planning and layout of Hydropower projects
Intake: Intake is the structure to obtain the required quantity of water
from the river or the reservoir for the different engineering purpose
such as irrigation, power generation, water supply, etc. Intake is a
structure to divert water into a conduit leading to the power plant" or
simply defined as a structure to divert water to a waterway. Not
specifying what type of waterway: a power channel or a pressure
conduit and reserving the word forebay or power intake, to those
intakes directly supplying water to the turbine, via a penstock A water
intake must be able to divert the required amount of water into the
power canal or into the penstock without producing a negative impact
on the local environment and with the minimum possible head loss.
The intake serves as a transition between a stream that can vary from a
trickle to a raging torrent, and a controlled flow of water both in quality
and quantity.
Purposes of intake: The main purposes of intake structure as a
regulating structure are follows:
• To admit and regulate water from the source and possibly to
meter the flow rate.
• To control the sediment entry into canal
• To admit smooth, easy and turbulence free entry of water into the
canal.
• To prevent the clogging of the entrance with floating debris.
The following are major appurtenances of the intake structure
• The raised inlet sill to prevent entry of the bed load of the river.
• The skimmer wall at the inlet to trap floating ice and debris.
• The trash rack equipped with either manual or automatic power
driven rack cleaning devices.
• The settling basin followed by an entrance sill diverting the
sediment layer towards the flushing canal.
• The flushing sluice to flush the deposited silt.
• The intake gates to control the flow rate into canal.
Location of intake
• The river reach upstream of the intake should be well established
with stable banks.
• The best location for the intake is the outer (concave) bank to
avoid bed load, with the intake located toward the downstream end of
the bend.
• The location of the pond level and their variations, navigation
hazards, and location of the diversion structure must be considered.
• The structure should be aligned to produce a suitable curvature of
flow into the intake, and a diversion angle of around 30°-45° is usually
recommended to produce curvature of flow.
• The entry to the tunnels and penstocks taking from the reservoir
has to be placed lower than the dead storage level.
• The best location for the intake is the outer (concave) bank to
avoid bed load, with the intake located toward the downstream end of
the bend.
• The location of the pond level and their variations, navigation
hazards, and location of the diversion structure must be considered.
• The structure should be aligned to produce a suitable curvature of
flow into the intake, and a diversion angle of around 30°-45° is usually
recommended to produce curvature of flow.
Types of intake: Types of intake structure depend upon the type of
power plant as well as its layout.
According to the location it can be classified into two types
I. Surface intake
(i) Side intake (ii) Frontal intake (iii) Drop intake (iv) Himalayan intake
II. Sub surface intake
(i) Power or fore bay intake (ii) Tower intake
According to the hydraulic features it can be classified into
i) Run off river intake (ii) Canal intake (iii) Dam intake (iv) Tower intake
v) Shaft intake
(i) Run off river intake: It is provided for run off river plants and form an
integral part of the power house. It is having a bell mouthed entrance
covered with trash rack A control valve is usually located just
downstream of the entrance. In silty rivers special arrangement for the
desilting are usually constructed upstream of the intake.
ii) Canal intake: It. is similar to run off river intake but it admits water
into the canal not directly through the penstock. The invert level of the
intake is raised to form a sill to control bed load and trash rack is
provided to prevent the entry of debris. Control gate is provided
downstream of the sill. Generally canal takes off at an angle 90°-110°
with the direction of flow.

iii) Dam intake: Generally for the powerhouse located at the toe of the
dam, such type of intake structure is suitable. It is suitable when
topography supports the foundation for dam. In case of valley dam
plants, this type of intake is suited in the body of the dam.
(iv) Tower intake: Tower intakes are normally on hill sides, not far off
from the dam, when it is not convenient to provide other type of intake
directly on the u/s face of the dam. They are also constructed when
there is a large discharge or wide fluctuation of water level. Flow into
the intake occurs through ports provided at different levels.
Shaft intake: It is vertical or nearly vertical shaft driven into the bed of
the river at the reservoir site to supply water to the tunnel or penstock
feeding the power house.
Design considerations for the surface intake
 Hydraulic consideration
 Minimum head loss
 Minimize the flow contraction
 Minimize the vortex formation
Site Selection for hydropower projects
An ideal site for hydropower projects needs to consider following
factors:
1). Accessibility: Site for the intake and power house should easily
accessible. It economic in transportation cost of construction materials,
equipments, and man power. It greatly affects the economy of the
power plant.
2). Near to load center: The power plant should be near to the load
center. It reduces not only the cost of transmission lines but also the
power loss in the transmission system. As cost of transmission lines and
losses of energy depends on its length, it will affect the economy of the
power plant. Shorter the length of transmission/distribution better the
site of the project.
3). High topographic variation: In hydel projects, power production is
directly proportional to the head available. The available head is
defined as the elevation difference between the water level at the head
race and tail race channel at static flow condition. High head difference
in short distance is available at the site of high topographic variation. It
is advantageous to the power project as the cost of water conveyance
per unit head of the power plant will be reduced.
4).Sound geological condition: The location of the power plant need to
have sound geological condition i.e. stable free from land slide, made
up of hard rocky and crack free area, free from fault and thrust lines
MCT (main central thrust) and MBT (main boundary thrust)
Hydropower project planning studies
Planning studies include all type of investigation performed to
determine the desirability of carrying out a project. Planning studies
generally grouped in three main categories. They are reconnaissance,
prefeasibility and feasibility study.
DoED has been prepared study guidelines of hydropower projects. The
guidelines have described the depth of analysis, coverage and
requirements of testing and observations for following different
categories and types of hydropower projects:
Hydropower project size: 1 MW to 10 MW, 10 MW to less than 100
MW and greater than 100 MW.
Types of project: Run-off- River (ROR), Storage (Poundage, Reservoir)
The additional study requirements for underground structures have
been given in the study guide lines.
Reconnaissance study: It is mainly based on secondary data from
maps, aerial photographs and reconnaissance (just walk thorough field
visit, eye observation) It is conceptual design of the project based on
preliminary assessment of topographical, geological and hydrological
parameters This study is mainly for license acquisition purpose looking
for access road, transmission line, location of power house and intake
site. The alternative schemes are studied to select the most suitable
project alternatives based on the tentative cost estimate. The tentative
cost estimate is based on major items and lump sum basis considering
experience of similar projects. In this level of study, the review of the
study made in reconnaissance studies with further detail field surveyed
data and observations obtained from precise instruments, data series
of long time and detail investigation. General layout (showing location
of the structures in maps or drawings) of the selected alternative sites
of the project components with design of civil structures carried out
using the topographical maps prepared at larger scale 5 m contour
interval for whole project area and 1 m contour interval in major
components like weir and intake, desanding basin, headrace canal, fore
bay/surge tank, penstock and power house with tail race and switch
yards.
Prefeasibility study: In this level of study, the review of the study
made in reconnaissance studies with further detail field surveyed data
and observations obtained from precise instruments, data series of long
time and detail investigation. General layout (showing location of the
structures in maps or drawings) of the selected alternative sites of the
project components with design of civil structures carried out using the
topographical maps prepared at larger scale 5 m contour interval for
whole project area and 1 m contour interval in major components like
weir and intake, desanding basin, headrace canal, fore bay/surge tank,
penstock and power house with tail race and switch yards.
Feasibility study: In this level of study, the review of the study made
in reconnaissance studies with further detail field surveyed data and
observations obtained from precise instruments, data series of long
time and detail investigation. General layout (showing location of the
structures in maps or drawings) of the selected alternative sites of the
project components with design of civil structures carried out using the
topographical maps prepared at larger scale 5 m contour interval for
whole project area and 1 m contour interval in major components like
weir and intake, desanding basin, headrace canal, fore bay/surge tank,
penstock and power house with tail race and switch yards.
Flow duration curve (FDC): It flow duration curve represents the
runoff data for the given time is the curve plotted between the
percentages of time exceeded along abscissa and the flow along
ordinates. The flow values may be daily, weekly or monthly. The FDC is
prepared by arranging the flows in decreasing order of magnitudes as
ordinates and the percentage of time under consideration in which the
flow is equaled or exceeded as abscissa. The % of time exceeding is
obtained by cumulative sum of % of time.
Uses of flow duration curve
• The FDC is generally used to determine the installed capacity, firm
energy and secondary energy that can be produced from hydropower
project.
• The FDC is also used to plot the power duration curve. The power
duration curve is prepared by multiplying the ordinate of the FDC with
the constant value equivalent to YQH of the power project.
• FDC can also be used for checking the sufficiency of the available
water to with draw Q continuously.
The use of mean daily discharge in formulation of FDC provides more
accurate and precise information of energy and power calculations.
Such analyses are carried out in detail feasibility study of hydropower
project. But for general convenient the monthly power and energy
calculation are carried out.
Mass curve: It is a graph of cumulative values of a water quantity
(runoff) against time. It is an integral curve of a hydrograph. It is also
known as Ripple Curve and made from mean monthly flow records of a
stream.
Use of mass curve: It is use to facilitate the storage computations
and reservoir regulations. The mean monthly flows are summed up
consequently and each sum is plotted above the corresponding time up
to which the summation has been done.
Characteristics of the mass curve
 The mass curve must continuously rise as it shows the
accumulated flow
 The slope of the curve at any point indicates the rate of flow at
the particular time-
 If the curve is horizontal, the flow is zero while steep rise of curve
indicates high flow rates
Ripples Curve
A Ripples Curve, also known as the Incremental Hydropower Potential
(IHP) curve, is a graphical representation of the relationship between
the installed capacity of a hydropower project and the resulting energy
generation. It shows the increase in energy generation as more capacity
is added to the project.
Uses of Ripples Curve
1) Optimal Capacity Determination: The Ripples Curve helps project
planners and investors determine the most cost-effective capacity for a
hydropower project. It showcases the diminishing returns in energy
generation as the capacity increases. This information guides decision-
makers in finding the balance between capital costs and energy
production.
2) Economic Analysis: By comparing the costs of installing additional
capacity with the expected gains in energy generation, the Ripples
Curve aids in conducting economic feasibility studies. It provides insight
into the point where the investment becomes less attractive due to
diminishing returns
3) Risk Assessment: The Ripples Curve can also inform risk assessments
by illustrating the sensitivity of energy generation to variations in water
availability. This is especially important in regions with variable or
uncertain flow regimes.

Component parts of hydropower project

a) Intake: Arrangement of structures situated at the entrance of
the canals or tunnel or pipes through which with draws water
from the river, pond or reservoir and conveyed to the
powerhouse to produce electricity.
b) Reservoir: The main purpose of the reservoir is to store
water during rainy season and supply the same during the dry
season and thus it helps in supplying water to the turbines
according to the load.
c) Supply conduits: It supply water from intake structures to
forebay or surge tank. The supply co 68/242 canal, pipe, tunnel
or combination of these. Non pressure flow is generally occurre
conduits. There may be low pressure flow at the river/stream
crossing in super passage/syphon/aqueduct. The alignment
should be designed for most efficient channel section with
minimum head loss. The alignment should be passed through
geologically stable area. The design of channel should be none
silting, non scouring condition. The percolation losses need to
be checked for leakage control.
d) Forebay: It is an enlarged section of power canal just
upstream of penstock. It is required only when the conveyance
system is of channel flow.
e) Surge tank: When conveyance system consists of pressure
tunnel a surge tank is usually required at the upstream of
penstock. The surge tank helps in stabilizing the velocity and
pressure in the penstock and also reduces the water hammer
effect.
f) Penstock: It is the pipe that supply water from the head
pond, reservoir, forebay or surge tank to the turbine of
powerhouse at high pressure. It is a part of water conveyance
system where pressurized flow occurs. Wall thickness should be
enough to withstand surge pressure.
g) Casing: It is a arrangement provided in around the turbine
runner to control and guide the flow with minimum head loss
and to control the splashing of flow after striking the runner.
Casing design depends on the types of turbines used in
powerhouse.
h) Impulse turbine (Pelton turbine): Flowing fluid energy is
converted in to kinetic energy through nozzle jet flow before
striking the runner. The free jet impinges on the series of
bucket of the runner causing rotation of the runner in air.
Casing is provided only for control of splashing water and there
will be no fluid pressure
j) Draft tube: The draft tubes are either straight conical draft
tubes with a circular section or they are elbow shaped tubes
with gradually increasing area. The shape is changing from
circular at the runner section to rectangular at the outlet
section. The draft tubes are needed only for reactive turbine to
fulfill the following functions: Achieve the recovery of the
velocity head at the runner outlet which otherwise would have
gone to waste as exit loss Permits the turbine to be installed at
higher level than the tail water low. A conduit which connects
the outlet of a reaction turbine runner to the tailrace
k) Hydra cone: It is the central solid cone provided in the draft
tube to achieve eddy free flow so that the head loss between
the draft tube inlet and outlet is minimized.
L) Tailrace: The channel through which water is discharged back
to the river after running the turbines. The outlet level of the
tail race channel should be at higher than the flood level of the
stream. There should avoid excessive silting and scouring of the
tailrace channel bed. If the powerhouse is close to the stream,
the outflow may be discharged directly into the stream.

Chapter-4 Water retaining structure

Dam: Dam is an obstruction or a barrier built across a stream or a river
to raise the water level or to store water at the upstream side in the
form of reservoir or pond or a lake.

First dam-built about 3000 years ago for irrigation purpose

Modern dam- Aswan dam (111.5 m dam, 156 billion m³ water, rock
filled dam) of Egypt in Nile river completed in 1902 to control flood
flow, irrigation and navigation facilities.

Classification of dam
I. Based on function
(a)-Storage dam: Such a dam is use to store surplus water during rainy
season to be used later during the period of deficit supply (dry season).
The stored water is generally used for water supply in irrigation, fish
farming, navigation, recreation and electricity production etc.
(b)-Diversion dam: It is used to raise water level in order to feed an off
taking canal or some other conveyance systems. Mainly used in
irrigation and in simple ROR type hydropower development. These
types of retaining structures are called weir or barrage.
(c)-Detention dam: This dam is designed to detain flood water
temporarily so as to retard flood runoff to minimize the flood effects in
downstream. Detention dams are also constructed to trap sediment
and big boulders or cobbles carried by flood water known as debris.
(d)- Coffer dam: It is a temporary dam constructed to facilitate
construction activity. It is an enclosure constructed around the
construction site to exclude water so that the construction can be
carried out in dry.
(IL). Based on head
1. Low head dam H≤ 15 m
2. Medium head dam H=15 m to 70 m
3. High head dam H=71 m to 250 m
4. Very high head dam H > 250 m
(iii)-Based on hydraulic regime
(a)- Overflow dam: It is designed to flow surplus water over their
crest. The portion of the crest through which excess water flows down
is called spillways. The spillways should be eroded free and capable to
pass extreme design flood discharge. Gated over flow dam have
controlled mechanism to regulate the spillway flood while the non-
overflow dam do not have any control mechanism to spilt out flood
discharge. Such as dam is constructed with rigid materials like concrete
or masonry.
(b)-Non-Overflow dam: it may be provided for entire length, if separate
spillway is provided nearby. Such a dam can be build by rigid as well as
non-rigid material.
IV. Based on material of construction
(a)-Earth dam: earth dam is suitable where the foundation is not
strong enough to bear the weight of the concrete dam. Earth is used as
construction materials and filled up in layers by layers after proper
rolling and compaction at optimum moisture content. The seepage
through the dam or its foundations is major critical problem in earthen
dam.

(b)-Rock fill dam: are formed of lose rocks and boulders piled in the
river bed by inter locking each other. A slab of the reinforced concrete
is often laid across the upstream face of the rock filled dam to make it
water tight. Example salt spring dam (345 ft high) in California USA,
cougar dam (445 ft high) on Mc-Kneize River in USA
(c)-Concrete dam: are generally built where river bed foundations are
strong enough to bear the great weight of the dam. Concrete dams are
expensive to build but more durable and maintenance free than the
rock and earth fill dams. Solid Masonry Concrete gravity dam do not
have any cavity or void within the dam body while the Hollow masonry
Concrete gravity dam contains large cavity or voids up to 35%-40% to
reduce the volume of concrete or masonry. The RCC slab deck, arches
etc are built within the dam body to share the weight of water and
overburden weight of the dam itself. It needs skilled labour and
complex structures and their design.
(d)-Steel dam: steel dams are generally used as temporary or coffer
dam. The steel are used to reinforce the earthen or rock fill dam for
strength and impermeability.
(e)-Timber dam: wooden flank, post and bamboos are used to
construct low head dam or weir creating low level pool especially for
irrigation of agriculture land. They have comparatively short life.
V. Based on design principle
(a)-Rigid dam: Whole body of the dam acts as a single body and dam
materials are bounded together with strong bond
(i)-Gravity dam: water thrust is resisted by gravity action
(ii)- Arch dam: water thrust is resisted by arch action
(iii)-Buttress dam: water thrust is resisted by the buttresses i.e.
inclined structural members to support the load/water thrust.
(b)-Non rigid or embankment dam: The earth fill and rock fill dams
consist of discrete unbounded particles and the action of seepage
through the body of the dam is to be checked besides the slope failure
of the dams. Non rigid dams have capacities to adjust the post
construction settlements in foundation strata so more applicable in
weak foundation zone.
Site selection for dam
Dam is a huge structure build on river valley. It requires lots of fund.
Care should be taken while selecting site. Wrong selection of site may
lead to excessive cost and difficulty in construction and operation.
Factors to be considered are:
(a)-Topographical factor: Dam is suitable at neck of river valley
where river is narrow and valley which has large storage capacity on
the upstream side. Dam is to be located below the confluence of the
rivers to take advantages of both the river valleys and flow. High head
dam of concrete gravity, arch, buttress and rock fill dams are used for
storage dam.
(b)-Geological factors: Foundation having sound rock in river bed,
concrete gravity dams are preferable where as arc dam is more
preferable when foundation is not so strong but abutment are good to
take up thrust. For weak geological conditions in river bed and bank
where load of concrete gravity dam cannot bear by the foundation and
likely to have settlement, the non rigid dams like earth fill or rock fill
dams are suitable.

(c)-Accessibility: Dam site should be easily accessible. It economizes

the transportation cost of construction material, equipment and man
power required which highly reduces the construction cost of dam.
(d)-Sociological factors: Land inundated by the reservoir after the
dam construction also affects the economy of the dam. Resettlement
and rehabilitation cost is more for reservoir and dam constructions So,
the dam should be located in such a place where it minimizes the
adverse impacts to the society... Catastrophic hazards that might
produce due to dam failure and heavy earthquake also need to
consider for dam construction.

Availability of construction material and skilled labors

The dam construction needs lot of construction materials and skilled
and unskilled labor force. Construction of concrete gravity dam needs
cement, sand, skilled man powers and sophisticated construction
equipments (batching plant, testing equipment etc). Design and
construction of arch and buttress dam need highly qualified experts
compared to that in gravity dam construction. The earth fill and rock fill
dam construction needs relatively less skilled manpower and
equipments. The local materials clay and rocks are used making
economy on dam construction.
General consideration for design of dam
(a)-Geological consideration: Depth of gravel and aggregates
deposit, strength of foundation (bearing, shearing), permeability of the
rocks, soils in the river bank and valley need to be considered. If strong
foundation is available, gravity dam can be constructed. If bearing
capacity of the foundation is low earthen dam is preferred.
(b)-Hydrologic considerations: River flow and its temporal
variations, sediment load, flood discharge of different return period,
low flow statistics, storage volume (live and dead), river valley storage,
etc need to be considered for reservoir sizing (capacity determination),
as well as possibility of river diversion at the time of construction.
(c)-Construction material availability: Availability of the
construction material at the site and their suitability for dam
construction should be judged. Availability of cement, sand, rocks,
boulders, aggregates, clay etc. in the construction site with their
sufficiency needs to be considered in design of dam.
(d)-Availability of construction plant and workmanship : The
quality control in dam construction as per design is important for
assurance of safety. The availability of construction plant (batching of
cement concrete, testing of sand, aggregate, cement, concrete etc), the
workmanship and their knowledge and practice of performing activities
are also important factors to be considered in dam design. Based on
the availability, the specifications of the quality, works and
corresponding design strength and factor of safety is to be chosen in
design of dam.
(d)-Foundation treatment: The requirement of the foundation
treatment for improvement of permeability and strength of the
foundation materials are to be considered depending upon the
condition of the dam foundation. Grouting (cement slurry for concrete
dams/ clay grouting for earth filled or rock filled dam) requirement and
their depth (1/3 of the dam height as thumb rule) has to be considered
in design of dam. Actual depth of foundation treatment is to be
assessed by geological and geo-technical investigations like core
drilling, permeability and strength tests of the river bed and banks.
Defect mechanism, failure modes and design principles:
The principle defect mechanisms and failure modes identifiable in
embankment dams are as follows with schematic diagrams

(1)-Hydraulic failure: 40% of failures will be occurred in embankment

dam with the causes of hydraulic failure. Hydraulic failures may be
occurred due to the following reasons
(a) Overtopping failure: overtopping failure is occurred due to the
flow take place above the crest level due to the various causes i.e.
inadequate flood discharge spillway design, insufficient free board etc.
Overtopping leading to washout; less cohesive silts, sands etc at
greatest short-term risk. Almost 30-35% of serious incidents and
failures will be occurred due to the internal erosion and overtopping
mechanisms.
(b) Wave erosion: The wave action due to the wind and tides will
cause the erosion of dam materials at the upstream face, if the dam
materials could not sustain wave velocity. It will lead to washing out of
the dam material or overturning of the protective materials over the
upstream side of embankment dam.
(c) Toe erosion: Toe erosion may be occurred due to the flood
discharge by the causes of the badly designed of the spillway channel.
Downstream slope erosion may be influenced by the downstream
water.
(d) Surface erosion of the downstream slope: Due to the heavy
rainfall intensity, downstream slope may be eroded and may form the
several gullies along its slope direction. Ultimately serious damage to
the dam may occur with long duration of rainfall.

(2)-Seepage failure: Almost 30% of failure will be occurred due to the

seepage failure which can be examined by past experiences, Seepage
failure may be categorized as follows:
a) Piping failure: if the exit gradient of the seepage flow is more
than the critical gradient of the soil, then soil particles are susceptible
(easily influenced) for the dislocation. As the surface particles are
dislocated then process will be even accelerated towards the
downstream direction because seepage gradient will further increase
continuously. Internal erosion and piping are formed with migration of
fines from cores or/and in foundation or/and particles from body due
to the formation of internal cavities.
b) Sloughing: if the seepage line (top phreatic line) exists at the
downstream face of the dam, the portion of toe of the dam below the
exit point will always in the saturated condition. It will cause the
reduction of the stability of the slope and slowly sliding may occur. Due
to the phenomenon of the repetition of the wetting and sliding, the
dam leads to failure. This phenomenon is called sloughing.
(3)-Structural failure: Almost 30% of failure will be occurred due to
the structural failure.
a) Failure due to the pore water pressure: If the pore water
presenting during the construction on the embankment body of the
dam, then much of the stress will be resist by the water itself and
effective overburden pressure on the soil will be less. This pore water
pressure will be reduced the shear strength of the soil of the body and
may cause the failure of the embankment slope due to small shearing
load on the dam body.
b) Downstream slope failure: At seepage of water through the body
may be maximum rate at maximum level of water on the reservoir,
then downstream slope are more vulnerable to slide due to seepage
force along the driving force for the sliding.
c) Foundation slide: If the foundation of the dam is formed on the
soft soil and/or slow consolidation and expansion of clay soil due to
saturation process will reduced the shear strength of the foundation
soil. It may not be able to resist the shear stress induced by the
embankment. At this condition, the dam as a whole may slide.
b) Foundation slide: If the foundation of the dam is formed on the
soft soil and/or slow consolidation and expansion of clay soil due to
saturation process will reduced the shear strength of the foundation
soil. It may not be able to resist the shear stress induced by the
embankment. At this condition, the dam body as a whole may slide.
(d). Sudden draw down on the upstream : The sudden drawdown
of the reservoir will cause the seepage force acting along the sliding
direction causing increase of the driving force for slope failure.
(e) Failure due to leaching of soluble salts : Large cavities inside the
body due to the leaching of the soluble salt (iron oxide, calcium
carbonate) on body as well as in foundation, resulting to the excessive
(f) Due to earthquake: Due to earthquake, cracks may be formed at
the impervious layer and arising the piping and leakage problem on the
dam. Also, Excess settlement problem, overtopping, increasing pore
water pressure due to liquefaction and sliding of the surrounding mass
in to the reservoir problems may be raised due to the earthquake.
(g) Failure due to spreading
(h) Failure due to grazing of animals
Design principles (criteria) of embankment dam
i) Overtopping and freeboard: the embankment must be safe
against overtopping during flood by the provision of sufficient spillway
and outlet capacity. Freeboard must be sufficient to prevent
overtopping by wave action. It must also include an allowance for the
predicted long-term settlement of the embankment and for foundation
compressibility.
ii) Stability: The embankment, including its foundation, must be stable
under construction and under all conditions of reservoir operation. The
face slopes must therefore be sufficiently flat to ensure that internal
and foundation stresses remain within acceptable limits. The stability of
the embankment dam must be designed with consideration of the
earthquake movement pressures within and surrounding of the dam
body.
iii) Control of seepage: Seepage within and under the embankment
must be controlled to prevent concealed internal erosion and migration
of fine materials, e.g. from the core, or external erosion. Seepage line
should be well within downstream face so that no sloughing of the
slope takes place. Hydraulic gradient, seepage pressures and seepage
velocities within and under the dam must be designed at levels
acceptable for the material concerned.
iv) Upstream face protection: the upstream face must be protected
against local erosion as a result of wave action, ice movement etc
v) Downstream slope must be designed under full reservoir condition
must be designed under the sudden drawdown conditions.
vi) Outlet and ancillary works: care must be taken to ensure that outlet
or other facilities constructed through the dam do not permit
unobstructed passage of seepage water along their perimeter with risk
of soil migration and piping.
vii) The crest should be wide enough to withstand wave action and
earthquake shock.
viii) The U/S and D/S slopes should be stable under all loading condition
to which they may be subjected to include earthquake.

Chapter -5 Regulatory structures

Hydraulic tunnels
Tunnel is generally an underground structure constructed by special
tunnelling methods without disturbing the surface. Water can be
conveyed from the tunnel through high ground or mountains in rugged
terrain where the cost of the surface line is excessive. In 20th century,
there has been immense development of long networks of tunnel to
serve the needs of both hydropower and water supply schemes.
Tunnelling for hydropower projects brought new requirements, mainly
concerning the speed of the tunnelling, the water tightness, and rock
strength. The hydraulic tunnels which are free or under pressure, lined
or unlined may be used for the following purposes.
 Interconnection of two sources of water or reservoirs
 Diversion of river for the construction of dam
 Tunnel for spilled out surplus water
 Pressure tunnel and shafts for feeding power house
 Tunnels for surge shaft
Design features of tunnel
i) Alignment selection
Following points should be considered during the tunnel alignment
selection:
(a)-Length: should be shortest as far as possible to ensure minimum
loss and economized the cost. Minimum loss of head: should be
straight as far as possible introduction of bends in the alignment
increase losses and also increases the cost of tunneling.
(b)-Location: It should be easily accessible an easy access near the
entrance and exit to the tunnel becomes essential for the construction
facility. Careful selection of entry and the exit locations with minimum
length and depth of approach cutting and no weathered, loose
fractured layers slope towards portal. However it is not always possible
to follow a straight alignment because of the following parameters
affecting the design of hydraulic tunnels:
 Geological section along the alignment: it may show certain
difficult strata through which the process of tunneling may be
cumbersome and uneconomical,
 Rock mechanics properties: in-situ stresses, joint pattern shear
strength, unconfirmed compressive strength, shear modulus of
deformation etc may not be favorable along a particular
alignment,
 Creep or tectonic movement along the tunnel.
ii) Investigation or exploration: should be extended to determine:
Top cover, quality of subsurface rock, surface drainage conditions,
position, type and volume of water and gases contained in subsurface
rock, the physical properties and resistance to tunneling offered by the
encountered rock.
iii) Slope: depends on the carrying capacity for free flow tunnels. For
pressure tunnel, slope is fixed up based on the dewatering
requirement. Power tunnels have gentle slope up to surge tank, steep
slope in shaft tunnels.
iv) Velocity: depends on lined and unlined tunnel. For unlined tunnel
velocity limited to 2 to 2.5 m/s. For concrete lined tunnels, the velocity
can range up 4 to 5 m/s while the steel lined tunnels can have velocity
up to 9 m/s. Greater velocity may create the problem of cavitation.
v) Over burden pressure: it is important for balancing internal water
pressure. At limiting
vi) Thickness of lining: depends on the load shared by the lining.
 Plain concrete lining to resist compressive stress due to outside
external rock pressure and low internal water pressure h, of 10 m.
 general thickness is in the range of 20 cm to 40 cm depending
upon the rock formation and pressure.
 RCC lining: for medium internal water pressure >10 m to 100m.
Grouting is applied before the RCC lining to improve the strength
of rock which will provide plain surface also for RCC lining.
 Steel lining: for high internal water pressure like in pressure shaft
tunnel with hw >100 m. Thumb rule for thickness of steel lining
[Link]=D+50 /40 where [Link]= minimum thickness of steel linear
in cm, D internal diameter of the tunnel in cm. The thickness of
the steel lining provided is generally 2 mm more than that of the
[Link] considering corrosion effects.
Settling basin
Most rivers in Nepal especially those originated from Himalayans carry
heavy sediment load in suspension and in bed. During the collection of
water through the intake, it is not possible to extract only the clear
Water. Certain percentage of suspended as well as bed loads will also
enter along with water. Suspended load especially sharp edged fine
sand (Quartz) transported by rivers in mountain reach causes rapid
wear of the penstock and runner vanes of the turbines due to abrasion.
If the metal composition on the runner is lesser hard than the sediment
particles, there is severe damage on the runner of the turbines.
According to E. Mosonyi," abrasion of the runner caused by sediment
laden water may in a very short operating period assume proportions
seriously affecting the efficiency of the wheel and may lead to eventual
failure". So it is necessary to supply as much as clear water into the
turbine or only the allowable size of the sediment is accepted. In order
to exclude sediment particles to the turbine, a settling basin (desanding
tank) is constructed along the headrace channel to the power house.
Settling basin has been constructed the wider size and much depth than
the headrace channel to reduce the velocity of flow causing settling of
the incoming sediment on the channel. Length and width of the settling
tank is designed such that minimum required size of the sediment is
settled down along its length.
Objective of settling
The main objective of the settling basin is to reduce the turbulence
level in the water to allow suspended sediment particles to settle out
from the water body and deposit on the bottom of the basin. Settling
condition is obtained by reducing the transit velocity of the water so
the effect of gravity increases relative to the effect of the turbulence.
The performance of settling basin is governed by its ability to trap
suspended sediment and ability to remove deposited sediment from
the basin.
Fall velocity: if the sediment falls in the quiescent liquid, then it will
start to sink due to its gravity. The opposing frictional resistance force
will be developed against to the force to the motion of the sediment in
the horizontal surface. The sediment will be descending with
retardation due to varying resultant force, until the frictional resistance
is fully developed. After the frictional resistance force is fully
developed, and then the sediment will be falling with constant velocity
due to the constant frictional resistance. This velocity is known as fall
velocity. The force due to the self weight of the particles is given by the
Newton's law of frictional drag, F.
Design criteria of the settling basin
The design of a settling basin aims to meet the following criteria:
 To determine maximum size of particle 2mm escaped from the
gravel trap
 To determine total sediment load to the turbines
 To optimize sediment exclusion with respect to cost parameters.
  To use the available length and to manage with as minimum
width as possible depending on the topography and intake
location.
 To secure high generation regularity.
Forebay
A forebay (or head pond) is a regulating reservoir which is provided at
the downstream end of the canal just at the upstream of penstocks to
act as a small balancing reservoir. Water is temporarily stored in the
forebay in the event of a rejection of load by the turbine and there is
withdrawal from it when the load is increased. Thus the forebay also
acts as a sort of regulating reservoir. It is required in the case of ROR
project at the u/s of the diversion works. And in case of a storage plant,
it is required only when the power house is located away from the dam.
If the power house is located at the toe of the dam, a separate forebay
is not required.
Functions of forebay
 To store water to act as regulating reservoir for the penstocks
 Act as a outlet (or a waste way) to dispose of the excess water
 To prevent debris bodies to entering the penstocks
 Store water temporarily when the load on the plant is reduced
and provided extra water to meet the sudden demand.
 Act as a surge tank for low head plants.
Component parts of the fore bay
Following are the component parts of a typical forebay:
1. Entrance bay or basin 2. Flushing for accumulated sediment
(Flushing sluice)
3. Repairing gate 4. Screens 5. Emergency /repairing gate
6. Penstock inlet 7. Deviation canal 8. Air vent 9. Spillway
Surge tank
Surge tank is a large cylindrical tank provided near the downstream end
of the penstock to relieve excess pressure caused by sudden closure of
the valve. The surge tank is located between the almost horizontal or
slightly inclined pressure conduit and the steeply sloping penstock,
respectively pressure shaft and is designed either as a chamber
excavated in the mountain or as a tower rising high above the
surrounding terrain.
Functions of surge tank
1. Provide a supply of water when the valve is suddenly opened
2. To reduce the water hammer pressure
3. It store water at the line of load rejection until the penstock
velocity has been decelerated to the new steady state valve.
Types of surge tank
According to the hydraulic design, they can be classified into the
following classes
i. Simple surge tanks.
ii. Restricted orifice type (throttled) surge tanks
iii. Differential surge tanks
Simple surge tanks: it is unrestricted tank of constant cross sectional
area in which the maximum variation of water level is contained within
the tank. This is very sluggish (moving or reaching more slowly than
normal) in action and costly since it requires greatest volume.
Restricted orifice or throttled surge tanks: It decreases the amplitude of
the surge and effects more rapid reduction of the mass oscillation and
thus gives an economy upto 40% compared with the simple tanks. But
the disadvantage is that it allows part of the water hammer pressures
into the conduit system.
Differential surge tanks: Differential tank separates out the two
functions of simple storing of additional water and effective
accelerating and decelerating of water in the main conduit by the
outside main tank and Central River respectively, thus this type has got
the combined advantage of a simple and restricted orifice type surge
tanks.
Penstock
Penstocks are the pipes that supply water from the forebay to the
turbines. These may be pressure conduits or shafts. The penstocks carry
water to the turbines with the least possible loss of head consistent
with the overall economy of the project.
Condition of their application
 In a power station situated at the toe of the dam, penstocks are
taken through the dam monoliths, with the necessary transitions
for smooth hydraulic flow and control devices at the intake
structure.
 In underground power development these penstocks meet the
spiral case which supplies water to the machine. Where there is
an elbow in the penstock just ahead of the turbine and a reducer
is required, minimum losses will usually result from shaping the
elbow to serve also as a reducer.

Classification of the penstocks

Penstocks may be classified on the basis of
i) Material of the fabrication:
 Steel penstocks
 Reinforced concrete
 Asbestos cement
  Wood
 Cast irons
ii) Supporting of the penstocks pipes
 Buried penstock
 Penstock at saddle support
 Penstock at girder support
Water hammer
Sudden rejection of the load in the grid with the same amount of the
discharge entering in to the turbine will cause the exceeding of the
speed of the turbine this is called runway speed. This speed may be (1.6
to 3.2) times greater than the normal speed of the turbine. The civil and
electro-mechanical parts will be sever damaged due to strong vibration
in the power house by runway speed of the turbine. So this runway
speed should be controlled as soon as possible. A gate or valve at the
end of the penstock pipe (governor) controls the discharge to the
turbines. With the abrupt closure of the gate or valve, there will be
formation of extremely high surge pressure in the conduit. This sudden
increase in the pressure will than cause the pulsation of the pressure
above and the below the normal static pressure and cause the noise
inside the pipe sometimes it may burst the conduit. This phenomenon
is called the water hammer.
Water hammering process
With the abrupt closure of the gate, there will be changed in
momentum and developed high surge pressure inside the conduit, this
pressure will be also increased due to the pulsation of the surge
pressure above and below the normal static pressure and cause
knocking hammer. The magnitude of pressure depends upon the length
of penstock pipe, flow velocity, time of gate closure and elastic
property of the material of the pipe. It may be burst the conduit due to
blow of hammer. This phenomenon is called water hammer.
Design of penstock
The empirical formulae are some over simplified thumb rule solutions
based on the available experience. These may not fit to conditions
different than those from which they are deduced. Following empirical
formulae are popular for penstock design
A) USBR formula: V= 0.125/2gH
And based on economic analysis, D =0.52* p-0.6*p 0.43
Where, P-Power in HP
B) Sarkaria Formula, D=0.62* p0.65/h0.65
C) Thickness of the penstock The ASME code gives the formula for
thickness as follows
t=pR/(f*n-0.6 p)+0.15
Where, V- optimum velocity in m/s

 H-net head at the end of the penstock in m

 D- diameter of penstock in m
 P-power transmitted by the pipe in HP
 t- wall thickness in cm
 p- pressure in kg/cm²
 R- internal radius in cm
 f = design stress (kg/cm²)
 n-joint efficiency factor and 0.15 cm is allowance
Economic diameter of penstock
To determine the size of the pipe to transport the required discharge,
the number of penstocks and the discharge to be conveyed by each
penstock are fixed but the diameter of the pipe and the velocity of flow
through the pipe are variables. The velocity of flow which is inversely
proportional to the square of the diameter (i.e. D') thus, there are
various combination of V and D which would give the same discharge,
again, the frictional losses in the penstock pipe given by 12.10 also depe
depend upon diameter and in turn determine the transmission
efficiency on the penstock pipe. Thus larger the diameter for a given
discharge, smaller will be the head losses and greater will be the net
head available to the turbine, resulting in greater power development.
On the other hand, greater size penstock would mean less velocity and
greater capital investment. We should choose, therefore, a size which
would give least annual costs. Thus, the problem is one of economic
comparison of various alternatives and to choose an optimum size
which result in maximum economy. Above empirical method used to
determine the diameter of the penstock. To determine the optimum
size of the penstock pipe by the graphical solutions is as follows. As we
know that frictional head loss will increase with the increase of the
velocity of flow and decrease of the diameter of the penstock. The
increase of the frictional head loss is the lost of the useful head for the
generation of the electricity. The practice for decreasing the head loss is
to use the bigger diameter penstock pipe with together decreasing the
velocity inside it. But the increase of the size of the penstock will cause
the increase in the expense of the material due to the increase in
volume. So the selection of the diameter of the pipe should be done
through the hydraulic analysis with considering the energy loss due to
the head loss. For this analysis, several diameters of the pipes are
selected and its cost in terms of annual expenditure is calculated.
Consequently, the annual energy loss cost is also calculated for these
diameters. Both of these costs are added and minimum of it
corresponds to the economical diameter of the penstock.
Chapter-6 Spillway
Spillway: Whatever may be the type of dam, it is absolutely necessary
to provide a safe passage for the flood water downstream so as to
avoid danger of the dam being overtopped. The part of dam which
discharges the flood to the d/s side is called spillway.
Requirements of the spillway:
1. It should be designed such that only the safe discharge is passed
to downstream in the case of the maximum flood flow.
2. it must be hydraulically (less flow separation, smooth flow at
entrance) and structurally (stable and strength for different
possible loading condition) efficient designed.
3. As the flow velocity is very high through the passage of the
spillway, it surface should have sufficient erosion and cavitations
resistance capacity.
 4. There should be provision of appropriate dissipation of high
kinetic energy possessed by flow at the D/S; otherwise there will
be sever bed erosion.
Function of spillway
1. Dispose surplus water keeping the water level not to rise above
the pre-defined water level for the reservoir or head pond,
2. Spillways must have adequate capacity to dispose of entire
surplus water at the time of the arrival of worst design flood.
3. Design considerations
4. Surplus water should be disposed without causing any damages to
the u/s and d/s,
5. Should be strong adequately hydraulically and structurally,
6. Precise estimation of design flood flow over estimate causes high
cost of investment, under estimate may cause serious damage at
d/s due to overtopping and breaching of the dam
7. Dissipation of energy to prevent downstream erosion.
Types of spillway:
Depending upon the location of the site there are various types of
spillways. These are as follows
1. Overflow (free over fall) spillway
2. Side channel spillway
3. Shaft spillway
4. Siphon spillway Chute or trough spillway
5. Breaching section (Emergency spillway)
Free over fall spillway
 It could be the sharp crested spillway where water falls in the
form of free nape water
 Its downstream face is vertical or nearly vertical
  The flow nape drops at the free jet and may cause the severe
erosion D/S due to the high energy possession. There may be
formation of the plunge pool.
 Usually the flow is discharge as the free jet in case of the low head
and also when the firm bed exists at D/S.
 The space below the free nape should have the ventilation
otherwise there will be variation of the discharge due to the
fluctuation of the flow caused by decrease of the air pressure. The
flow will gradually take the air inside that nape and it will
ultimately coincide with the D/S face of the weir.
Ogee Shape: If the surface of the weir is made, following the shape of
the lower surface of nape of free over fall spillway with the proper
provision of the ventilation, then it is termed as the Ogee Spillway. In
case of the flow with the designed head water glides smoothly above
the free surface of the spillway the coefficient of discharge is more than
that of the free fall spillway.

With Ogee Shape Spillway there will be no formation of the negative

pressure above the surface of flow up to the designed head, but when
the flow exceeds the design head there is possibility of separation of
flow and consequently formation of negative pressure.
Side channel spillway
 Side channel spillway is suitable in a narrow valley where the
required crest length of the overflow spillway is not available.
 Side channel is convenient where it is advantageous to leave the
central portion of the stream for the power house in a less wide
stream.
 Side channel spillway are applicable to narrow gorges It is
advantageous in the case of embankment dams.
Shaft spillway: It consist of large vertical funnel with its top surface at
the crest level of the spillway and its lower end connected to a vertical
or nearly vertical shaft is connected to the horizontal or nearly
horizontal tunnel or conduit which extends through or around the dam
and carries water to the downstream. The shaft spillway is suitable for
narrow gorges where other types of spillway do not find adequate
space.
Syphon spillway:
 In earthen dams where channel side or chute channel spillway is
unsuitable for space.
 Siphon spillway occupied less space and regulates the reservoir
level within narrow limits. The siphon spillway also finds its use in
canal fore bays where the surges created by the change in turbine
s loads are to be equalized.
Emergency spillway: It is provided in addition to the main spillway. It
comes in operation only during an emergency. It is an earthen dyke
with the crest slightly above the design water level in the reservoir. An
soon as the water level in the reservoir reaches a predetermined level it
breached out and flood pass through it. So it provides additional safety
to the main spillway as well as dam
Working principle syphon Spillway
1. When the water starts to rise in the reservoir above the NWL then
water starts to spill from the siphon spillway.
2. When the water rise just above the depriving hood, the duct of
the siphon is locked by the water from both the end.
3. In order to increase the rate of priming of the siphon spillway,
baby priming arrangement is made.
4. The flowing water from the crest of the spillway will suck the
entrapped air inside the duct.
 5. This will cause the gradual increase of the vacuum pressure
(sucking pressure) inside the duct.
6. The negative pressure will suck more water from the reservoir
and finally the duct will be running full of the water.
7. The siphon is in the full operation now.
8. The time period between the instant that the water just starts to
spill from the crest to the instance that siphon runs in full is called
the priming.
9. When the water level of the reservoir decrease and reach just to
the inlet of the depriming hood, air will be passed to the throat
section and negative pressure developed will be released and
siphon will stop running. If the deprimer is not provided then
water level will decrease just to the upper level of the inlet pipe
which will cause the loss of water.
Spillway gates: The crest control for a spillway may be achieved
either through automatic devices or through manually operated
devices. The various gates listed as follows
1. Temporary or permanent flashboards
2. Stop logs and needles
3. Tilting gates
4. Caterpillar gates
5. Rolling gates
6. Drum gates
7. Vertical lift or sliding gates
8. Tainter gates
Energy dissipation below spillways
Water flowing over a spillway has a very high kinetic energy because of
the conversion of the entire potential energy to the kinetic energy. If
the water flowing with such a high velocity is discharged directly into
the channel downstream, serious scour of the channel bed may occur.
If the scour is not properly controlled, it may extend backward and may
endanger the spillway and the dam. In order to protect the channel bed
against scour, the kinetic energy of the water should be dissipated
before it is discharged into the d/s channel. The energy dissipating
devices can be broadly classified into two types.
1. Devices using a hydraulic jump for the dissipation of energy
2. Devices using a bucket for the dissipation of energy
(1)-Devices using a hydraulic jump for the dissipation of energy
The choice of the energy dissipating device at a particular spillway is
governed by the trail water depth and the characteristics of the
hydraulic jump, if formed at the toe. If the tail water depth at the site is
not approximately equal to that required for a perfect hydraulic jump, a
bucket type energy dissipating device is usually provided. The
characteristics of the hydraulic jump are discussed in the following
section. The sequent depth (conjugate depth or post jump depth) y2 is
determined for different values of the discharge, and a jump height
curve (JHC) is plotted between the conjugate depth y2 as ordinate and
the discharge (Q) as abscissa. The tail water rating curve (TWRC) at the
spillway site is determined by stream gauging. The TWRC is a plot
between the tail water depths (y2') as ordinate and the discharge (Q) as
abscissa. The choice of the energy dissipating device is made after
comparing the relative positions of the jump height curve (JHC) and the
tail water rating curve (TWRC). For the design of spillways, the
discharge per unit length (q) is usually taken as abscissa instead of Q.
Different types of stilling basins have been developed which are quite
effective for the formation of a stable hydraulic jumps and for confining
the hydraulic jump. Stilling basins are commonly used for spillways and
other hydraulic structures such as weir and barrages. In a stilling basin,
chute blocks, basin blocks (baffle blocks) and an end sill are usually
provided. Chute blocks are triangular blocks installed at the upstream
end of the basin. An end sill is constructed at the downstream end of
the basin. It may be a solid sill. Baffle blocks are installed on the basin
floor between the chute blocks and the end sill.
(2) Devices using a bucket for the dissipation of energy
(i)-Roller bucket type energy dissipater
This type of dissipater is provided where the tail water condition is not
favorable for adopting hydraulic jump type basin. When the high
velocity of water slides down over the spillway slope, it gets arrested by
the tail water. This gives rise to a surface roller as well as bottom roller
action and eddy turbulence, accompanied by the energy dissipation.
Bucket type energy dissipater has a relatively short structure as
compared to hydraulic jump type stilling basin. For successful roller
action, the tail water depth has to be slightly greater than that needed
by the hydraulic jump type basin. The main design parameters is radius
of the bucket R- 15 m to 25 m, and lip angle = 20° to 40°. The physical
model test or studies is required to have optimum dimension.
(ii)-Ski-jump bucket type dissipater
These are in construction very similar to roller buckets. The hydraulic
action however is entirely different. The jet of water from the spillway
flows over the bucket and springs up clearly in air and following a
trajectory, hits the river bed at some distance away from the toe of the
dam. This type of spillway is suitable for situations.
Where foundation rock is of good quality and can withstand the erosive
action of the plunging jet
The tail water has to be low so that a clear ski jump formation could
take place. This type of dissipater is particularly suited for arch dams
Characteristics of a hydraulic jump
Hydraulic jump is a sudden and turbulent rise of water which occurs in
an open channel when the flow changes from the supercritical flow
state to the subcritical state. It is accompanied by the formation of
extremely turbulent rollers and considerable dissipation of energy.
Devices using a hydraulic jump for the dissipation of energy.

Chapter-7 Hydroelectric Machines

Pumps and its Types
The hydraulic machines which convert the mechanical energy into
hydraulic energy are called pumps. If the hydraulic energy is converted
into mechanical energy by means of centrifugal force acting on the
fluid, the pump is known as centrifugal pump and if mechanical energy
is converted into hydraulic energy (or pressure energy) by shucking the
liquid into a cylinder in which a piston is reciprocating (moving
backward and forward), which exerts the thrust on the liquid and
increase its hydraulic energy (pressure energy), the pump is known as
reciprocating pump.
(1).Centrifugal pump
The hydraulic energy is in the form of pressure energy. If the
mechanical energy is converted into pressure energy by means of
centrifugal force acting on the fluid, the hydraulic machine energy is
called centrifugal pump. The centrifugal pump works on the principle of
forced vortex flow, which means that when an external torque rotates
a certain mass of liquid, the rise in pressure head of the rotating liquid
takes plane. The rise in pressure head at any point is proportional to
the square of tangential velocity of the liquid at that point. The main
parts of centrifugal pumps are
(a).Impeller (b).Casing (c). Sunction pipe with foot valve and stainer (d).
Delivery pipe
(2). Reciprocating pump : If the mechanical energy is converted into
hydraulic energy by sucking the liquid into a cylinder in which a piston is
reciprocating, which exerts the thrust on the liquid and increases its
hydraulic energy, the pump is known as reciprocating pump. Main parts
of reciprocating pump are
a)-A cylinder with piston rod connecting rod and a crank
b)-Sunction pipe c)- Delivery pipe d)-Sunction valve e)-Delivery valve
Working of a reciprocating pump: The movement of the piston is
obtained by connecting the piston rod to crank by means of a
connecting rod. The crank is rotated by means of an electric motor. The
suction and delivery valve allows the water to flow in one direction only
Suction valve allows water from suction pipe to pipe to the cylinder
which delivery valve allows water from cylinder to delivery pipe.

Power house Classification:

1. Hydroelectric Powerhouses. These are used for generating electricity
using the kinetic energy of flowing water. They can be categorized
based on their size, the type of dam they use (example, arch dam,
gravity dam), and the capacity of the turbines they house.
2. Thermal Powerhouses. These house equipment for converting
thermal energy (often from burning fossil fuels or nuclear reactions)
into electrical power. They can be classified based on the type of fuel
used (coal, oil, gas, nuclear) and the overall capacity of the power plant.
3. Nuclear Powerhouses. These are specialized thermal powerhouses
that generate electricity through nuclear reactions. They require unique
safety measures and containment structure due to the potential risks
associated with nuclear processes.
Power house dimension:
i. Machine hall or unit bay
a) Length
• Depends on number of units, distance between units and size of
machine
• Total approximate distance [Link] to 5D, where D= turbine diameter
• Minimum clearance =2-3m Center to center distance =(SD+2.5)m
• For higher specific speeds; Requirement =(4D+2.5)
b) Width
Width of powerhouse is usually taken as width of one unit (diameter of
the generator + 2 x width of the cooling system) and extra passage from
the wall (approximate 2.5m) as the passage for the movement.
c) Height
It is fixed by the head room requirements (usually 2-2.5m)
Depends on the height clearance from the ground to the lifting object
through the crane
ii. Erection or loading bay
It is the space where heavy vehicles can be loaded and unloaded,
dismantled parts of the machine can be placed and where small
assembling of the equipment can be done.
ii. Control bay
It sends instructions to the operation bay from where the operation
control is achieved.
Governor and its mechanism
The governing of a turbine is defined as the operation by which the
speed of turbine is kept constant under all working condition. It is done
automatically by means of governer, which regulates the rate of flow
through turbine, according to the changing load condition of the
turbine Governing of the turbine means regulating the speed of the
turbine. Governing of a turbine is necessary as a turbine is directly
coupled to an electric generator, which is required to run at constant
speed under fluctuation load condition. The frequency of power
generation by a generator of a constant number of pair of poles under
varying condition should be same. When the load on the generator
decreases the speed of the generator increases beyond the normal
speed. If the turbine or the generator is to run at constant speed, the
rate of flow of water to the turbine should be decreased till the speed
becomes normal. The process by which the speed of the turbine is kept
constant under varying condition of load is called governing.
Purpose and Working Principle of Governor : The governing of
the turbine is defined as the operation by which the speed of the
turbine is kept constant under all working condition. It is automatically
by mans of governor, which regulates the rate of flow through turbine,
according to the changing load condition of the turbine. Governing of
the turbines means regulating the speed of the turbine. It is necessary
as a turbine is directly coupled to an electric generator, which is
required to run at constant speed under fluctuation load condition. The
frequency of power generation by a generator of a constant number of
pair of poles.
Generators and its Types: Generators transform mechanical energy
into electrical energy. Although most of early hydroelectric systems
were of direct current variety to match early commercial electrical
system now a days only 3-phase alternating current generators are
used in normal practice. Depending upon the practice of network
supply, there are 2 types of generators.
a) Synchronous Generator: Such generators are equipped with a DC
excitation system (rotating or static) associated with a voltage regulator
to provide voltage and phase angle control before the generators is
connected to the grid Synchronous generators can run isolated from
the grid and produce power since excitation is not grid dependent.
These are more expensive than asynchronous generator.
b) Asynchronous Generator: These are simple squirrel cage induction
motors with no possibility of voltage regulation and running at a speed
directly related to system frequency. They draw their excitation current
from the grid, absorbing reactive energy by their own magnetism. They
can not generate when disconnected from the grid because they
incapable of providing their own excitation current.
Different between impulse (velocity) and Reaction (pressure)
turbine
Impulse turbine
[Link] available energy of the fluid is converted into Kinetic energy by an
efficient nozzle that forms a free jet
[Link] are in action when they are in front of the Nozzle
[Link] wheel do not run full and air has free access to the bucket
[Link] has no hydraulic function to perform it only serves to prevent
splashing and to guide the water to tailrace
[Link] is installed above the talirace
[Link] can be regulated without loss of energy
[Link] done is entirely due to change in velocity.
[Link] velocity changes only slightly. Such change in velocity is due
to friction only
9. Turbine components are easily accessible and repairs of components
are easy.
11. These turbines are relatively small in size and run at high speed
12. Examples of impulse turbines are Pelton/Turgo

Reaction turbine
[Link] a portion of fluid energy is transformed into kinetic energy
before the fluid enters the runner
2. All blades are in action all the time.
3. Water completely fills the vane passage throughout the operation of
the turbine
4. Pressure at inlet to the turbine is much higher than the pressure at
outlet, units has to be sealed from atmospheric conditions and
therefore casing is absolutely essential.
5. Unit is kept entirely submerged in water below tailrace.
6. Flow regulation is always accompanied by loss of energy
7. Work done is due to change in pressure and velocity
8. Relative velocity changes considerably due to centrifugal action
9. Turbine components are not easily accessible Repair of components
are difficult.
10. These turbines are large in size and run at relatively low speed.
[Link] for relatively low heads.
12. Examples of reaction turbines are Francis, Kaplan
Types of Turbine
1)-Francis turbine: This turbine is named as Francis turbine after J.B.
Francis an American engineer invented the turbine. The modern Francis
turbine is an inward mixed flow reaction turbine. In this turbine water
under pressure enters the runner from the guide vanes toward the
center is radial direction and discharge out of the runner axially. The
Francis turbines operator under medium head and also requires the
medium quantity of water.
2)-Pelton turbine: The Pelton turbine is tangential flow impulse turbine.
It consists at a circular disc on the periphery of which, a number of two
lobe buckets are mounted. The water strikes the bucket along the
tangent of the runners. The energy available at the inlet of the turbine
is only K.E. The pressure at the inlet & outlet is atmospheric. This
turbine is used for high heads and named after L.A. Pelton, an American
engineer invented the turbine. This type of turbine is used in Khimti
hydropower project of 60 MW capacity. The main parts of Pelton
turbine are
a. Nozzle b. Runner and buckets
3)-Kaplan turbine: V. Kaplan, an Australian engineer invented Kaplan
turbine. The vanes on the hub are adjustable. This turbine is suitable
where a large quantity of water at low head available. Due to facility of
the movable blade the efficiency of the Kaplan remains high over range
of load from 50% under load to 50% overload. The main parts are a)-
Scroll casing b)-Guide vane mechanism C)-Runner of the turbine -Draft
tube
4)-Bulb Turbine: An bulb turbine, the generation is housed in an
enclosed bulb-shaped casing which is installed right in the middle of the
flow passage. The bulb itself is a watertight structure and the bulb
together with the propeller turbine forms an integral part. The outer
surface of the bulb streamlined so as to form the boundary of the water
passage from the head pond. The draft tube is a straight conical faring
tube. The bulb could be either U/S or dis of the runner. The main
advantage of the bulb turbine is its campout arrangement of the
component, and less danger of cavitation’s.
Draft tube and Function
Draft tube is a pipe of gradually increasing area which connects the
outlet of the runner to the tailrace. It is used for discharging water from
the exit of the turbine to the tailrace. By using draft tube, net head on
turbine is increased. The turbine develops more power and also the
efficiency of the turbine increases. Function are
1. Energy Recovery: The draft tube helps recover some of the kinetic
energy of the fast-moving water exiting the runner. By providing a
gradually expanding space, the draft tube allows the water to
decelerate and convert its kinetic energy into pressure energy. This
pressure recovery leads to an increase in the efficiency of the turbine.
2. Reduction of Exit Velocity. The draft tube's expanding shape
reduces the velocity of the water as it exits the turbine runner. This is
important to prevent excessive splashing, erosion, and cavitation
downstream of the turbine. High exit velocities can lead to damaging
effects on both the turbine and downstream components.
3. Minimization of Cavitation: Cavitation is a phenomenon that
occurs when the pressure of a fluid drops below its vapor pressure,
leading to the formation of vapor bubbles that can collapse with high
energy, causing damage to the turbine surfaces. The draft tube's design
helps maintain a gradual pressure recovery, minimizing the risk of
cavitation by preventing sudden pressure drops.
4. Improved Turbine Performance. By efficiently converting kinetic
energy into pressure energy, the draft tube contributes to the overall
performance of the hydraulic turbine. It enhances the turbine's power
generation capacity and efficiency, making it a crucial component in
hydroelectric power plants.
Role of tail race Depth
The "tail water depth" refers to the water level downstream of a
hydraulic structure, such at dam, weir, or sluice pate it plays a crucial
role in hydraulic engineering and the design operation, and analysis of
water-related infrastructure. Here are some key points about the role
of tail water depth
1. Hydraulic Performance. The tail water depth directly influences
the hydraulic performance of a structure. It affects the flow patterns,
velocities, and pressures near the structure. Change in tail water depth
can impact the efficiency of water conveyance, energy dissipation, and
sediment transport.
2. Flow Control: Tail water depth is a factor that hydraulic engineers
consider when designing structures to control flow. For example, a
dam's spillway may need to be designed to handle a certain range of
tail water depths to safely release excess water without causing
damage downstream.
3. Energy Dissipation: When water flows over a hydraulic structure,
it can lead to energy loss and turbulence. Proper tail water depth
design can help dissipate excess energy and prevent downstream
erosion. Energy dissipation structures, like stilling basins, can be
designed accommodate specific tail water conditions
Runway speed: If the external load on the machine suddenly drops to
zero and the governing mechanism falis at the same time, the turbine
will tend to race up to the maximum possible speed, known as runway
speed. This limiting speed under no-load conditions with maximum
flow rate must consider for the safe design of various rotating
components of the turbo-generator unit. The suggested runway speeds
of the various runners for their appropriate design and acceptable load
variation of such turbines are given in the following table. The runway
speed shall not exceed 1000 rpm.
Synchronous speed: If the turbine is directly connected to the
generator, the turbine speed N must be a synchronous speed. For the
turbine speed in to be synchronous, the following equation must be
fulfilled
N =1201f/N
Where N-rotational speed 1= electrical frequency in Hertz, Hz (50Hz in
Nepal) Number of generator pole
The number of poles should be an even number so as to have proper
magnetic field. However, as per latest trend the number of poles are
used as multiple of 4 for better dispersion of magnetic flux though
some standard generators are having multiple of 2 only. So take N,
divisible by 4 for head upto 200m and N, divisible by 2 for head greater
than 200m. If the net head varies by less that 10% it is customary to
choose the next greater synchronous speed to calculate theoretical
speed found from the specific speed equation. If the head vanes more
than 10%, the next lower synchronous speed be chosen.
Specific speed: Its the speed at which the machine produces 1 HP
under 1m head. It is an important parameter or the design of the
turbines as it includes all the three basic parameters vig, speed, power
and head of the turbine.