EVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION STRATEGIES FOR DIVERSE

CONTEXTS AND THEIR EFFECTIVENESS (THEORETICAL,

PRACTICAL AND EXPERIENTIAL)

4.1 CHOICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION METHODS

The choice and use of methods by the educator are influenced by:

1. Our views of education – We all have certain views of what

education is or should achieve, regardless of what is preferable to the
learners or not. Our views are about what we want the learners to know
or get from the content, because educational methods are designed to
achieve the end goals. For example, one may ask: Is education about
getting others to change their behaviour? Is it about getting people
together for collaborative learning and action? Is it about transformation,
or is it about keeping things the way they always have been?

We ask these questions, because it is very important for learners to be

supplied with what is necessary for their success and for the achievement
of the end goals. Knowing what one wants from the education process
forms an integral part of the learning process and allows educators to
tweak and modify their teaching (Grant et al 2003).

2. Our views of knowledge – Teaching is a highly complex occupation,

which needs to adapt to a great deal of variety in terms of context,
subject matter and learners. It does not lend itself to broad
generalisations. Nevertheless, it is possible to follow guidelines or
principles based on best practices, theory and research, and adapt or
modify them for local conditions. Different theories of learning reflect
different views on the nature of knowledge. One can say that academic
knowledge is different from other forms of knowledge, and is even more
relevant today in the digital age. However, academic knowledge is not the
only kind of knowledge that is important in today’s society, and as
educators we have to be aware of other forms of knowledge and their
potential importance to our learners, and make sure that we are providing
the full range of contents and skills needed for learners in a digital age.
Educators may therefore pose questions to themselves, such as, is
knowledge fixed and certain, something to pass on? Or is it dynamic, co-
constructed and open to change?

3. Our views on learning and learners – To select good strategies

and methods, as educators we must ask ourselves questions such as, are
learners empty vessels to fill? Do they have active minds, eager to make
sense of something? Do they learn from their co-learners? What is the
educator’s role? And how do learners learn?
4.2 GUIDING CRITERIA FOR CHOOSING EE METHODS
In choosing EE methods, the purpose of Environmental Education should
be kept in mind.

Environmental education methods should/should therefore:

1. Be learner-centred

Environmental education methods should enable the full and active

participation of learners.

2. Be activity-based

Environmental education methods should provide activities in which all

learners can participate.

3. Be relevant to learners

The methods chosen should be relevant to the learners’ needs and

interests.

4. Utilise the environment

Environmental education is about education’s responses to environmental

issues. Almost all environmental learning can take place by utilising the
environment around the learners. Consideration should, however, also be
given to regional, national and global environmental issues.

5. Be cross-curricular in their application

Almost all environmental issues can be taught across all subject

disciplines.

4.3 CATEGORIES OF EE METHODS

Environmental education methods can be grouped into the categories
shown in table 4.1 below (adapted from Rosenberg et al., 2013):

Table 4.1

Environmental education methods

Metho Examples Underly Disadvantages Possibilities

d ing
ideas
Informa Awareness People  Awareness does  Awarenes
tion campaigns do not not necessarily s message
transfer (stickers, know lead to action. s can
posters, about  People may provide a
reject the platform
leaflets, the
messages. for
public announ issues,
 People may not engageme
cements, or tend know how to nt and
walks, to forget act on the deliberatio
activities such about messages, and n.
as clean-up them. this may cause
campaigns, anxiety.  Messages
etc)  The messages can
may be provide
directed at the ideas
wrong audienc about
es. solutions
and ways
to act.

Lectures, Transfer  Usually a  Can

talks and of new passive, one- provide a
presentations knowled wayinformation useful way
(presentation ge to a transfer. to impart
new
of content willing
 Can turn the knowledge
knowledge on recipient
audience off and ideas
a topic by / because of their to a large
means of lengthy and group.
structured audience top-down  Are less
verbal, visual . approach. time-
and/or audio-  Can cause or consuming
visual reinforce power and more
presentations imbalances. manageabl
) e than
some
other
means.
 Informatio
n has to
be
presented
in an
engaging
and
interactive
way.
Demonstratio “Seeing  Educators may  Learners
ns and is assume that or
experiments believing they have made participant
(use of ”– a connection s can
between the perform
models or practical
model or their own
prepared visual
experiment and experimen
experiments experien the real world, ts or make
to introduce, ce. when in reality their own
prove, they might not models,
reinforce or have. thereby
clarify  This approach developing
information is educator- skills of
and concepts) oriented. observatio
n and
prediction
and a
sense of
inquiry.

Guided A  When asked the  Learner

questioning construct wrong way, participati
(use of ivist questions can on
probing approach make enhances
participants feel confidence
questions to to
as if they are and
direct learning
being motivation
learners’ that examined. to learn,
thinking emphasi  The educator stimulatin
about ses the may become g more
particular way dominant in the interactive
aspects of people conversation, learning.
their think thereby stifling  Guided
experience) and opportunities questions
make for learners to can add a
meaning pursue their sense of
own areas of fun,
of what
interest. especially
they see.
 There is an when
Learners assumption working
make that learners with
sense of have prior younger
their knowledge, learners,
experien which might not who enjoy
ces and be true for the
actively learners in a challenges
construct new of giving
meaning environment. good
answers in
by
a
drawing
 on past spontaneo
experien us and
ces and collective
by using way.
informati
on they
can
access in
their
own
context.
Games and An  When not well  The high
quizzes alternati administered, levels of
(encountering ve quizzes might excitemen
and testing approach have t
drawbacks. associated
knowledge in to
They might with
a playful way, tradition
cause anxiety competitiv
usually al ‘talk- and fear in e events
through and- students. can
formal or chalk’  Sometimes stimulate
informal methods they can interest in
competition . restrict a and
between Learning learner’s commitme
teams or is fun understanding nt to
individuals) and of a lesson. environme
interacti  Teachers may ntal
experience a concerns.
ve, with
lack of  Games
high
innovation and can place
levels of constraints of more
participa scale. emphasis
tion. on
collaborati
ve
learning,
participati
on,
creativity
and
problem-
solving
processes.

Experie Field trips and Broadeni  Adequate  They

ntial excursions ng preparation is encourage
method (extended learners’ required before different
s trips or visits perspecti the field trip learner
(e.g.
to one or ves worksheets, perspectiv
more sites of through guidelines for es.
interest for exposure reports or case  They are
educational to real- studies). good for
 Planning is ‘on-the-
purposes) life
needed for job’
situation
participants to training in
s or get the relevant fields
contexts. information, where
e.g. reading in basic
advance. qualificatio
 They usually do ns do not
not provide adequately
adequate time prepare
for reflection on practitione
learning. rs for the
challenges
of a
particular
workplace.

Interpretive People  The interpretive  Interpretiv

trails (guided learn resource is e trails
walks, trails from often static enable
with exposure (e.g. signage, learners to
posters, open their
interpretive to things
booklets, guide) senses to
signage/signs and first-
and may not things that
explaining the hand satisfy the they would
significance of experien interests of otherwise
landmarks/ob ce, different have
jects on the especiall individuals of missed.
trail) y if they groups.  They
are  The provide
provided interpretation informatio
with can distract n on
relevant attention from things that
alternative are not
informati
experiences. obviously
on about
evident.
what  They
they can provide a
see, framework
touch, for
feel or investigati
smell. on, which
learners
can use
elsewhere.
  The
interpretat
ions need
to be
varied.

Solitaire/solit A  People may not  Can make

ary nature- necessarily act compariso
experiences based on their n between
(sitting individua experiences experience
upon returning and the
quietly to l
home. realities of
experience experien
 The assumption everyday
nature and to tial- that nature life
reflect on the learning speaks to us in possible.
experience, approach silence is an  Helps in
e.g. through with incomplete environme
art) strong truth – nature ntal values
values- speaks to us clarificatio
orientati through other n.
on. means as well.  Can aid
 There is the reflection
anxiety and
associated with evaluation
risk in on field
unfamiliar trips.
places,
especially for
children.
 Young children
may find it hard
to remain alone
for long
periods.

Investi Participatory Leaners  Learners as  Involveme

gative methods should participants do nt of
method be not always learners in
s involved agree on the
everything, planning
in the
leading to of the
educatio
conflicting curriculum
n interests. ,
processe  Pseudo particularl
s. participation – y adult
participation learners.
can be
engineered to
give a false
perception of
 full
participation,
while hidden
agendas of the
conveners are
being pursued.
 Young learners
may not be
capable of
taking full
control of the
curriculum
planning
process.

Fieldwork and Learning  Time-  It entails

collaborative and consuming active and
research develop  Learning does experienti
ment of not take place al
unless the right learning,
skills and
questions are with
principle
asked and the ‘hands-on’
s in real- right processes activities.
life are  It involves
contexts. implemented in collaborati
collecting and ve,
analysing data. participato
ry
research
processes.

Exploring Investiga  Juxtaposing/  Provides

indigenous ting comparing/ contextuali
ways of indigeno contrasting sed
knowing us indigenous environme
knowledge with ntal
knowled
modern learning
ge and
knowledge, opportuniti
practices rather than es to learn
in bearing in mind about
indigeno that these are nature,
us knowledge cultures
communi forms from and
ty different practices,
contexts. worldviews. e.g.
 Multiple forms traditional
of indigenous conservati
knowledge on,
derived from traditional
different knowledge
 communities/tri of plants
bes/languages and
of indigenous animals,
peoples are etc.
difficult to  Opportunit
coordinate. ies for
knowledge
able
persons in
the
communit
y to share
their
environme
ntal
knowledge
.

Case studies The  May be  Case

closest decontextualise studies
alternati d. provide an
ve to  May be biased, opportunit
depending on y to learn
actual
the compiler of from other
field
the case study. people’s
experien  May environme
ces. oversimplify ntal
reality. experience
Case s.
studies  Can be
provide used in
a conjunctio
connecti n with
on field
between excursions
.
the
learners’
prior
knowled
ge and
the
knowled
ge
derived
from the
case
study.
Learnin Projects and Hands-  Learners may  Projects
g by practical on act without (gardening
doing actions practical reflection. , recycling,
skills  Possible to get etc) can
distracted from be linked
acquisiti
the educational to and
on (e.g.
purpose of the used to
recycling project. extend
, food formal
gardenin classroom
g, activities.
composti
ng,
water
harvestin
g, etc)
Action Transfor  Time-  Collaborati
research and mative consuming. ve
community learning  Difficult to learning
problem- and assess for and
learners. research
solving problem-
to improve
solving
practice
through and to
participa improve
tory the lived
researchi environme
ng of nt of
practice communiti
es.

Deliber Dialogic Enable  Divergent views  Provide

ative cartoons and learners can divert from opportuniti
method programmes to the real es for
s express purpose of the exploring
discussion. divergent
their
 Possibilities for views on
views
bias and an
and manipulation. environme
values ntal issue
and to and to
learn reach
from the consensus.
views
and
values of
others
Social Situated  Adverse group  Developm
learning learning dynamics, ent of
methods in or discomfort participant
communi in participatory s’
contexts. knowledge
ties of
, values
practice,
and
actor– action-
network competenc
theory e for
and sustainabl
participa e
tory developme
learning nt.
and
action
through
communi
ties and
networks

(Actor–
network
theory
[ANT] is
a
theoretic
al and
methodo
logical
approach
to social
theory
where
everythi
ng in the
social
and
natural
worlds
exists in
constantl
y shifting
networks
of
relations
hips. It
posits
 that
nothing
exists
outside
those
relations
hips).
Media Informed  Knowledge and  Clarificatio
analysis critical awareness does n of
analysis not necessarily values.
of and lead to  Self-
behaviour developme
reflection
change. nt of
on mass-
lifestyle
media choices.
informati
on
Story Engage  Stories may be  Possibility
methods learners decontextualise of follow-
and get d and culturally up and
them to irrelevant. environme
 Stories can ntal action
deliberat
have bias on stories
e on the
in the
final learners’
outcome context
of the  Opportunit
story ies for the
(action) clarificatio
n of
values,
deliberatio
n,
problem-
solving
and
creativity.

Bear in mind the following:

A. Some educational methods do not fit into the method categories above.
B. Not all the possible methods are listed above, and some may have
different labels in different contexts. Some methods can be applied for a
range of purposes and fall into more than one category.
C. There is an educational theory behind each method and how it is
supposed to be used. However, people sometimes use methods without
thinking about the theory behind them.
D. Methods are developed historically in relation to a particular context, and
so there is a need to adapt and re-interpret them to suit our contexts of
 use. Today we place particular emphasis on action-oriented and
interactive meaning-making processes and deliberations toward a broad
and open-ended range of environmental learning outcomes.

4.4 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION STRATEGIES

In the next sections you will learn about active learning, authentic
learning, problem solving and critical thinking.

4.4.1 Active learning

Learners should not only learn about the environment, but should also be
active participants in learning situations. They must be given the
opportunity to be critical and creative, as well as be able to discover
things on their own. The learning processes must enable the learners to
develop and acquire knowledge, understanding, skills, attitudes and
values that will help them to understand and respond to the
environmental challenges in our world. Learners should acquire the ability
to solve problems confidently and apply their own solutions where
possible. Active learning requires learners to apply information by
transforming it into new and personal meaning. Meaning is co-constructed
through exploring the environment, dealing with issues, solving problems,
or applying acquired information to new situations. Active learning is
usually closely associated with the constructivist theories postulated by
Bruner (1986) and others, who recommend that learning experiences or
tasks should be designed to facilitate exploration, extrapolation and
elaboration, and that they should be built on experiences, convictions and
constructs that learners already possess.

4.4.2 Authentic learning

Because of its nature, environmental education needs to have an applied
focus and should be authentic. This implies learning about real
environmental issues, threats, and problems, and seeking real solutions
to these. It also implies active, hands-on learning. In authentic
environmental learning, educators use local/community sources of
information such as community newspapers, local/community resources
such as gatherings, events, meetings, societies, clubs and organisations,
and indigenous knowledge available from members of the community.
Where possible, learning should entail authentic tasks (real-life activities)
and should occur in real-world contexts. The environment presents
educators with a broad range of subject matter and a variety of learning
contexts, which can make learning interesting and enjoyable. Authentic
learning tasks help learners to understand the interaction of
environmental, social and economic processes, and to cope better with
the complexity of environmental sustainability issues.

4.4.3 Problem-solving
Problem-solving and decision-making are critical to ensure meaningful
environmental learning experiences in environmental education. With the
necessary guidance and support, learners will make a genuine effort to
solve problems if these are real, and especially if adults have been unable
to find a solution. Learners who have succeeded in effecting change
through their solutions to problems have a sense of accomplishment,
become involved and exhibit responsible environmental behaviour.
Achieving success is important, but we cannot place excessively high
expectations on learners in terms of solving environmental problems.

4.4.4 Critical thinking

Many environmental learning outcomes include the phrase: “Learners
should critically engage with ....”. This implies a higher dimension of
thought and requires learners to acquire a lot of information on different
perspectives associated with an environmental problem, issue or risk, if
their critical engagement is to be meaningful. It also requires educators to
have access to current (up-to-date) information on an issue in order to
avoid narrow or simplified interpretations thereof. The use of critical
thinking skills in solving environmental problems is a key trait of an
environmentally literate citizenry and a key objective of environmental
education. Critical thinking comprises the acquisition and processing of
relevant content knowledge and procedural knowledge, and the ability to
apply critical thinking skills to use this knowledge to respond to
environmental issues. It develops logical reasoning, creative thinking and
problem-solving skills. Environmental learning provides an excellent
mechanism for the development and use of critical thinking skills by
providing real-life problems and issues to critically examine and reflect
on. The purpose of environmental learning, as seen from a social-critical
paradigm, is to enable learners to construct, critique, emancipate and
transform their environment.

4.5 ROLES AND POSITIONS OF EDUCATORS AND LEARNERS WITH REGARD TO

EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM PRACTICE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
(THEORY, POLICY AND OBSERVED PRACTICE)
In the past educators have played a central role in the dissemination of
environmental knowledge, skills and ideas, and the inculcation of values,
appropriate behaviour and practices. Education was therefore mainly
teacher-centred, and behaviourist approaches to education were
dominant. Learners were predominantly recipients of environmental
knowledge. However, in the current era, characterised by a learner-
centred curriculum, there has been a shift in the role of educators and
learners. Educators serve as facilitators in environmental learning
processes, while learners become active participants in deliberating,
making decisions, and carrying out actions in response to environmental
issues.