DEEP FOUNDATION(CEOE801C)

PREPARED BY-ANSHUMAN SANTRA

MODULE-3
Cassion foundation

Caisson Foundations, a robust type of deep foundation particularly suited for heavy loads and
challenging subsurface conditions, often employed in India for bridges, docks, and other
significant infrastructure projects.

1. Introduction:

Caisson foundations are large, box-like or cylindrical structures that are sunk through soil and
sometimes water to a desired bearing stratum (firm soil or rock) and then filled with concrete to
form a solid foundation. They are essentially prefabricated hollow structures that become
integral parts of the foundation.

Key Characteristics:

 Large Size: Significantly larger in cross-section compared to piles or drilled piers.

 High Load Capacity: Can carry extremely heavy vertical and lateral loads.
 Versatile: Adaptable to various soil conditions, including those with obstructions and
high water tables.
 Durability: Offer excellent resistance to scour and impact, making them suitable for
marine and riverine environments.
 Construction Methods: Involve sinking the caisson, which can be complex and requires
careful control.

2. Types of Caissons:

Caissons are primarily classified based on their method of construction and whether they are
open or closed at the bottom:

 Open Caissons (Well Foundations):

o Description: Hollow boxes or cylinders that are open at both the top and the
bottom during sinking. Soil and water enter the caisson as it sinks and are
removed by dredging or excavation from within. Once the desired depth is
reached, the bottom is often sealed with a concrete plug, and the caisson is filled
with concrete.
o Types:
  Box Caissons: Rectangular or square in shape, often used for bridge piers
and quay walls.
 Cylindrical Caissons: Circular in shape, commonly used for bridge piers
and offshore structures.
 Multiple-Cell Caissons: Composed of several interconnected
compartments, providing increased stability and load-carrying capacity.
o Sinking Method: Primarily relies on the weight of the caisson and may be
assisted by jetting (using high-pressure water jets to loosen the soil around the
cutting edge) or by applying kentledge (temporary weights placed on top).
 Box Caissons (Floating Caissons):
o Description: Watertight boxes that are constructed on land or in a dry dock, then
floated to the desired location and sunk onto a prepared foundation bed. They are
typically closed at the bottom.
o Sinking Method: Controlled ballasting (filling compartments with water or other
heavy materials) is used to sink them. The foundation bed needs to be carefully
prepared (e.g., leveled or with a layer of granular material).
o Uses: Often used for breakwaters, quay walls, and bridge piers in marine
environments where prefabrication and floating are feasible.
 Pneumatic Caissons:
o Description: Similar to open caissons but have a working chamber at the bottom
that is kept pressurized with compressed air to exclude water and allow
excavation in dry conditions below the water table. Workers enter the chamber
through airlocks.
o Sinking Method: Sinks under its own weight and with controlled excavation in
the pressurized working chamber.
o Uses: Employed when sinking through soft soils with high water tables or when
encountering obstructions that are difficult to remove by dredging. However, they
are less common now due to the health risks associated with working under
compressed air (caisson disease or "the bends").

3. Selection of Caisson Type:

The selection of the appropriate caisson type depends on several factors:

 Subsoil Conditions: Soil type, strength, presence of obstructions, and groundwater level
are critical. Open caissons are suitable for various soils where dredging or excavation is
possible. Pneumatic caissons are for waterlogged or obstructed conditions. Box caissons
require a prepared seabed.
 Load Requirements: The magnitude and type of loads (vertical, horizontal, moments)
influence the size and type of caisson needed.
 Water Depth and Marine Conditions: For marine structures, the water depth, currents,
wave action, and potential for scour will dictate the feasibility of floating caissons and the
design of open caissons.
 Construction Methodology and Equipment Availability: The available equipment for
excavation, dredging, sinking, and concrete placement will influence the choice.
  Cost and Time: The overall cost and construction time vary significantly between
different caisson types.
 Environmental Considerations: The impact of the construction method on the
surrounding environment (e.g., noise, sediment disturbance) may need to be considered.

In India, open caissons (well foundations) are particularly common for bridge piers in rivers due
to their adaptability to varying riverbed conditions and the availability of established
construction techniques.

4. Forces and Moments Acting on Caissons:

Caissons are subjected to various forces and moments that must be considered in their design:

 Vertical Loads:
o Dead Load: Self-weight of the caisson and the superstructure it supports.
o Live Load: Traffic loads on bridges, surcharge loads, etc.
o Buoyancy: Upward force due to the displacement of water (significant for
submerged or partially submerged caissons).
o Skin Friction: Vertical resistance along the sides of the caisson (can act upwards
or downwards depending on relative movement).
o End Bearing: Resistance at the base of the caisson.
o Negative Skin Friction (Down Drag): If surrounding soil settles more than the
caisson.
 Horizontal Loads:
o Water Pressure: Lateral pressure from the surrounding water (static and dynamic
due to currents or waves).
o Wind Loads: Pressure exerted by wind on the superstructure and the exposed
part of the caisson.
o Seismic Forces: Inertia forces due to earthquake ground motion.
o Berthing and Mooring Forces: For caissons used as docks or wharves.
o Earth Pressure: Lateral pressure from the surrounding soil (active or passive).
o Ice Pressure: In cold regions.
 Moments:
o Overturning Moments: Caused by horizontal loads acting at a distance from the
base.
o Bending Moments: Induced in the caisson walls due to lateral pressures and
eccentric vertical loads.
o Torsional Moments: May occur due to eccentric loading or asymmetric lateral
forces.

Design Considerations:

The design of caissons involves:

 Stability Analysis: Ensuring the caisson is stable against overturning, sliding, and uplift
under the action of all applicable forces and moments.
  Structural Design: Determining the required thickness and reinforcement of the caisson
walls and base to withstand the stresses induced by the applied loads and moments.
 Bearing Capacity Analysis: Ensuring the soil or rock at the base has sufficient capacity
to support the vertical loads with an adequate factor of safety.

5. Depth Determination of Caissons:

Determining the required depth of a caisson is a crucial aspect of its design and depends on
several factors:

 Bearing Stratum: The caisson must be sunk to a depth where a competent soil or rock
stratum with adequate bearing capacity is encountered. Site investigation (boreholes,
SPT, CPT, rock coring) is essential to identify the depth and properties of suitable strata.
 Scour Depth: For caissons in rivers or marine environments, the depth must be sufficient
to be below the anticipated scour depth (erosion of the riverbed or seabed around the
foundation due to flowing water or waves). Empirical formulas (e.g., Lacey's scour depth
formula for alluvial rivers in India) and hydraulic analysis are used to estimate scour
depth. The bottom of the caisson should be founded at a safe distance below the
maximum scour depth.
 Frost Penetration Depth: In cold regions, the depth should be below the frost line to
prevent damage due to freezing and thawing of the surrounding soil. This is less of a
concern in most parts of India but may be relevant in higher altitudes.
 Stability Requirements: The depth must be sufficient to provide adequate stability
against overturning and sliding, considering the applied horizontal forces and moments.
A deeper embedment increases the resistance to these forces.
 Uplift Resistance: For structures subjected to uplift forces (e.g., due to buoyancy or
wind), the depth and skin friction resistance must be sufficient to counteract these forces
with an adequate factor of safety.
 Settlement Requirements: The depth and bearing area should be such that the
anticipated settlement of the caisson under the applied loads is within acceptable limits
for the superstructure.

Empirical Rules (Indian Context for Well Foundations):

In India, for well foundations (open caissons) for bridges in alluvial rivers, some empirical
guidelines are often used for determining the grip length (depth below the maximum scour
level):

 For piers: Generally taken as 1/3 to 2/3 of the maximum scour depth (Ds), depending on
the soil type and the importance of the structure. A minimum grip length is usually
specified (e.g., 1.2 meters).
 For abutments: Can be slightly less than for piers.

These are empirical guidelines and should be supplemented by proper geotechnical analysis
considering the specific site conditions and structural requirements.