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Question 1: Attempt any SIX of the following:
• a) Define carbohydrate and write classification with examples.
* Definition: Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen, with the general formula (CH2O)n. They serve as a
primary source of energy for living organisms.
* Classification:
* Monosaccharides: Simple sugars. Examples: Glucose, Fructose,
Galactose.
* Disaccharides: Two monosaccharides joined together. Examples:
Sucrose (Glucose + Fructose), Lactose (Glucose + Galactose), Maltose (Glucose
+ Glucose).
* Oligosaccharides: A few (3-10) monosaccharides joined together.
Examples: Raffinose, Stachyose.
* Polysaccharides: Many monosaccharides joined together. Examples:
Starch, Cellulose, Glycogen.
• b) What are Proteins? Briefly explain their biological role. Explain secondary
structure of proteins.
* Proteins Definition: Proteins are large biomolecules consisting of one or
more long chains of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.
* Biological Role: Proteins have diverse functions in the body, including:
* Enzymes: Catalyze biochemical reactions.
* Structural Proteins: Provide support and shape to cells and tissues.
* Transport Proteins: Transport molecules across cell membranes or in
the bloodstream.
* Hormones: Regulate various physiological processes.
* Antibodies: Defend the body against foreign invaders.
* Receptors: Bind to signaling molecules and initiate cellular responses.
* Secondary Structure: Local folding of the polypeptide chain into regular
structures such as alpha-helices and beta-sheets, stabilized by hydrogen bonds
between the amino acids.
• c) Discuss different factors affecting enzyme activity.
* Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity:
* Temperature
* pH
* Substrate Concentration
* Enzyme Concentration
* Presence of Inhibitors or Activators
• d) What is kreb cycle? Mention steps in kreb cycle.
* Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle/TCA Cycle): A series of chemical reactions
that extract energy from acetyl-CoA, producing ATP, NADH, and FADH2. It is a
central metabolic pathway that occurs in the mitochondrial matrix.
* Steps of Krebs Cycle:
1. Condensation: Acetyl-CoA combines with oxaloacetate to form citrate.
2. Isomerization: Citrate is converted to isocitrate.
3. Decarboxylation: Isocitrate is decarboxylated to alpha-ketoglutarate,
releasing CO2 and NADH.
4. Decarboxylation: Alpha-ketoglutarate is decarboxylated to succinyl-
CoA, releasing CO2 and NADH.
5. Substrate-Level Phosphorylation: Succinyl-CoA is converted to
succinate, producing GTP.
6. Dehydrogenation: Succinate is dehydrogenated to fumarate, producing
FADH2.
7. Hydration: Fumarate is hydrated to malate.
8. Dehydrogenation: Malate is dehydrogenated to oxaloacetate,
producing NADH.
• e) Explain biological oxidation with ETC and oxidative phosphorylation.
* Biological Oxidation: The process by which living organisms obtain energy
through the oxidation of organic molecules.
* Electron Transport Chain (ETC): A series of protein complexes located in
the inner mitochondrial membrane that transfer electrons from NADH and
FADH2 to oxygen, generating a proton gradient.
* Oxidative Phosphorylation: The process by which ATP is synthesized using
the energy released from the electron transport chain, with the enzyme ATP
synthase using the proton gradient to drive ATP production.
• f) Discuss urea cycle and decarboxylation.
* Urea Cycle: A metabolic cycle that converts toxic ammonia into urea,
which is excreted in urine. It occurs in the
