What is AI?
Artificial intelligence (AI) is technology that enables computers and machines to simulate human
learning, comprehension, problem solving, decision making, creativity and autonomy.
Applications and devices equipped with AI can see and identify objects. They can understand and
respond to human language. They can learn from new information and experience. They can make
detailed recommendations to users and experts. They can act independently, replacing the need for
human intelligence or intervention (a classic example being a self-driving car).
But in 2024, most AI researchers and practitioners—and most AI-related headlines—are focused on
breakthroughs in generative AI (gen AI), a technology that can create original text, images, video
and other content. To fully understand generative AI, it’s important to first understand the
technologies on which generative AI tools are built: machine learning (ML) and deep learning.
History of AI 1950-1997
The idea of "a machine that thinks" dates back to ancient Greece. But since the advent of electronic
computing (and relative to some of the topics discussed in this article) important events and
milestones in the evolution of AI include the following:
1950
Alan Turing publishes Computing Machinery and Intelligence (link resides outside
[Link]). In this paper, Turing—famous for breaking the German ENIGMA code during
WWII and often referred to as the "father of computer science"—asks the following
question: "Can machines think?"
From there, he offers a test, now famously known as the "Turing Test," where a human
interrogator would try to distinguish between a computer and human text response.
While this test has undergone much scrutiny since it was published, it remains an
important part of the history of AI, and an ongoing concept within philosophy as it uses
ideas around linguistics.
1956
John McCarthy coins the term "artificial intelligence" at the first-ever AI conference at
Dartmouth College. (McCarthy went on to invent the Lisp language.) Later that year,
Allen Newell, J.C. Shaw and Herbert Simon create the Logic Theorist, the first-ever
running AI computer program.
1967
Frank Rosenblatt builds the Mark 1 Perceptron, the first computer based on a neural
network that "learned" through trial and error. Just a year later, Marvin Minsky and
Seymour Papert publish a book titled Perceptrons, which becomes both the landmark
work on neural networks and, at least for a while, an argument against future neural
network research initiatives.
1980
Neural networks, which use a backpropagation algorithm to train itself, became widely
used in AI applications.
1995
Stuart Russell and Peter Norvig publish Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (link
resides outside [Link]), which becomes one of the leading textbooks in the study of
AI. In it, they delve into four potential goals or definitions of AI, which differentiates
computer systems based on rationality and thinking versus acting.
1997
IBM's Deep Blue beats then world chess champion Garry Kasparov, in a chess match
(and rematch).
History of AI 2004-2024
2004
John McCarthy writes a paper, What Is Artificial Intelligence? (link resides
outside [Link]), and proposes an often-cited definition of AI.
By this time, the era of big data and cloud computing is underway, enabling
organizations to manage ever-larger data estates, which will one day be
used to train AI models.
2011
IBM Watson® beats champions Ken Jennings and Brad Rutter at Jeopardy! Also, around
this time, data science begins to emerge as a popular discipline.
2015
Baidu's Minwa supercomputer uses a special deep neural network called a convolutional
neural network to identify and categorize images with a higher rate of accuracy than
the average human.
2016
DeepMind's AlphaGo program, powered by a deep neural network, beats Lee Sodol, the
world champion Go player, in a five-game match. The victory is significant given the
huge number of possible moves as the game progresses (over 14.5 trillion after just
four moves). Later, Google purchased DeepMind for a reported USD 400 million.
2022
A rise in large language models or LLMs, such as OpenAI’s ChatGPT, creates an
enormous change in performance of AI and its potential to drive enterprise value. With
these new generative AI practices, deep-learning models can be pretrained on large
amounts of data.
2024
The latest AI trends point to a continuing AI renaissance. Multimodal models that can
take multiple types of data as input are providing richer, more robust experiences.
These models bring together computer vision image recognition and NLP speech
recognition capabilities. Smaller models are also making strides in an age of diminishing
returns with massive models with large parameter counts.
Machine learning
A simple way to think about AI is as a series of nested or derivative concepts that have emerged
over more than 70 years:
Directly underneath AI, we have machine learning, which involves creating models by training an
algorithm to make predictions or decisions based on data. It encompasses a broad range of
techniques that enable computers to learn from and make inferences based on data without being
explicitly programmed for specific tasks.
There are many types of machine learning techniques or algorithms, including linear regression,
logistic regression, decision trees, random forest, support vector machines (SVMs), k-nearest
neighbor (KNN), clustering and more. Each of these approaches is suited to different kinds of
problems and data.
But one of the most popular types of machine learning algorithm is called a neural network (or
artificial neural network). Neural networks are modeled after the human brain's structure and
function. A neural network consists of interconnected layers of nodes (analogous to neurons) that
work together to process and analyze complex data. Neural networks are well suited to tasks that
involve identifying complex patterns and relationships in large amounts of data.
The simplest form of machine learning is called supervised learning, which involves the use of
labeled data sets to train algorithms to classify data or predict outcomes accurately. In supervised
learning, humans pair each training example with an output label. The goal is for the model to learn
the mapping between inputs and outputs in the training data, so it can predict the labels of new,
unseen data.
Deep Learning
What Is It?
Unsupervised Learning
Deep Neural Network
Deep learning
Deep learning is a subset of machine learning that uses multilayered neural networks,
called deep neural networks, that more closely simulate the complex decision-making
power of the human brain.
Deep neural networks include an input layer, at least three but usually hundreds of
hidden layers, and an output layer, unlike neural networks used in classic machine
learning models, which usually have only one or two hidden layers.
Generative AI
Generative AI
Model Types
Transformers
Generative AI, sometimes called "gen AI", refers to deep learning models that can
create complex original content—such as long-form text, high-quality images, realistic
video or audio and more—in response to a user’s prompt or request.
At a high level, generative models encode a simplified representation of their training
data, and then draw from that representation to create new work that’s similar, but not
identical, to the original data.
How Generative AI Works
In general, generative AI operates in three phases:
1. Training
Generative AI begins with a "foundation model"; a deep learning model that serves as
the basis for multiple different types of generative AI applications.
The most common foundation models today are large language models (LLMs), created
for text generation applications. But there are also foundation models for image, video,
sound or music generation, and multimodal foundation models that support several
kinds of content.
To create a foundation model, practitioners train a deep learning algorithm on huge
volumes of relevant raw, unstructured, unlabeled data, such as terabytes or petabytes
of data text or images or video from the internet.
1.5. More Training
The training yields a neural network of billions of parameters—encoded representations
of the entities, patterns and relationships in the data—that can generate content
autonomously in response to prompts. This is the foundation model.
This training process is compute-intensive, time-consuming and expensive. It requires
thousands of clustered graphics processing units (GPUs) and weeks of processing, all of
which typically costs millions of dollars. Open source foundation model projects, such as
Meta's Llama-2, enable gen AI developers to avoid this step and its costs.
2. Tuning
Next, the model must be tuned to a specific content generation task. This can be done
in various ways, including:
Fine-tuning, which involves feeding the model application-specific labeled data—
questions or prompts the application is likely to receive, and corresponding correct
answers in the wanted format.
Reinforcement learning with human feedback (RLHF), in which human users evaluate
the accuracy or relevance of model outputs so that the model can improve itself. This
can be as simple as having people type or talk back corrections to a chatbot or virtual
assistant.
3. Generation, Evaluation and More Tuning
Developers and users regularly assess the outputs of their generative AI apps, and
further tune the model—even as often as once a week—for greater accuracy or
relevance. In contrast, the foundation model itself is updated much less frequently,
perhaps every year or 18 months.
Another option for improving a gen AI app's performance is retrieval augmented
generation (RAG), a technique for extending the foundation model to use relevant
sources outside of the training data to refine the parameters for greater accuracy or
relevance.
Benefits of AI
AI offers numerous benefits across various industries and applications. Some
of the most commonly cited benefits include:
Automation of Repetitive Tasks
Enhanced Decision-Making
Fewer Human Errors
24x7 Availability
Reduced Physical Risk
AI can automate routine, repetitive and often tedious tasks—including digital tasks such
as data collection, entering and preprocessing, and physical tasks such as warehouse
stock-picking and manufacturing processes. This automation frees to work on higher
value, more creative work.
AI Challenges and Risks
Organizations are scrambling to take advantage of the latest AI technologies and capitalize on AI's
many benefits. This rapid adoption is necessary, but adopting and maintaining AI workflows comes
with challenges and risks.
Data Risks
Model Risks
Operational Risks
Ethics and Legal Risks
AI systems rely on data sets that might be vulnerable to data poisoning, data
tampering, data bias or cyberattacks that can lead to data breaches.
Organizations can mitigate these risks by protecting data integrity and implementing
security and availability throughout the entire AI lifecycle, from development to training
and deployment and post deployment.
AI ethics and Governance
AI ethics is a multidisciplinary field that studies how to optimize AI's beneficial impact while
reducing risks and adverse outcomes. Principles of AI ethics are applied through a system of AI
governance consisted of guardrails that help ensure that AI tools and systems remain safe and
ethical. AI governance encompasses oversight mechanisms that address risks. An ethical
approach to AI governance requires the involvement of a wide range of stakeholders, including
developers, users, policymakers and ethicists, helping to ensure that AI-related systems are
developed and used to align with society's values. Here are common values associated with AI
ethics and responsible AI:
Explainability and Interpretability
As AI becomes more advanced, humans are challenged to comprehend and retrace how
the algorithm came to a result. Explainable AI is a set of processes and methods that
enables human users to interpret, comprehend and trust the results and output created
by algorithms.
Fairness and Inclusion
Although machine learning, by its very nature, is a form of statistical discrimination, the
discrimination becomes objectionable when it places privileged groups at systematic
advantage and certain unprivileged groups at systematic disadvantage, potentially
causing varied harms. To encourage fairness, practitioners can try to minimize
algorithmic bias across data collection and model design, and to build more diverse and
inclusive teams.
Robustness and Security
Robust AI effectively handles exceptional conditions, such as abnormalities in input or
malicious attacks, without causing unintentional harm. It is also built to withstand
intentional and unintentional interference by protecting against exposed vulnerabilities.
Accountability and Transparency
Organizations should implement clear responsibilities and governance structures for the
development, deployment and outcomes of AI systems. In addition, users should be
able to see how an AI service works, evaluate its functionality, and comprehend its
strengths and limitations. Increased transparency provides information for AI consumers
to better understand how the AI model or service was created.
Privacy and Compliance
Many regulatory frameworks, including GDPR, mandate that organizations abide by
certain privacy principles when processing personal information. It is crucial to be able
to protect AI models that might contain personal information, control what data goes
into the model in the first place, and to build adaptable systems that can adjust to
changes in regulation and attitudes around AI ethics.
