A semiconductor is a solid whose electrical conductivity is in between that of a conductor and that of an insulator, and can be controlled over

a wide range, either permanently or dynamically. -A semiconductor is a substance, usually a solid chemical element or compound, that can conduct electricity under some conditions but not others, making it a good medium for the control of electrical current. Capacitor -In a way, a capacitor is a little like a battery. Although they work in completely different ways, capacitors and batteries both store electrical energy. If you have read How Batteries Work, then you know that a battery has two terminals. Inside the battery, chemical reactions produce electrons on one terminal and absorb electrons on the other terminal. A capacitor is much simpler than a battery, as it can't produce new electrons -- it only stores them.

-An electric circuit element used to store charge temporarily, consisting in general of two metallic plates separated and insulated from each other by a dielectric. Also called condenser.

resistor - A device used to control current in an electric circuit by providing resistance.

Resistance: Electrical resistance describes how an electrical conductor (a wire) opposes the flow of an electrical current (flow of electrons). To overcome this opposition a voltage (a energy) must dropped (used) across the conductor (wire). Resistance can be described by ohms law: Ohms Law: R = V / I (Resistance = Voltage / Current) (resistance measured in ohms) where: Voltage [V]= the energy lost across an component (voltage measured in volts). Current [I] = the charge (electrons) flowing through an component (current measured in Amps). Electrical resistance can be thought of as sticking your hand out a car window. The faster [current] you drive the harder the wind presses [resistance] against you hand and therefore it takes more energy [voltage] to hold your steady.

When trying to overcome electrical resistance, the electrical energy lost is turned into heat. This is how the elements of a household stove, toaster, and fan heater work. Because of the vacuum in a light bulb, the electrical energy lost is instead turned into light. It can be seen the electrical resistance plays a large role in modern life. Resistor: The resistor is the most common electronic component and is used to limit and/or control the voltage and current in an electronic circuit. Resistors are carefully manufactured to provide a predetermined value of electrical resistance which may range from 0.1 ohms to 100,000,000 ohms, depending on the application. The physical size of a resistor also varies dependant on the amount of power passing through the resistor, given by: P = V x I (Power = Voltage x Current) (power measured in watts) There are also many types of resistors including: Variable Resistor - changes resistance when its shaft is rotated (volume knob on a stereo). Thermistor - changes resistance when the temperature changes (used in a thermostat). Light Dependant Resistor (LDR) - changes resistance when the lighting changes (used in children's night-lights).
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and power. It is composed of a semiconductor material with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated circuits.

Types of transistor
There are two types of standard transistors, NPN and PNP, with different circuit symbols. The letters refer to the layers of semiconductor material used to make the transistor. Most transistors used today are NPN because this is the easiest type to make from silicon. This page is mostly about NPN transistors and if you are new to electronics it is best to start by learning how to use these first. The leads are labelled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E).
These terms refer to the internal operation of a transistor but they are not much help in understanding how a transistor is used, so just treat them as labels!

Transistor circuit symbols

A Darlington pair is two transistors connected together to give a very high current gain. In addition to standard (bipolar junction) transistors, there are field-effect transistors which are usually referred to as FETs. They have different circuit symbols and properties and they are not (yet) covered by this page.
Protection diode If the load is a motor, relay or solenoid (or any other device with a coil) a diode must be connected across the load to protect the transistor from the brief high voltage produced when the load is switched off. The diagram shows how a protection diode is connected 'backwards' across the load, in this case a relay coil.
Current flowing through a coil creates a magnetic field which collapses suddenly when the current is switched off. The sudden collapse of the magnetic field induces a brief high voltage across the coil which is very likely to damage transistors and ICs. The protection diode allows the induced voltage to drive a brief current through the coil (and diode) so the magnetic field dies away quickly rather than instantly. This prevents the induced voltage becoming high enough to cause damage to transistors and ICs.

When to use a relay Transistors cannot switch AC or high voltages (such as mains electricity) and they are not usually a good choice for switching large currents (> 5A). In these cases a relay will be needed, but note that a low power transistor may still be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil!

Advantages of relays:
Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC. Relays can switch high voltages, transistors cannot. Relays are a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A). Relays can switch many contacts at once.

Disadvantages of relays:
Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents. Relays cannot switch rapidly, transistors can switch many times per second. Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil. Relays require more current than many ICs can provide, so a low power transistor may be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.

A diode allows electricity to flow in one direction only and blocks the flow in the opposite direction. They may be regarded as one-way valves and they are used in various circuits, usually as a form of protection. There are different types of diode but their basic functions are the same. These are noted below along with examples of diodes in use. - The most common type of diode is a silicon diode. It is enclosed in a glass cylinder with the dark band marking the cathode terminal. This line points towards the positive of a circuit. The opposite terminal is called the anode. Generally, diodes do not conduct until the voltage reaches approximately .6 volts, this is called the threshold point. If the current becomes too high the diode may crack or melt.

TYPICAL USES OF DIODES

REVERSE POLARITY PROTECTOR

The diode in this circuit protects a radio or a recorder etc... In the event that the battery or power source is connected the wrong way round, the diode does not allow current to flow. Electronic devices can be damaged or even destroyed if the polarity is reversed (positive and negative are connected to the wrong terminals).

TRANSIENT PROTECTOR

When an inductor device such as a relay is turned off a high voltage can be generated for a short time (Dia 1). This voltage spike can damage the relay and other components. However, the diode does not allow current to pass through it in the wrong direction and short circuits this

spike. The diode can also be used to protect a meter from a reverse current (Dia 2).

ZENER DIODE Normally a current does not flow through a diode in the reverse direction. The Zener Diode is specifically designed to begin conducting in the opposite direction when the reverse voltage reaches a voltage threshold. Zener diodes are sometimes used as a voltage sensitive switch.
Integrated Circuit Description Integrated Circuit, tiny electronic circuit used to perform a specific electronic function, such as amplification; it is usually combined with other components to form a more complex system. It is formed as a single unit by diffusing impurities into single-crystal silicon, which then serves as a semiconductor material, or by etching the silicon by means of electron beams. Several hundred identical integrated circuits (ICs) are made at a time on a thin wafer several centimeters wide, and the wafer is subsequently sliced into individual ICs called chips. In large-scale integration (LSI), as many as 5000 circuit elements, such as resistors and transistors, fig.1 - Intrgrated circuits are combined in a square of silicon measuring about 1.3 cm (.5 in) on a side. Hundreds of these integrated circuits can be arrayed on a silicon wafer 8 to 15 cm (3 to 6 in) in diameter. Larger-scale integration can produce a silicon chip with millions of circuit elements. Individual circuit elements on a chip are interconnected by thin metal or semiconductor films, which are insulated from the rest of the circuit by thin dielectric layers. Chips are assembled into packages containing external electrical leads to facilitate insertion into printed circuit boards for interconnection with other circuits or components. What can a IC do ? In consumer electronics, ICs have made possible the development of many new products, including personal calculators and computers, digital watches, and video games. They have also been used to improve or lower the cost of many existing products, such as appliances, televisions, radios, and highfidelity equipment. Computer technology, in particular, has benefited greatly. The logic and arithmetic functions of a small computer can now be performed on a single VLSI chip called a microprocessor, and the complete logic, arithmetic, and memory functions of a small computer can be packaged on a single printed circuit board, or even on a single chip. IC types Integrated circuits are often classified by the number of transistors and other electronic components they contain:

SSI (small-scale integration): Up to 100 electronic components per chip MSI (medium-scale integration): From 100 to 3,000 electronic components per chip LSI (large-scale integration): From 3,000 to 100,000 electronic components per chip VLSI (very large-scale integration): From 100,000 to 1,000,000 electronic components per chip ULSI (ultra large-scale integration): More than 1 million electronic components per chip

There are two major kinds of ICs: analog (or linear) which are used as amplifiers, timers and oscillators digital (or logic) which are used in microprocessors and memories

Some ICs are combinations of both analog and digital. Description of a few types of chips CMOS, in computer science, acronym for complementary metal-oxide semiconductor. A semiconductor device that consists of two metal-oxide semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFETs), one N-type and one P-type, integrated on a single silicon chip. Generally used for RAM and switching applications, these devices have very high speed and extremely low power consumption. They are, however, easily damaged by static electricity. Digital Signal Processor (DSP), an integrated circuit designed for high-speed data manipulations, used in audio, communications, image manipulation, and other data-acquisiton and data-control applications. Dynamic RAM (DRAM) in computer science, a form of semiconductor random access memory (RAM). Dynamic RAMs store information in integrated circuits that contain capacitors. Because capacitors lose their charge over time, dynamic RAM boards must include logic to "refresh" (recharge) the RAM chips continuously. While a dynamic RAM is being refreshed, it cannot be read by the processor; if the processor must read the RAM while it is being refreshed, one or more wait states occur. Because their internal circuitry is simple, dynamic RAMs are more commonly used than static RAMs, even though they are slower. A dynamic RAM can hold approximately four times as much data as a static RAM chip of the same complexity. EPROM, in computer science, acronym for erasable programmable read-only memory. Also called reprogrammable read-only memory (RPROM). EPROMs are nonvolatile memory chips that are programmed after they are manufactured. EPROMs are a good way for hardware vendors to put variable or constantly changing code into a prototype system when the cost of producing many PROM chips would be prohibitive. EPROMs differ from PROMs in that they can be erased, generally by removing a protective cover from the top of the chip package and exposing the semiconductor material to ultraviolet light, and can be reprogrammed after having been erased. Although EPROMs are more expensive than PROMs, they can be more cost-effective in the long run if many changes are needed. PROM, acronym for programmable read-only memory. In computer science, a type of read-only memory (ROM) that allows data to be written into the device with hardware called a PROM programmer. After a PROM has been programmed, it is dedicated to that data, and it cannot be reprogrammed. Because ROMs are cost-effective only when produced in large volumes, PROMs are used during the prototyping stage of the design. New PROMs can be created and discarded as needed until the design is perfected. Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC), a type of microprocessor that focuses on rapid and efficient processing of a relatively small set of instructions. RISC design is based on the premise that most of the instructions a computer decodes and executes are simple. As a result, RISC architecture limits the number of instructions that are built into the microprocessor but optimizes each so it can be carried out very rapidly-usually within a single clock cycle. RISC chips thus execute simple instructions faster than microprocessors designed to handle a much wider array of instructions.

ROM, acronym for read-only memory. In computer science, semiconductor-based memory that contains instructions or data that can be read but not modified. To create a ROM chip, the designer supplies a semiconductor manufacturer with the instructions or data to be stored; the manufacturer then produces one or more chips containing those instructions or data. Because creating ROM chips involves a manufacturing process, it is economically viable only if the ROM chips are produced in large quantities; experimental designs or small volumes are best handled using PROM or EPROM. In general usage, the term ROM often means any read-only device, including PROM and EPROM. Static RAM (SRAM), in computer science, a form of semiconductormemory (RAM). Static RAM storage is based on the logic circuit known as a flip-flop, which retains the information stored in it as long as there is enough power to run the device. A static RAM chip can store only about one-fourth as much data as a dynamic RAM chip of the same complexity, but static RAM does not require refreshing and is usually much faster than dynamic RAM. It is also more expensive. Static RAMs are usually reserved for use in caches.

- Integrated circuits have their origin in the invention of the transistor in 1947 by William B.

Shockley and his team at the American Telephone and Telegraph Companys Bell Laboratories. Shockleys team (including John Bardeen and Walter H. Brattain) f

-An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit (also referred to as IC, chip, or microchip) is an electronic circuit manufactured by the patterned diffusion of trace elements into the surface of a thin substrate of semiconductor material. Additional materials are deposited and patterned to form interconnections between semiconductor devices. -Integrated circuits are used in virtually all electronic equipment today and have revolutionized the world of electronics. Computers, mobile phones, and other digital appliances are now inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies, made possible by the low cost of production of integrated circuits.