Chapter One

The Concepts of Public Relations

1.1. Public Relations Defined
Public relations mean different things to different people. Some scholars consider it as a
philosophical and moral concept. Others define it by looking at what public relations do in
practice. But, these people failed to understand public relations „as a process‟ involving broad
and comprehensive aspects. It includes research and analysis, policy formation, programming,
communications and feedback from various publics. Generally speaking, public relations
practitioners operate on two distinct levels: as advisers to an organization‟s top managements
or to their clients, and as a technician/expert who produce and disseminate messages
through different media channels.
The idea of public relations is not new. It has been there and practiced since time immemorial.
Human beings have always tried and wanted to communicate to make them understand.
Thousands of years ago wall paintings in the caves of ancient people, Pictograms, writings on
tablets of stone, ancient buildings, pyramids, early temples, mosques, & cave paintings were
used to transmit pictorial messages. Holy Books also communicate &tell people about faith.
Thus, precisely, the concept & practice of PR has been around as long as people have wanted
to persuade others (to get them to do something, not to do something, or to keep on doing
something). So, it is possible to conclude that “the techniques of organised & persuasive
communication were actually, as old as human societies.” However, Public relations is
commonly considered as a „young profession‟_ i.e., „as a profession,’ it is a result of the 20th
century capitalism.
What is Public Relations then? Various definitions have been formulated for PRs over the
years. However, the commonly accepted definition of public relations as per Edward Burneys
usually known as the Father of modern PR is that: “It is a deliberate, planned & sustained
effort to establish and maintain mutual understanding between an organization & its publics.”
Whereas, Cutlip, Center and Broom (2000) define public relations as: “A management
function that identifies, establishes & maintains mutually beneficial relationships between an
organization and the publics on whom its success or failure depends.”
Furthermore, Rex F. Harlow, a pioneer public relations educator, compiled more than 500
definitions from almost as many sources. After analyzing 472 definitions he produced the
following definition that includes both conceptual and operational elements.
Public relations is the distinctive management function which helps establish and
maintain mutual lines of communication, understanding, acceptance and cooperation
between an organization and its publics; involves the management of problems or issues;
helps management to keep informed on and responsive to public opinion; defines and
emphasizes the responsibility of management to serve the public interest: helps
management keep abreast of and effectively utilize change, serving as an early warning
system to help anticipate trends; and uses research and sound and ethical communication
as its principle tools. Rex F Harlow.
This conceptual definition regards the activities & goals in public relations practice as a
management function. It also identifies building and maintaining mutually beneficial

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relationships between organizations and publics as the moral and ethical basis of the
profession. At the same time, it suggests criteria for determining what is and what is not part
of the function.

Modern Short hand Definitions

Public relations has also been defined as;
 Persuasive communication designed to influence specific publics.
 The winning of public acceptance by acceptable performance.
 Doing good and getting credit for it (Performance then Recognition)
 The science and practice of applying credible media for favorable communication.
The main objective of public relations is to build and maintain effective relationships with
the internal & external publics (i.e., the community, customers, investors, partners,
employees and other stakeholders) _so that the organization can achieve public goodwill,
stability and longevity. It is an effort to make an organization/brand seem honest, successful,
important, and relevant. Sharpe applies five principles to this process:
1. Honest communication for credibility
2. Openness and consistency of actions for confidence
3. Fairness of actions for reciprocity and good will
4. Continuous two way communication to prevent alienation and build relationships
5. Environmental research and evaluation to determine the actions or adjustments
needed for social harmony.
This approach leads us to recognize three realties of today‟s increasingly democratic and
globally interdependent social system:
1) The economic and social stability of an organization depends greatly on public
opinion,
2) All people have the right to information that will affect their lives, and
3) Unless communication achieves continuous, accurate feedback, the organization will
not be able to assess how it is viewed by its publics, and to adjust its actions
appropriately.
Generally, public relation involves the cultivation of favourable environment for an
organization and its products through effective communication employing various tools of
communication. It is as much a specific discipline with its own body of knowledge & theories.

The key words to remember in defining public relations

Some of important words that should be included while defining public relations includes:
deliberate, planned, performance, Public interest, two-way communication, management
function.
 Deliberate: Public relations activity is intentional. It is designed to influence, gain
understanding, provide information, and obtain feedback (reaction from those affected
by the activity).
 Planned: Public relation activity is organized. Solutions to problems are discovered
and logistics are thought out, with the activity taking place over a period of time. It is
systematic, requiring research and analysis.

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  Performance: Effective public relations is based on actual polices and performance.
No amount of public relations will generate good will and support if the organization
is unresponsive to community concerns.
 Public Interest: The rationale for any public relations activity is to serve the public
interest, and not simply to achieve benefits for the organization. Perfectly, public
relations activity is mutually beneficial to the organization and the public; it is the
alignment of the organization‟s self-interests with the publics concerns and interests.
 Two-way Communication: Dictionary definitions often give the impression that
public relations consists only for the dissemination of informational materials. It is
equally important, however, that the definition include feedback from audiences. The
ability to listen is an essential part of communication skill.
 Management Function: Public relations is most effective when it is part of the
decision making of top management. Public relations involves counseling and
problem solving at high levels, not just the realizing of information after a decision
has been made.

1.2. Ancient Beginnings and Development Public Relations

Although opinions differ about the exact origins of public relations, it is generally accepted
that public relations has existed (in some shape or form) since the beginning of civilization
itself. While theorists believe that public relations was born with the Neanderthal's trading
techniques, the earliest tangible roots of PRs can be traced back to around 1800 BC in the
Middle East. This can be evidenced by ancient writings, pottery, hieroglyphs, and art.

The Catholic Church was one of the first organizations to employ a public relations group to
help their cause. They formed the 'Society for the Propagation of the Faith' to impress
public opinion of Roman Catholics and increase the membership of the church. It is from this
organization that we get the term propaganda which is used with a lot broader meaning today.

In the 1800s, public relations techniques were used to encourage settlement in the American
West. Railroad companies – which were laying down new tracks across America, employed
former journalists to create flyers and pamphlets that described the vast opportunities in the
American boundary. And many believe it was the railroad companies that first used the term
“public relations.”

However, the first big test for this newfound profession was persuading the American people
to enter World War I. To do so, President Woodrow Wilson established Committee on Public
Information (also known as the Creel Committee) in 1917. This committee includes the three
key men; Carl Byoir, Edward L. Bernays, and Ivy Lee, whom public relations as a career and
modern public relations in general, owes itself to. In 1917, Carl Byoir was asked to join the
World War I Committee on Public Communication. It was there that he made his greatest
contribution to the war effort. He designed a campaign that targeted non-English speaking
draft-eligible men; the campaign was a success and added 75,000 men to the United State's
war effort.

One of the most famous members of this committee was Edward L. Bernays, known as the
father of modern public relations. The success of this committee in achieving its goal
persuaded Bernays to open a PR agency after the war to apply committee‟s techniques to
commercial interests. He invented techniques that are foundations of today's public relations
career. He is credited with getting women to smoke and bacon & eggs a part of American
breakfasts. To do all of this he linked female smoking with female liberation, and used the

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testimony of medical professionals to prove a hearty breakfast was a healthy breakfast.
Bernay's heavy use of psychological influence and manipulation may be attributed to family
inheritance, since his uncle was Dr. Sigmund Freud. Major corporations such as General
Electric, Proctor & Gamble, CBS, and the American Tobacco Company hired Bernays to
conduct a wide variety of PR activities.

The man who is credited for moving the public relations profession to its next age was Ivy
Lee. In 1906, he published his “Declaration of Principles” that advocated truthfulness and
openness, and thereby lead PR into the Public Information Age. Ivy believed that the best
way to practice “public relations” was to make sure the public had truthful information. Then,
many companies began to employ public relations professionals whose job was to keep the
public informed.
Then, after public relation practitioners saw their primary role as identifying, building, and
sustaining relationships between an organization and its stakeholders, the nature of the
profession changed. Now, instead of emphasizing one-way communication, organizations
began to place increasing importance on two-way communication. Furthermore, if these
relationships were to be sustained, they had to be mutually beneficial_where both
organizations and their stakeholders benefitted.
During the beginning of the profession in the early 20th century, PR was merely focused on
media relations/publicity. As a result, most practitioners were former journalists who
understood news and how to craft an effective media story. Today, however, public relations
is much broader. In addition to media relations, public relations practitioners work in the
following areas: employee relations, investor relations, community relations, public affairs,
lobbying, and social media, among other areas. As the scope of the profession expands, the
skills practitioners need to be successful also increased. Writing continues to be the core skill
public relations practitioners need to possess. But employers are also looking for research
skills, planning, good interpersonal communication, media and cultural literacy, critical
thinking skills, and business knowledge (i.e., that all makes businesses more effective).

Today, the trend is to combine advertising, marketing, and public relations into integrated
marketing communications (IMC) or integrated strategic communications. Under these
integrated models, public relations works much more closely with advertising and marketing
to achieve consistent messages/strategies and realize cost efficiencies. In order to manage the
public image and stakeholder relationships of companies and organisations, public relations
practitioners employ a variety of communication tactics, including media releases, social
media accounts, media events, backgrounders, fact sheets, flyers, pamphlets, annual reports,
newsletters, and other materials. Senior practitioners are responsible for planning the details
of „what, how and why their organisations communicate with strategic publics‟ (Mahoney,
2013: 2). As leaders of a communications team, senior practitioners are often part of an
organisation‟s „dominant management team.‟ These senior practitioners are responsible for
protecting the company‟s public reputation by identifying issues, and by using effective
communication to support the interests of organisations with those of the important publics in
their operating environment (Grunig, Grunig & Dozier 2006: 55).

Currently, public relation has developed into a multi-million dollar industry. Modern
developments in public relations are linked with political movements. Public relations has
became an important part of politics, playing a major part in who becomes elected, and what
laws are passed. Politicians use public relations to keep themselves in good standing with the
public, which is very necessary for their job. What began as mere publicity has grown to

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include many other uses, from interpreting public opinion and its impact on an organization
to researching ways of helping a business to maintain its goals. Nowadays, PRs practice is
growing so fast worldwide; especially in developing countries and emerging markets like
Ethiopia; though it is so far poorly practiced in Ethiopia. Generally, any place or situation
where public support is key to an organization‟s success, public relations will be valued.

1.3. Misconceptions about Public Relations

1.3.1. How Public Relations Differs from Journalism
Writing for mass audiences is a common activity of both public relations practitioners and
journalists. In addition, public relations professionals use a number of journalistic techniques
to communicate with various publics. This practice has led many people, including former
journalists who enter public relations, to wrong conclusion that little difference exists
between public relations and journalism. The two fields, however, differ fundamentally in
scope, objective, audiences and channels.
Scope: A public relations has many components, ranging from counselling to issues
management and special events. Journalistic wiring and media relations, although important,
are only two of these elements. In addition, effective practice of public relations requires
strategic thinking, problem solving capability, and other management skills.
Objectives: Journalists, usually employed by a news organization, are paid to gather and
select information for the primary purpose of providing “objective” news and information. In
such a setting, as David Dozier and William Ehling explain, “… communication activities are
an end in themselves.” Public relations personnel also gather facts and information, but their
objective is different. Communication activity is only a means to end. Dozier and Ehling
write, “Conceptually, the effects achieved by public relations programs include awareness,
knowledge, opinion, attitudes, and behavior of those affected by the program.” In other words,
public relations personnel are not “objective” reporters, but advocates.
Audiences: Journalists write primarily for one mass audience readers, listeners, or viewers of
the medium for which they work. By definition, mass audiences are usually large and ill
defined, and they have little in common with each other. In contrast, effective public relations
is based on carefully defining an audience and segmenting it into demographic and
psychological characteristics. Constant research allows messages to be tailored to audience
needs, concerns, and interests.
Channels: Most journalists, by nature of their employment, reach audiences through one
channel- the medium that publishes or broadcasts their work. Public relations personnel use a
variety of channels to reach targeted audiences. The channels employed may be a
combination of mass media outlets newspapers, magazines, radio, and television. Or they
may include direct mail, pamphlets, posters, special events. Any combination of channels
may be selected to achieve message penetration and maximum understanding.

1.3.2. How Public Relations Differs from Advertising

Just as many people mistakenly equate publicity with public relation there is also some
confusion about the distinction between publicity (one area of public relations) and
advertising.

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Publicity – or information about an event, an individual or a group, or a product is
disseminated through the news media and other channels to attract favorable public notice.
The practitioner who prepares and distributes the information is often called a publicist.
Advertising is paid space and time in print, including billboards, and in electronic media.
Organizations and individuals contract to purchase space and time, and an advertisement is
almost always broadcast or printed exactly as the purchaser has prepared it.
Publicity, as distinguished from advertising, appears in broadcast news programs and in
newspaper and magazine stories. The prepared copy is sent to the news department (not the
advertising department) and gatekeepers (reporters and editors) modify the material
according to news requirements. In other words, there is no guarantee that an organization‟s
news release will be used or will appear in the form in which it is prepared. There are other
differences between public relations activities and advertising. Here are some of them:
Advertising Public relations

works almost exclusively through mass media relies on number of communication tools- brochures,
outlets slide presentations, special; events, speeches, news
releases, feature stories, and so forth.
addressed to external audiences- primarily presents its message to specialized external audiences
consumers of goods and services (stockholders, vendors, community leaders,
environmental groups, and so on) and internal publics
(employees).
is readily identified as a specialized is broader in scope, dealing with policies and
communication function performance of the entire organization, from the
moral of employees to the way telephone operators
respond to calls
is often used as a communication tool in public the function is to create an environment in which the
relations and public relations activity often organization can thrive. The latter calls for dealing
supports advertising campaigns. Advertisings with economic, social, and political factors that can
function is to sell goods and services affect the organization

The major disadvantage of advertising, of course, is the cost. Because of this, companies
increasingly are using a tool of public relations- product publicity- that is more cost-effective
and often more credible because the message appears in news context.

1.3.3. How Public Relations Differs from Marketing

Public relations is distinct from marketing in several ways, although their boundaries often
overlap. The function overlap, for example, because both deal with an organization‟s
relationships and employs similar communication tools to reach the public. Both have the
ultimate purpose of assuring an organization‟s success and economic survival. Public
relations and marketing, however, approach this task from somewhat different perspectives,
or world views.
The difference is illustrated by the descriptions of each field that a distinguished panel of
educators and practitioners in public relations and marketing developed during a colloquium
at San Diego State University, USA. They formed the following definition of public relations

Public relation is the management process whose goal is to attain and maintain accord and
positive behaviors among social groupings on which an organization depends in order to

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achieve its mission. Its fundamental responsibility is to build and maintain a hospitable
environment for an organization.
The group define marketing‟s goal in different terms: Marketing is the management process
whose goal is to attract and satisfy customers (or clients) on a long- term basis in order to
achieve an organization’s economic objectives. Its fundamental responsibility is to build
and maintain markets for an organization’s products or services. In other words, public
relations is concerned with building relationships and generating goodwill for the
organization; marketing is concerned with customers, and selling products and services.
James E. Grunig, put the differences between public relations and marketing in sharp
contrast: …the marketing function should communicate with the markets for an
organization’s goods and services. Public relations should be concerned with all the
publics of the organization. The major purpose of marketing is to make money for the
organization by increasing the slope of demand curve. The major purpose of public
relations is to save money for the organization by building relationships with publics that
constrain or enhance the ability of the organization to meet its mission.
Grunig points out a fundamental difference between marketing and public relations in terms
of how the public is described. Marketing and advertising professionals tend to speak of
“target markets,” “consumers” and “customers.” Public relations professionals tend to
talk of “publics,” “audiences,” and “stockholders.” These groups may be any publics that
are affected by or can affect the organization. According to Grunig, “Publics can arise within
stockholder categories- such as employees, communities, stockholders, governments,
members, students, suppliers, and donors, as well as consumers.”

1.4. Components of Public Relations

The basic components of public relations include the following:
 Counselling: Providing advice to management concerning policies, relationships,
communications, course of action, organization‟s responsibility.
 Research: Determining attitudes and behaviors of publics in order to plan public
relations strategies. Such research can be used to (1) generate mutual understanding or
(2) influence and persuade publics.
 Media Relations: Working with mass media and establishing a good relationship
with them, and acting as their content source.
 Publicity: Writing and distributing press releases (planned messages) through
selected media to promote the organization‟s interest.
 Employee/Internal Relations: Responding to concerns, informing, motivating and
counselling an organization‟s employees or members.
 Community Relations: Handling the social aspect of the organization/brand/ and
establishing a positive reputation in the community by participating in & supporting
like environment protection, education, etc.
 Public Affairs: Developing effective involvement in public policy and helping an
organization adapt to public expectations.
 Government Affairs: Relating directly with legislatures and regulatory agencies on
behalf of the organization. Working in collaboration with the government with regard
to fulfilment of policies like corporate social responsibility, fair competition,
consumer protection, employee protection, etc. Lobbing can be part of a government
affairs program.

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  Issue Management: Identifying and addressing issues of public concern that affect
the organization. It can include environmental affairs.
 Financial/investor Relations: Creating and maintaining investor confidence and
building good relationships with the financial community. It involves like releasing
financial reports and regulatory filings, and handling investors‟ questions and
complaints. Also known as Investor Relations or Shareholder Relations.
 Industry Relations: Relating with other firms in the industry of an organization and
with trade associations.
 Development/Fund-Raising: Demonstrating the need for and encouraging the public
to support an organization, primarily through financial contributions.
 Minority Relations/Multicultural Affairs: Relating with individuals and groups in
minorities or cultural groups.
 Special Events: Planning and carrying out special public outreach and media
relations events. Stimulating an interest in a person, product, or organization by
means of a focused “happening” also, activities designed to interact with publics and
listen to them.
 Marketing Communications: Supporting marketing efforts through a combination
of activities designed to sell a product, service, or idea, including; advertising,
publicity, promotion, direct mail, trade shows, and special events.
 Customer Relations: Handling relationships with the target market and consumers.
Conducting market research to know more about interests, attitudes, and priorities of
the customers and crafting strategies to influence the same using earned media.
 Crisis Management: Developing a crisis public relations strategy.

1.5. Roles and responsibilities of PR Practitioners

The following discussion presents the distinctive roles and responsibilities of PR practitioners
at different levels in the career. Over time, practitioners adopt patterns of behavior to deal
with recurring situations in their work and to accommodate others‟ expectations of what they
should do in their jobs. Generally, four major public relations roles describe much of the
practice. At one time or another, however, practitioners play all of these and other roles to
varying degrees, even though a dominant role emerges as they go about their day-to-day
work and dealing with others.

i. Communication Technician
Most practitioners enter the field as communication technicians. Entry- level job descriptions
usually list communication and journalistic skills as requirements. Communication
technicians are hired to write and edit employee newsletters, to write news releases and
feature stories, to develop Web-site content, and to deal with media contents. Practitioners in
this role usually are not present when management defines problems and selects solutions.
They are brought in later to produce the communications and implement the program,
sometimes without full knowledge of either the original motivation or the intended results.
Even though they were not present during the discussions about a new policy or management
decision, they are the ones given the job of explaining it to employees and to the press.
Practitioners not only begin their careers in this role but spend much of their time in the
technical aspects of communication. When limited to this role, however, practitioners
typically do not participate significantly in management decision making and strategic
planning. They complain that they are not part of the management team and that they are “the
last to know.”

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 ii. Expert Prescriber
When practitioners take on the expert role, others see them as the authority on public
relations problems and solutions. Top management leaves public relations in the hands of the
expert and assumes a relatively passive role. Practitioners operating as expert practitioners
define the problem, develop the program, and take full responsibility for its implementation.
Other managers may want to keep public relations as the sole responsibility of practitioners
so they can get back to business as usual, content that things will be handled by the “PR
experts”
The expert prescriber role seduces practitioners because it is personally gratifying to be
viewed as the authority on what needs to be done and how it should be done. It seduces
employers and clients because they want to feel sure that a public relation is being handled by
an expert. They also erroneously assume that they will no longer have to be involved once the
expert is on the job. Limited participation by key top managers, however, means that their
relevant knowledge does not get factored into the problem-solving process. Public relations
becomes compartmentalized and isolated from the mainstream of the enterprise.
By not participating themselves, managers become dependent on the practitioner any time
public relations issues arise. Managers also develop little or no commitment to public
relations efforts and do not take responsibility for the success or failure of programs. In effect,
other managers in the organization assume an „it‟s-not-my-job‟ stance on public relations
matters. They see public relations as a sometimes-necessary job handled by support staff not
directly involved in the organization‟s main line of business.

iii. Communication Facilitator

The communication facilitator role casts practitioners as sensitive listeners and information
brokers. Communication facilitator serves as liaisons, interpreters, and mediators between an
organization and its publics. They maintain two-way communication and facilitate exchange
by removing barriers in relationships and by keeping channels of communication open. The
goal is to provide both management and publics the information they need for making
decisions of mutual interest.
Practitioners in the communication facilitator role find themselves acting as information
sources and the official contacts between organizations and their public. They referee
interactions, establish discussion agendas, summarize and restate views, call for reactions,
and help participants diagnose and correct conditions interfering with communication
relationships. Communication facilitators occupy boundary-spanning roles and serve as links
between organizations and publics. They operate under the assumption that effective two-way
communication improves the quality of decisions organizations and publics make about
policies, procedures, and actions of mutual interest.

iv. Problem- Solving facilitators

When practitioners assume the role of problem-solving facilitator, they collaborate with other
managers to define and solve problems. They become part of the strategic planning team.
Collaboration and consultation begin with the first question and continue until the final
program evaluation. Problem-solving practitioners help other managers and the organization
apply to public relations the same management step-by-step process used for solving other
organizational problems.

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Line managers play an essential part in analyzing problem situations, as they are the ones
most knowledgeable of and most intimately involved with the organization‟s policies,
products, producers, and actions. They are also the ones with the power to make needed
changes. As a result, they must participate in the evolutionary thinking and strategic planning
behind public relations programs. When line managers participate in the public relations
strategic planning process, they understand program motivations and objectives, they support
strategic and tactical decisions, and they are committed to making the changes and providing
the resources needed to achieve program goals.
Problem-solving facilitators get invited to the management team because they have
demonstrated their skill and value in helping other managers avoid and solve problems. As a
result, a public relations thinking is factored into management decision making.

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