Turbulent Flow and Boundary Layer Theory, 2021, 151-175 151

CHAPTER 5

Boundary Layer
Abstract: Several exact solutions considered in literature notably the moving
boundary flows, stagnation flow, the rotating disk, convergent wedge flow, and the
flat plate with asymptotic suction have hinted strongly at boundary layer behavior.
That is, at large Reynolds numbers the effect of viscosity becomes increasingly
confined to narrow regions near solid walls. The computer models solutions also
shewed this tendency at large Re to sweep the vorticity downstream and leave the
flow far from the walls essentially irrational. Physically, this means that the rate of
downstream convections is much larger than the rate of transverses viscous diffusion.

In this chapter, definitions related to the Boundary layer are described by a formula.
A brief description and derivation in details of Boundary layer.

Theories, integral momentum equation of boundary layer implemented on flat plate

for laminar and turbulent flow, simulation solution for steady 2D flow, Blasius
solution, Falkner Skan wedge flow, and Thwaite's method.

Keywords: Boundary layer, Blasius solution, Falkner Skan wedge flow, Flat plate,
Thwaite's method.

5.1. INTRODUCTION

Boundary Layer theory is cornerstone of our knowledge of flow of air and other
fluids of small viscosity under circumstances of interest in many engineering
applications.

The flow of real fluid (except at extremely low pressure) has two fundamental
characteristics one is that there is no discontinuity of velocity second is that at a
solid surface, the velocity of the fluid relative to the surface is zero. As a result,
there is close to the surface a region in which the velocity increases rapidly from
zero and approaches the velocity of the boundary layer.

The B.L. which is simplest to study is that formed in the flow along one side of a
thin, smooth flat plate parallel to the direction of the on comming fluid as shown in
Fig. (5.1).
5.1).
). [1, 7].
Jafar Mehdi Hassan
Hassan, Riyadh S. Al-Turaihi, Salman Hussien Omran, Laith Jaafer Habeeb,
Alamaslamani Ammar Fadhil Shnawa
All rights reserved-© 2021 Bentham Science Publishers
152 Turbulent Flow and Boundary Layer Theory Hassan et al.

Fig. (5.1). Boundary Layer growth along flat plate [1].

No other solid surface is near, and the pressure of the fluid is assumed uniform. The
velocity gradient in a real fluid are therefore entirely due to viscose action near the
surface.

The thickness of the layer may be taken as that distance from the surface at which
the velocity reaches 99% of the velocity of the main stream.

The flow in the first part is entirely laminar, whether or not the main flow is laminar
with increasing thickness, however the laminar layer becomes unstable and the
motion within it become disturbed. These change take place over a short length
known as the transition zone. Downstream of the transition region the B.L. is almost
entirely turbulent and its thickness increase further.

At any distance x from the leading edge of the plate the boundary thickness is
very small compared with x.

In a turbulent layer there is more intermingling of fluid particles and therefore a

more nearly uniform velocity than in a laminar layer as in Fig. ((5.2).
Boundary Layer Turbulent Flow and Boundary Layer Theory 153

Laminar
Turbulent

Fig. (5.2). elocity determination.

The point at which a laminar B.L. becomes unstable depends on a number of

factors.

1. Roughness of surface

2. Reynolds number. where up to the

transition zone.

When P is not uniform

In general, B.L. be laminar over only a relative short distance from the leading edgy
and then it is often assumed with sufficient accuracy that the layer as turbulent over
its entire length.
154 Turbulent Flow and Boundary Layer Theory Hassan et al.

5.2. DEFINITIONS

B.L. thickness: The velocity within the B.L. increases to the velocity of the main
stream asymptotically, some arbitrary conversion must be adopted to define the
thickness of the layer.

One of these is the displacement thickness.

5.2.1. Displacement Thickness

The area under the velocity profile, Fig. (5.3)) (under the curve) is

Fig. (5.3). Displacement thickness.

a- For real fluid, the volume flow rate per unit depth

b- For ideal fluid, (inviscid flow ) the volume flow rate per unit depth
Boundary Layer Turbulent Flow and Boundary Layer Theory 155

(5.1)

5.2.2. Momentum Thickness

By the same manner

a- For real fluid

b- For ideal fluid

or

(5.2)

5.2.3. Kinetic Energy Factor

Also

(5.3)

5.2.4. Shape Factor

(5.4)

5.3. THE SEPARATION OF A B.L.

If we apply the momentum equation at the wall where

156 Turbulent Flow and Boundary Layer Theory Hassan et al.

we find that
(5.5)

That the wall curvature has the sign of the pressure gradient, whereas further out
the profile must have negative curvature when it merges with the free stream.
Profile curvature is an indicator of possible B.L. separation. There examples are
shown in the following Fig. (5.4). ). For negative (favorable) pressure gradient, the
curvature is negative throughout and no flow separation can occur for zero gradient
e.g. flat plate flow, the curvature is zero at the wall and negative further, out there
is no separation. For positive (adverse) gradient, the curvature changes sign and the
profile in s- shaped. The increasing downstream pressure slows down the wall flow
and can make it go backward flow separation.

Fig. (5.4). Geometric effects of pressure gradient [5]. (a) type of profile (b) persistence adverse
gradient.
Boundary Layer Turbulent Flow and Boundary Layer Theory 157

Fig. (5.4b) illustrates the separation process. A persistent adverse gradient

makes the profile more and more s-shaped, reducing the wall shear
to zero (the separation point) and then causing backflow, while the B.L. becomes
much thicker, laminar flows have poor resistance to adverse gradients and separate
easily. Turbulent B.L. can resist separation longer at the expense of increased wall
friction and heat transfer.

Also at a large distance from the wall

5.4. PRESSURE DRAG

When flow occurs past a surface which is not everywhere parallel to the main
stream, there is an additional drag force resulting from difference of pressure over
the surface. This force known as pressure drag. Which depends on the form of B.L.
[6].

The skin friction drag is the resultant of the tangential forces, while the pressure
drag is a resultant of a normal forces.

The sum of the skin and pressure drag is termed the profile drag.
Profile drag = skin friction drag + pressure drag.

Downstream of the separation position the flow is greatly disturbed by large scale
eddies and this regain of eddying motion is usually known as the wake.
As a result of the energy disputed by the highly turbulent motion in the wake, the
pressure reduced and the pressure drag increased.

Pressure drag depends on the size of the wake and position of separation (depends
on the body shape) as shown in Fig. ((5.5).
158 Turbulent Flow and Boundary Layer Theory Hassan et al.

Fig. (5.5). Flow past different types of bodies illustrating the pressure drag and the wake zone [5].

5.5. BOUNDARY LAYER THEORIES

5.5.1. Integral Momentum Equation of B.L.

To study the momentum equation for steady flow in a B.L. on a flat plate over
which there may be a variation of pressure in the direction of flow, we derived the
momentum integral relation for a fixed control volume over a flat plate boundary
layer [8]. In Fig. (5.6)) a control volume is taken enclosing the fluid above the plate
extending the distance x along the plate.
of the plate. The width is assumed large so that edge effects are negligible
and the flow 2D.

The B.L. thickness and its outer edge is represented by (BD).

Boundary Layer Turbulent Flow and Boundary Layer Theory 159

Fig. (5.6). Control volume applied to fluid flow over one side of a flat plate.

Let [Link] the point on AB produced which is on the same streamline as D.

No fluid crosses the streamline CD. Then ACDE is a control volume.

Then F = change in momentum.

(5.6)

1- left hand side of the above equation, let the pressure over the face AC to
have the main P

at the face ED the pressure is

For unit width the difference of pressure therefore produce on the

(5.7)

where is the mean value of pressure over the surface CD

Equation (5.6) reduce to

When and in magnitude then the expression above becomes

and
160 Turbulent Flow and Boundary Layer Theory Hassan et al.

Then the total force in x dir.

(5.8)

Where represent the shear term.

2- The right-hand side of eq. (5.7), through the elementary strip in the plan,
AB, distance AB, distance y from the surface.

Surface Momentum ( ) Direction

AB in flow

BC in flow

ED out flow

mass flow across BC = mass flow across ED mass flow across AB

(5.9)

From Table above

Boundary Layer Turbulent Flow and Boundary Layer Theory 161

(5.10)

Substituting eq. (5.9) in (5.10) for BC and rearrange eq. (5.10) we get

(5.11)

From eqs (5.8) and (5.11) we get

(5.12)

From Bernoulli eq.

(5.13)

Substituting eq

(5.14)

Where

(5.15)

Substituting eq. (5.15) in eq. (5.14) we get

162 Turbulent Flow and Boundary Layer Theory Hassan et al.

(5.16)

This equation is a general equation used in all the zone of B.L. (Laminar, Turbulent)
for open zone and flat plate the effect of pressure variation could be neglecting.

5.5.2. B.L. on Flat Plate

Assuming 1. Steady flow 2. 2 dim 3. 4.

Then eq. (5.16) becomes:

(5.17)

For dimensionless solution, the velocity distribution

let B.C.
Boundary Layer Turbulent Flow and Boundary Layer Theory 163

or

then eq. (5.16) becomes

(5.18)

(5.19)

[Link]. Laminar B.L.

In practical the laminar B.L. part is often so short that it may be neglected especially
at low values of Reynolds No.

For laminar flow the shear stress at the wall

(5.20)

Since

(5.21)

From eq. (5.19) and (5.20) we get

164 Turbulent Flow and Boundary Layer Theory Hassan et al.

(5.22)

(5.23)

(5.24)

When L: The length of the plate

Ex. For Prandtl law for laminar B.L.

per unit width

(5.25)

[Link]. Turbulent B.L.

Prandtl has suggested that

(5.26)
Boundary Layer Turbulent Flow and Boundary Layer Theory 165

since eq.

then using eq. of

and for Blasius formula friction factor in pipes

From all (5.27)

for any range of Reynolds No.

5.5.3. Simulation Solution for Steady 2D. Flow

The simplest example of the application of the B.L. equ's is afforded by a flow
along every thin flat plate [5], (Fig. 5.7).

Fig. (5.7).. Boundary layers on thin plate.

For steady flow with a free stream velocity The continuity equation and
momentum equations because:

(5.28)
166 Turbulent Flow and Boundary Layer Theory Hassan et al.

And

(5.29)

Where the free stream outside the B.L., where x is the coordinate parallel
to the wall, is related to by Bernoulli's theorem the incompressible flow.

(5.30)

Then

5.5.4. The BLASIUS Solution for Flat Plate Flow

If the displacement thickness is small losses is very small, then

constant and in eq.(5.29). Therefore, Blasius introduced a similarity
x and y into one
nondimensionalized in depend variable and solved for a nondimensionalized form
of the x component of velocity and local velocity profile [1,5].

Since from integral analysis

The appropriate dimensionless similarity variable should be

(5.31)
Boundary Layer Turbulent Flow and Boundary Layer Theory 167

The stream function of the flow, should increase as or

increases and the following nondimensional form:

(5.32)

Where is a function to be determinate. Note from the definition of stream

function:

(5.33)

(5.34)

substituting into the boundary layer momentum eq.(5.29) when we

get

(5.35)

The consideration manipulation useful student exercise.

Referring to eq.'s (5.33), (5.34) the no slip conditions

and the free stream merge conditions convert to

Equation (5.26) is the celebrated nonlinear Blasius equation for flat plate flow
168 Turbulent Flow and Boundary Layer Theory Hassan et al.

5.5.5. The Falkner Skan Wedge Flows (General Solution)

The most famous family of B.L. similarity solution was discovered by Falkner and
Skan and later calculated numerically by Hartree. The solution as we did with the
Blasius problem [1, 12].

Then

(5.36)

Where where the pressure term is not neglected i.e. using

eq.(5.29) without neglecting pressure team as done by Blasius eq.(5.30).

Using the above equations (relations) in eq. (5.29) in. x momentum equation may
be transformed to ordinary partial differential eq. of the form.

(5.37)

(5.37a and b)

From eq.s (5.37) we get

(5.38)

If integral eq. 5.38 we get

(5.39)
Boundary Layer Turbulent Flow and Boundary Layer Theory 169

Now subtracts both part of eq. (5.37) (a, b) we get

Or

Integrate both side

(5.40)

Eq.(5.40) could be in the form

(5.40a)

Now we eliminate between (5.39), (5.40) we get

170 Turbulent Flow and Boundary Layer Theory Hassan et al.

Or

(5.41)

The velocity profile of Falkner skan on any surface.

Also for

(5.42)

To find out the velocity profile as a fuction of

i.e. for and we get

(5.43)

Potential flow velocity, (Fig. 5.8).

For then
Boundary Layer Turbulent Flow and Boundary Layer Theory 171

Or

(5.44)

For sink flow or convergent chanal with flat wall

sink

Fig. (5.8). Potential flow velocity.

And source flow or divergent chanal with flat wall

Case of Steady

1) flat plate and eq.(10)

Falkner Blasius

2) arbitrary flow over a wedge

wedge

3) convergent channal
172 Turbulent Flow and Boundary Layer Theory Hassan et al.

4) stagnation point

wedge

wall
Some examples of Falkner skan potential flow, (Fig. 5.9).

sink

Expansion corner Wedge flow Point sink

Fig. (5.9). Potential flow examples.

5.5.6. Thwaites Method (Steady Flow)

Both laminar and turbulent theories can be developed from Kaman's general two
dimensional B.L. integral relation [1, 5].
Boundary Layer Turbulent Flow and Boundary Layer Theory 173

(5.45)

From the definations of B.L. thickness, momentum thickness and shap factor we
get

Eq.(5.46) could be integrated to determine if we correlated and with

momentum thickness.

This has been done by examining typical velocity profiles of laminer and turbulent
B.L. flows for various pressure gradients. From experimental shown that shape
factor a good indicator of pressure gradient. The higher shape factor stronger the
advarse gradient and spertions occurs approximate
approximately.

A simple and effective methods was developed by Thwaites who found that
eq.(5.46) can be rewriting and can be correlated by a single dimensionless
momentum thickness and shear stress

Then

(5.47)

Subsituting in eq.(5.47) we get

(5.48)
174 Turbulent Flow and Boundary Layer Theory Hassan et al.

Thwaites by using a straight line fit to his correlation was able to integrate
eq. (5.48). He assumed that

(5.49)

Thwaites procceded to collecte all avalible B.L. soluation from which he was able
to plots versus with approximation relation

Then substituat for in eq.(5.48)

eq.(5.48) and intagrate to get

Or

(5.50)

Where is the momentum thickness at (usually taken to be zero). Speration

was found to occure at a particular value of .

At seperation point
If is given, therefore is found. Finally, Thwaits correlated of the dimensionless
shear stress with and his graphed results can curve fit as follows:
Boundary Layer Turbulent Flow and Boundary Layer Theory 175

soluations

and .

Cebecci and Brand show fitted these functions and in the following eq.

Then the problem of thwaites becomes as

is given get

Then and can be calculated from above relations.

Then as we can get

The accuracy
acy of Thwaites method is about ± 5 percent for favorable or mild adverse
gradients but may be as much as ± 15 percent near the seperation point.
Nevertheless, since the method is an average of many exact solutions, it can be
regarded as a best avaliable one parameter method. If more accuracy is desired
the finite difference computer method of is recommended.