48 Chapter 2 Fundamental Concepts

passes through the initial point (x0, y0) 5 (1, 1), during the and streakline through point (2, 1) and compare with the
interval from t 5 0 to t 5 3 s. Compare with the streamline streamlines through the same point at the instants t 5 0, 1,
plotted through the same point at the instants t 5 0, 1, and and 2 s.
2 s.
2.30 Consider the flow field V~ ¼ axti^þ bj,^ where a 5 1/4 s22 Viscosity
and b 5 1/3 m/s. Coordinates are measured in meters. For the 2.37 The variation with temperature of the viscosity of air is
particle that passes through the point (x, y) 5 (1, 2) at represented well by the empirical Sutherland correlation
the instant t 5 0, plot the pathline during the time interval
bT 1=2
from t 5 0 to 3 s. Compare this pathline with the streakline μ¼
through the same point at the instant t 5 3 s. 1 þ S=T
2.31 A flow is described by velocity field V~ 5 ay2 i^1 bj,^ Best-fit values of b and S are given in Appendix A. Develop
where a 5 1 m21s21 and b 5 2 m/s. Coordinates are mea- an equation in SI units for kinematic viscosity versus tem-
sured in meters. Obtain the equation for the streamline perature for air at atmospheric pressure. Assume ideal gas
passing through point (6, 6). At t 5 1 s, what are the coor- behavior. Check by using the equation to compute the
dinates of the particle that passed through point (1, 4) at kinematic viscosity of air at 0
C and at 100
C and comparing
t 5 0? At t 5 3 s, what are the coordinates of the particle that to the data in Appendix 10 (Table A.10); plot the kinematic
passed through point (23, 0) 2 s earlier? Show that pathlines, viscosity for a temperature range of 0
C to 100
C, using the
streamlines, and streaklines for this flow coincide. equation and the data in Table A.10.
2.32 Tiny hydrogen bubbles are being used as tracers to 2.38 The variation with temperature of the viscosity of air is
visualize a flow. All the bubbles are generated at the origin correlated well by the empirical Sutherland equation
(x 5 0, y 5 0). The velocity field is unsteady and obeys the bT 1=2
equations: μ5
1 1 S=T
u 5 1 m=s v 5 2 m=s 0#t,2s
Best-fit values of b and S are given in Appendix A for use
u50 v 5 21 m=s 0# t # 4 s
with SI units. Use these values to develop an equation for
Plot the pathlines of bubbles that leave the origin at t 5 0, 1, calculating air viscosity in British Gravitational units as a
2, 3, and 4 s. Mark the locations of these five bubbles at t 5 4 function of absolute temperature in degrees Rankine. Check
s. Use a dashed line to indicate the position of a streakline at your result using data from Appendix A.
t 5 4 s. 2.39 Some experimental data for the viscosity of helium at
2.33 A flow is described by velocity field V~ ¼ axi^þ bj,^ where 1 atm are
a 5 1/5 s21 and b 5 1 m/s. Coordinates are measured in
meters. Obtain the equation for the streamline passing T,
C 0 100 200 300 400
through point (1, 1). At t 5 5 s, what are the coordinates of μ, N  s/m2(3 105) 1.86 2.31 2.72 3.11 3.46
the particle that initially (at t 5 0) passed through point
(1, 1)? What are its coordinates at t 5 10 s? Plot the Using the approach described in Appendix A.3, correlate
streamline and the initial, 5 s, and 10 s positions of the par- these data to the empirical Sutherland equation
ticle. What conclusions can you draw about the pathline,
bT 1=2
streamline, and streakline for this flow? μ5
1 1 S=T
2.34 A flow is described by velocity field V~ 5 ai^1 bxj,^ where
a 5 2 m/s and b 5 1 s21. Coordinates are measured in meters. (where T is in kelvin) and obtain values for constants b and S.
Obtain the equation for the streamline passing through point 2.40 The velocity distribution for laminar flow between
(2, 5). At t 5 2 s, what are the coordinates of the particle that parallel plates is given by
passed through point (0, 4) at t 5 0? At t 5 3 s, what are the 
u 2y 2
coordinates of the particle that passed through point (1, 4.25) 5 12
2 s earlier? What conclusions can you draw about the path- umax h
line, streamline, and streakline for this flow? where h is the distance separating the plates and the origin is
2.35 A flow is described by velocity field V~ ¼ ayi^þ btj,^ placed midway between the plates. Consider a flow of water
where a 5 0.2 s21 and b 5 0.4 m/s2. At t 5 2 s, what are the at 15
C, with umax 5 0.10 m/s and h 5 0.1 mm. Calculate the
coordinates of the particle that passed through point (1, 2) at shear stress on the upper plate and give its direction. Sketch
t 5 0? At t 5 3 s, what are the coordinates of the particle that the variation of shear stress across the channel.
passed through point (1, 2) at t 5 2 s? Plot the pathline and 2.41 The velocity distribution for laminar flow between
streakline through point (1, 2), and plot the streamlines parallel plates is given by
through the same point at the instants t 5 0, 1, 2, and 3 s. 
u 2y 2
2.36 A flow is described by velocity field V~ 5 ati^1 bj,^ umax
5 12
h
where a 5 0.4 m/s2 and b 5 2 m/s. At t 5 2 s, what are the
coordinates of the particle that passed through point (2, 1) where h is the distance separating the plates and the origin is
at t 5 0? At t 5 3 s, what are the coordinates of the particle placed midway between the plates. Consider a flow of water
that passed through point (2, 1) at t 5 2 s? Plot the pathline at 15
C with maximum speed of 0.05 m/s and h 5 0.1 mm.
 Problems 49

Calculate the force on a 1 m2 section of the lower plate and Cut to set
in motion
give its direction.
2.42 Explain how an ice skate interacts with the ice surface. r
What mechanism acts to reduce sliding friction between Piston
skate and ice? x
2.43 Crude oil, with specific gravity SG 5 0.85 and viscosity Oil film
μ 5 2.15 3 1023 lbf  s/ft2, flows steadily down a surface
Tube
inclined θ 5 45 degrees below the horizontal in a film of
thickness h 5 0.1 in. The velocity profile is given by

ρg y2 m V
u5 hy 2 sin θ
μ 2
P2.48, P2.49
(Coordinate x is along the surface and y is normal to the
surface.) Plot the velocity profile. Determine the magnitude
and direction of the shear stress that acts on the surface. piston speed vs. time. How long does it take the piston to
come within 1 percent of its new terminal speed?
2.44 A female freestyle ice skater, weighing 100 lbf, glides on
one skate at speed V 5 20 ft/s. Her weight is supported by a 2.50 A block of mass M slides on a thin film of oil. The film
thin film of liquid water melted from the ice by the pressure thickness is h and the area of the block is A. When released,
of the skate blade. Assume the blade is L 5 11.5 in. long and mass m exerts tension on the cord, causing the block to
w 5 0.125 in. wide, and that the water film is h 5 0.0000575 in. accelerate. Neglect friction in the pulley and air resistance.
thick. Estimate the deceleration of the skater that results Develop an algebraic expression for the viscous force that acts
from viscous shear in the water film, if end effects are on the block when it moves at speed V. Derive a differential
neglected. equation for the block speed as a function of time. Obtain an
expression for the block speed as a function of time. The mass
2.45 A block weighing 10 lbf and having dimensions 10 in. on M 5 5 kg, m 5 1 kg, A 5 25 cm2, and h 5 0.5 mm. If it takes 1 s
each edge is pulled up an inclined surface on which there is a for the speed to reach 1 m/s, find the oil viscosity μ. Plot the
film of SAE 10W oil at 100
F. If the speed of the block is 2 ft/s curve for V(t).
and the oil film is 0.001 in. thick, find the force required to pull
the block. Assume the velocity distribution in the oil film is Block
linear. The surface is inclined at an angle of 25
from the V
horizontal. M
Cord
2.46 A block of mass 10 kg and measuring 250 mm on each
edge is pulled up an inclined surface on which there is a film h Oil film
of SAE 10W-30 oil at 30
F (the oil film is 0.025 mm thick). (viscosity, μ )
Find the steady speed of the block if it is released. If a force g
of 75 N is applied to pull the block up the incline, find the Mass m
steady speed of the block. If the force is now applied to push
the block down the incline, find the steady speed of the P2.50
block. Assume the velocity distribution in the oil film is 2.51 A block 0.1 m square, with 5 kg mass, slides down a
linear. The surface is inclined at an angle of 30
from the smooth incline, 30
below the horizontal, on a film of SAE 30
horizontal. oil at 20
C that is 0.20 mm thick. If the block is released from
2.47 Tape is to be coated on both sides with glue by drawing rest at t 5 0, what is its initial acceleration? Derive an
it through a narrow gap. The tape is 0.015 in. thick and 1.00 expression for the speed of the block as a function of time.
in. wide. It is centered in the gap with a clearance of 0.012 in. Plot the curve for V(t). Find the speed after 0.1 s. If we want
on each side. The glue, of viscosity μ 5 0.02 slug/(ft  s), the mass to instead reach a speed of 0.3 m/s at this time,
completely fills the space between the tape and gap. If the find the viscosity μ of the oil we would have to use.
tape can withstand a maximum tensile force of 25 lbf, 2.52 A block that is a mm square slides across a flat plate on
determine the maximum gap region through which it can be a thin film of oil. The oil has viscosity μ and the film is h mm
pulled at a speed of 3 ft/s. thick. The block of mass M moves at steady speed U under
2.48 A 73-mm-diameter aluminum (SG 5 2.64) piston of 100- the influence of constant force F. Indicate the magnitude and
mm length resides in a stationary 75-mm-inner-diameter steel direction of the shear stresses on the bottom of the block
tube lined with SAE 10W-30 oil at 25
C. A mass m 5 2 kg and the plate. If the force is removed suddenly and the block
is suspended from the free end of the piston. The piston is begins to slow, sketch the resulting speed versus time curve
set into motion by cutting a support cord. What is the for the block. Obtain an expression for the time required for
terminal velocity of mass m? Assume a linear velocity the block to lose 95 percent of its initial speed.
profile within the oil. 2.53 Magnet wire is to be coated with varnish for insulation
2.49 The piston in Problem 2.48 is traveling at terminal by drawing it through a circular die of 1.0 mm diameter. The
speed. The mass m now disconnects from the piston. Plot the wire diameter is 0.9 mm and it is centered in the die.
50 Chapter 2 Fundamental Concepts

The varnish (μ 5 20 centipoise) completely fills the The thicknesses are h1 5 0.5 mm and h2 5 0.3 mm, respectively.
space between the wire and the die for a length of 50 mm. Find the force F to make the upper plate move at a speed of
The wire is drawn through the die at a speed of 50 m/s. 1 m/s. What is the fluid velocity at the interface between the two
Determine the force required to pull the wire. fluids?
2.54 In a food-processing plant, honey is pumped through an 2.57 Fluids of viscosities μ1 5 0.15 N  s/m2, μ2 5 0.5 N  s/m2,
annular tube. The tube is L 5 2 m long, with inner and outer and μ3 5 0.2 N  s/m2 are contained between two plates
radii of Ri 5 5 mm and Ro 5 25 mm, respectively. The (each plate is 1 m2 in area). The thicknesses are h1 5 0.5 mm,
applied pressure difference is Δp 5 125 kPa, and the honey h2 5 0.25 mm, and h3 5 0.2 mm, respectively. Find the steady
viscosity is μ 5 5 N  s/m2. The theoretical velocity profile for speed V of the upper plate and the velocities at the two inter-
laminar flow through an annulus is: faces due to a force F 5 100 N. Plot the velocity distribution.
2 3
  F,V
1 Δp 6 6R2 2 r2 2 Ro 2 Ri  ln r 7
2 2 7
uz ðrÞ ¼ µ3
4μ L 4 i Ri Ri 5 h3
ln
Ro µ2
h2
Show that the no-slip condition is satisfied by this expression.
Find the location at which the shear stress is zero. Find the
viscous forces acting on the inner and outer surfaces, and µ1 h1
compare these to the force ΔpπðR2o 2 R2i Þ. Explain.

P2.57
Honey
Ro
Ri 2.58 A concentric cylinder viscometer may be formed by
z rotating the inner member of a pair of closely fitting cylin-
ders. The annular gap is small so that a linear velocity profile
will exist in the liquid sample. Consider a viscometer with an
Honey inner cylinder of 4 in. diameter and 8 in. height, and a
clearance gap width of 0.001 in., filled with castor oil at 90
F.
Determine the torque required to turn the inner cylinder at
P2.54 400 rpm.
2.55 SAE 10W-30 oil at 100
C is pumped through a tube L 5 r Cord
Pulley
10 m long, diameter D 5 20 mm. The applied pressure differ-
ence is Δp 5 5 kPa. On the centerline of the tube is a metal
a
filament of diameter d 5 1 μm. The theoretical velocity profile
for laminar flow through the tube is: ω
2 3
  M
1 Δp 6 6d2 2 4r2 2 D 2 d  ln 2r 7
2 2 7
VðrÞ ¼ 4 R
16μ L d d 5 H
Vm
ln
D
Show that the no-slip condition is satisfied by this expression.
Find the location at which the shear stress is zero, and the
stress on the tube and on the filament. Plot the velocity
distribution and the stress distribution. (For the stress curve, P2.58, P2.59, P2.60, P2.61
set an upper limit on stress of 5 Pa.) Discuss the results. 2.59 A concentric cylinder viscometer may be formed by
2.56 Fluids of viscosities μ1 5 0.1 N  s/m2 and μ2 5 0.15 N  s/m2 rotating the inner member of a pair of closely fitting cylin-
are contained between two plates (each plate is 1 m2 in area). ders. For small clearances, a linear velocity profile may
be assumed in the liquid filling the annular clearance gap.
F, V A viscometer has an inner cylinder of 75 mm diameter and
150 mm height, with a clearance gap width of 0.02 mm.
µ2 h2 A torque of 0.021 N  m is required to turn the inner cylinder
at 100 rpm. Determine the viscosity of the liquid in the
clearance gap of the viscometer.
h1 2.60 A concentric cylinder viscometer is driven by a falling
µ1
mass M connected by a cord and pulley to the inner cylinder,
as shown. The liquid to be tested fills the annular gap of width
a and height H. After a brief starting transient, the mass falls
P2.56 at constant speed Vm. Develop an algebraic expression for
 Problems 51

the viscosity of the liquid in the device in terms of M, g, Vm, r, 2.65 A circular aluminum shaft mounted in a journal is
R, a, and H. Evaluate the viscosity of the liquid using: shown. The symmetric clearance gap between the shaft and
journal is filled with SAE 10W-30 oil at T 5 30
C. The shaft
M 5 0:10 kg r 5 25 mm is caused to turn by the attached mass and cord. Develop and
R 5 50 mm a 5 0:20 mm solve a differential equation for the angular speed of the
H 5 80 mm Vm 5 30 mm=s
shaft as a function of time. Calculate the maximum angular
2.61 The viscometer of Problem 2.60 is being used to verify that speed of the shaft and the time required to reach 95 percent
the viscosity of a particular fluid is μ 5 0.1 N  s/m2. Unfortu- of this speed.
nately the cord snaps during the experiment. How long will it Clearance,
take the cylinder to lose 99% of its speed? The moment of a = 0.5 mm
inertia of the cylinder/pulley system is 0.0273 kg  m2.
g
2.62 A shaft with outside diameter of 18 mm turns at R = 25 mm
20 revolutions per second inside a stationary journal bearing
60 mm long. A thin film of oil 0.2 mm thick fills the con- L = 50 mm
centric annulus between the shaft and journal. The torque 1.5 L
needed to turn the shaft is 0.0036 N  m. Estimate the vis-
cosity of the oil that fills the gap. M = 10 g
M
2.63 The thin outer cylinder (mass m2 and radius R) of a
small portable concentric cylinder viscometer is driven by P2.65
a falling mass, m1, attached to a cord. The inner cylinder is
stationary. The clearance between the cylinders is a. Neglect 2.66 A proposal has been made to use a pair of parallel disks
bearing friction, air resistance, and the mass of liquid in the to measure the viscosity of a liquid sample. The upper disk
viscometer. Obtain an algebraic expression for the torque due rotates at height h above the lower disk. The viscosity of the
to viscous shear that acts on the cylinder at angular speed ω. liquid in the gap is to be calculated from measurements of
Derive and solve a differential equation for the angular speed the torque needed to turn the upper disk steadily. Obtain an
of the outer cylinder as a function of time. Obtain an expres- algebraic expression for the torque needed to turn the disk.
sion for the maximum angular speed of the cylinder. Could we use this device to measure the viscosity of a non-
Newtonian fluid? Explain.
ω

a ω

h
h
z
r

P2.66
m1
2.67 The cone and plate viscometer shown is an instrument
used frequently to characterize non-Newtonian fluids. It
P2.63
consists of a flat plate and a rotating cone with a very obtuse
2.64 A shock-free coupling for a low-power mechanical drive is angle (typically θ is less than 0.5 degrees). The apex of the
to be made from a pair of concentric cylinders. The annular cone just touches the plate surface and the liquid to be tested
space between the cylinders is to be filled with oil. The drive fills the narrow gap formed by the cone and plate. Derive an
must transmit power, 3 5 10 W. Other dimensions and prop- expression for the shear rate in the liquid that fills the gap in
erties are as shown. Neglect any bearing friction and end effects. terms of the geometry of the system. Evaluate the torque on
Assume the minimum practical gap clearance δ for the device is the driven cone in terms of the shear stress and geometry of
δ 5 0.25 mm. Dow manufactures silicone fluids with viscosities the system.
as high as 106 centipoise. Determine the viscosity that should be
specified to satisfy the requirement for this device.
ᏼ = 10 W
L = 20 mm
ω

R = 10 mm ω2 ≥ 9,000 rpm R

ω 1 = 10,000 rpm
(outer cylinder) θ

Sample
δ = Gap clearance
P2.64 P2.67, P2.68
52 Chapter 2 Fundamental Concepts

2.68 The viscometer of Problem 2.67 is used to measure the cylinder. Additional viscous torque is produced by the flat
apparent viscosity of a fluid. The data below are obtained. bottom of the inner cylinder as it rotates above the flat
What kind of non-Newtonian fluid is this? Find the values of bottom of the stationary outer cylinder. Obtain an algebraic
k and n used in Eqs. 2.16 and 2.17 in defining the apparent expression for the viscous torque due to flow in the annular
viscosity of a fluid. (Assume θ is 0.5 degrees.) Predict gap of width a. Obtain an algebraic expression for the viscous
the viscosity at 90 and 100 rpm. torque due to flow in the bottom clearance gap of height b.
Prepare a plot showing the ratio, b/a, required to hold the
Speed (rpm) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 bottom torque to 1 percent or less of the annulus torque,
μ (N  s/m2) 0.121 0.139 0.153 0.159 0.172 0.172 0.183 0.185 versus the other geometric variables. What are the design
implications? What modifications to the design can you
2.69 An insulation company is examining a new material for recommend?
extruding into cavities. The experimental data is given below 2.73 A viscometer is built from a conical pointed shaft that
for the speed U of the upper plate, which is separated from a turns in a conical bearing, as shown. The gap between shaft
fixed lower plate by a 1-mm-thick sample of the material, and bearing is filled with a sample of the test oil. Obtain an
when a given shear stress is applied. Determine the type of algebraic expression for the viscosity μ of the oil as a func-
material. If a replacement material with a minimum yield tion of viscometer geometry (H, a, and θ), turning speed ω,
stress of 250 Pa is needed, what viscosity will the material and applied torque T. For the data given, find by referring to
need to have the same behavior as the current material at a Figure A.2 in Appendix A, the type of oil for which the
shear stress of 450 Pa? applied torque is 0.325 N  m. The oil is at 20
C. Hint: First
obtain an expression for the shear stress on the surface of the
τ (Pa) 50 100 150 163 171 170 202 246 349 444 conical shaft as a function of z.
U (m/s) 0 0 0 0.005 0.01 0.025 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.3
a = 0.2 mm
2.70 A viscometer is used to measure the viscosity of a ω = 75 rev/s
patient’s blood. The deformation rate (shear rate)shear
stress data is shown below. Plot the apparent viscosity versus
deformation rate. Find the value of k and n in Eq. 2.17, and
from this examine the aphorism “Blood is thicker than θ = 30°
H = 25 mm
water.” z

du/dy (s21) 5 10 25 50 100 200 300 400 r

τ (Pa) 0.0457 0.119 0.241 0.375 0.634 1.06 1.46 1.78
P2.73
2.71 A viscous clutch is to be made from a pair of closely
spaced parallel disks enclosing a thin layer of viscous liquid. 2.74 Design a concentric-cylinder viscometer to measure the
Develop algebraic expressions for the torque and the power viscosity of a liquid similar to water. The goal is to achieve a
transmitted by the disk pair, in terms of liquid viscosity, μ, measurement accuracy of 61 percent. Specify the config-
disk radius, R, disk spacing, a, and the angular speeds: ωi of uration and dimensions of the viscometer. Indicate what
the input disk and ωo of the output disk. Also develop measured parameter will be used to infer the viscosity of the
expressions for the slip ratio, s 5 Δω/ωi, in terms of ωi and liquid sample.
the torque transmitted. Determine the efficiency, η, in terms 2.75 A spherical thrust bearing is shown. The gap between
of the slip ratio. the spherical member and the housing is of constant width h.
Obtain and plot an algebraic expression for the nondimen-
sional torque on the spherical member, as a function of
ω angle α.
R

ω
H R a
ωi ωo
h
b R

a θ
α
P2.71 P2.72 Oil film (viscosity, μ )
2.72 A concentric-cylinder viscometer is shown. Viscous
torque is produced by the annular gap around the inner P2.75