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ANIMAL BREEDING AND GENETICS

By: Ma. Luz L. Soriano

Historical development of Animal Breeding and Genetics

 Before the acceptance and rediscovery of Gregor Johann Mendel’s work, everyone believed that
the characteristics of the offsprings is due to the blending of the parents’ blood. Mendel did his
work on pea plant in 1865 but this was not recognized so it just gathered dust in the shelves.
 1901, De Vries, Correns and Von Tschermark independently rediscovered Mendel’s work after
which this was accepted by the scientific community.
 1906, Bateson (English naturalist) studied the plumage characteristics of chickens.
 1909, Johannsen (Dutch biologist) coined the word “gene” referring to the particulate matter which
Mendel used in his treatise.
 1956, Watson and Crick discovered that the DNA has a double helix structure and that there is
such a thing as a genetic code in the DNA.

Genes and Their Role in Animal Productivity

Genes and Their Functions:

The gene is the biological unit of inheritance and it is through this that the parents are able to transmit
their characteristics to their offsprings. The biological nature and function of the gene however was
hypothesized by James Watson and Francis Crick (1956) which is now universally accepted.

The gene is a segment of the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) which determines the base sequence of
the nucleotides in the messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) that makes up the code for certain biological
functions.

The DNA is a biochemical compound consisting of a chain of nucleotides called polynucleotides.

Each nucleotide consist of a phosphate (P), a sugar (S) and a Base (B). The coding system of the gene is
based on the arrangement of the four bases: Guanine (G), Adenine (A), Thymine (T) and Cytosine (C).

DNA RNA
Contains A,G,C and T Contains A,C,G and U (uracil)
Contains deoxyribose Contains ribose
Double strand Single strand
Store genetic information Expression of genetic information

Functions of Genes
 Store and transmit genetic information from cell to cell and from parent to offspring
 Copy and replicate itself with great consistency and precision
 Undergo mutation or error in copying of the genetic code which would be subsequently copied and
replicated.
The manner by which the genetic information is transmitted from cell to cell is through mitosis
(multiplicative cell division) while from parent to offspring is made possible through the
reduction cell division (meiosis) in the germinal cells (gametes) and the subsequent union of
the haploid sperm and egg cells during fertilization.

The consistency in copying the genes during mitosis is made possible by the gene structure itself.
The DNA segment consist of two strands of the chain of bases. These 2 strands are linked together at each
other at the base so that it forms a twisted ladder or helical shape (double helix). The nature of the gene is
such that each base in one strand can only pair with a specific base
 Adenine (A) is always opposite to Thymine (T) forming an A-T base pair
 Guanine (G) opposite cytosine (C) - forming a G-C base pair.

Errors/mutation may happen in the copying of genes although occurs very rarely . If mutation occurs in
the somatic cells then it will be transmitted from cell to cell. However, if it occurs in the germinal cells, it may
be transmitted to the next generation.

The genetic information that is stored must be such that it can be decoded and translated into action in
the developing individual.

Protein is a basic nutrient of growth, maintenance and reproduction of all organisms. The orderly
synthesis of proteins in the body is made possible by genes. Genes provide the code for the synthesis of
proteins thru the process of transcription and translation involving the ribonucleic acid (RNA) and the
ribosome in the cells In the nucleus, the RNA transcribes the sequence of the bases in the DNA and then

carries the information to the cytoplasm in the cells. The ribosomes attached to the mRNA and read
the message according to 3 bases at a time. Each string of 3 bases codes for a certain amino acid. As each
string of 3 bases is read, the corresponding free amino acid in the cytoplasm is picked and assembled into a
string. When enough of the specific amino acids are in the string now, it forms a protein molecule.

Phenotypes, Genotypes
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Genotype refers to the specific combination of genes associated with particular characteristics of
the individual, this is otherwise known as the genetic material. The expression of the genotype however
depend greatly on the environment such that in favorable environments, the genetic material will be
expressed but if otherwise, then it will not manifest in the individual’s phenotype.
The phenotype is the manifestation of the genotype with the environment as another factor that
determines whether the phenotype is a true reflection of the genetic make up. As always we look back to
the equation:

P = G + E where: P = phenotype, G = genotype, E = Environment.

Gene Action and Types

 Additive – The addition of one gene to the allele results to a different phenotype as in the Skin Color
theory of Davenport (AABB = black, aabb = white, AaBb= mulatto)
 Non – Additive – there are two subtypes of this gene action and these are:
Epistasis – the masking on a gene in one locus by another gene in another locus, this is non
predictable
Dominance – complete dominance (polled-horned character in cattle), co dominance/incomplete
dominance (red-white-roan coat color of Shorthorn breed of cattle) and over dominance (antigen
production of rats)

Mechanism of Inheritance

The flow of genetic material from generation to generation is made possible by reproduction which in
animals, involves two processes which are:

 Gametogenesis – process of producing the gametes (spermatogenesis in male, oogenesis in the

female)
 Fertilization – process of the union of the sperm and the egg cells at the fallopian tube. The
resulting zygote carrying half of the characteristics of both the dam and the sire will eventually
develop into an embryo and implant at the uterine wall to develop into a fetus.

Mendelian Inheritance and Probability

Mendel’s work was with pea plants specifically on the seed coat characteristics ( rough and smooth
seed coats) Using parent pea plants with rough and smooth seed coats however yielded offsprings,
some of which have wrinkled seed coat aside from the rough and smooth ones. Mendel then theorized
that there are particulate matters from the parents that are passed on to its offspring. From this work,
Mendel also developed two laws which are:
 Law of Independent Segregation – characters are determined by particulate matters and that
these occur in pairs. In the formation of gametes, these are segregated randomly so that only
one pair is transmitted by a particular gamete.
 Law of Independent Recombination – The paired particulate matters will recombine
independently and randomly to compose the genetic character of an individual.
One of the most important implications of Mendel’s finding is that the process of segregation and
recombination of genes is governed purely by chance and that the occurrence of each new combination
may be predicted according to the rules of probability.

Non Mendelian Inheritance

There are inheritances that do not follow the Mendelian laws and these are the following:
 Sex Linkage (Sex linked traits): Generally sex linked traits are carried in the sex chromosomes.
There are autosomes (body chromosomes) and a pair of sex chromosomes in animal which makes
up the totality of its diploid chromosome number of a species.
For mammals, the XX sex chromosomes are with the females and the XY is with the males. In
birds or avian species however, it is the male which has the homogametic sex chromosome that is
ZZ while the female carries the ZW. The Y and the W chromosomes are smaller in size than the X

and the Z chromosomes thus genes carried in the X and Z chromosomes that are recessive will be
manifested in the individual which has inherited that character. An example of a sex-linked
character is hemophilia which is normally manifested in the phenotype of male persons.

 Autosomal linkage : Chromosomes are occupied by genes in specific

locus(loci). With autosomal linkage, there is a greater chance of genes that are occupying nearby
locus to be inherited together than those that are located farther. This particularly happens during
the prophase stage of meiosis where the chromosomes double and segments of homologous
chromosomes cross over and exchange segments.

 Non-nuclear Inheritance: This is more commonly seen in plants where chlorophyll-bearing plants
are carried in the cytoplasm. In animals, this is a very rare occurrence although there are some
evidences that cytoplasmic genetic material affecting milk production may be present in cattle.
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Females therefore have a larger role than males in influencing the characteristics of the offspring
since the sperm cell has very little cytoplasmic material.

 Maternal Influence: Other than the genetic material in the chromosomes and the possibility that
there may be genetic material in the cytoplasm, the mother could further influence the
characteristics of her offspring because of the maternal care she provided to her young. An
example is that of the incidence of mammary cancer in the progenies of white mice.

Maternal effects forms part of the total environment of the individual and should not be mistaken as
genetics.

Genes in Populations

Population is a group of individuals which share a common gene pool. Gene and genotypic
frequencies quantify the genes and the genotypes in the population. If we have genes A and a
representing an allele in a population, this population may be characterized as follows:

Genotype Gene
f (AA) = PP f(A) = P
f (Aa) = 2 Pq f(a) = q
f (aa) = qq
PP + 2Pq +qq = 1 P+q = 1

The discussions above are derived from the basic law of population genetics which is otherwise
known as the Hardy-Weinberg Law of Equilibrium. This law although jointly proposed for by Hardy
(English) and Weinberg (German) in 1908, both of them were mathematicians.

The Hardy-Weinberg law states that in a large random mating population where selection,
migration, mutation and random genetic drift do not operate,
a.) the gene and the genotypic frequencies remain constant from one generation to the
next, and
b.) The genotypic frequency is derived from the gene frequency.

Forces That Change Gene Frequency

 Selection – is a process of preferring individual(s) over others in the herd for a certain purpose.
There are 2 types of selection which are natural (reproductive abnormalities) and artificial ( man’s
intervention). Selection generally increase the frequency of the desired genes.
 Migration – the transfer of individual(s) from one population to another. The difference in the
genetic composition of the natives to that of the migrants and their proportion will determine the
rate of change of the gene and genotypic frequencies after migration.
 Mutation – is an error in the copying of the genetic code. The importance of mutation in changing
gene frequency is that this is the only source of new gene. Rate of occurrence of mutation
however is low.
 Random genetic drift – the weakest force to change gene frequency. It operates best with smaller
population and low gene frequencies.

Non-Random Mating: occurs when some individuals do not have the same chances of mating with other
individuals of the opposite sex. Forms of non-random mating are:
 Assortative – individuals which are phenotypically similar tend to mate more often
 Disassortative- mating of individuals which are phenotypically less similar.

Animal Breeding

This is the art and science of genetic improvement of animals . The objectives of animal breeding are:
 To improve the quantity of production of farm animals and their product per unit time.
 To improve the efficiency of production and their products.
 To improve the quality of farm animals and their products, and
 To improve the aesthetic value of farm animals and its products.

Selection – The process of preferring some individuals over the rest of the population.

Basis of selection
 Individual’s phenotype: the individual’s performance is the only basis in selecting the animal.
 Pedigree : this is a record of the ancestor’s performance.
 Progeny testing: a parent will be selected based on the performance of its offsprings. This also
establishes the breeding value of animals.
 Collateral relatives are those aside from the parents. These are the uncles, aunties, cousins..

Methods of Selection
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 Tandem method – considers one trait at a time

 Independent Culling method – two traits at a time
 Selection Index – evaluates the totality of an animal through the use of a score card.

Systems of Breeding or Mating

 Outbreeding – mating of animals that are less closely related to one another. Subsystems of
outbreeding includes:

Crossbreeding : the mating of individuals from different breeds i.e. Brahman x Holstein Friesian

Outcrossing – The mating of two individuals form the same breed but are not related ex. Landrace
A x Landrace B ; both have no common parent.

Upgrading – the mating between a native (mongrel) and a purebred or a grade i.e. Phil Native
carabao x Murrah Buffalo

Hybridization- Inter specific mating i.e. Horse x Donkey = Mule/Ass

 The general effect of outbreeding is to increase the heterozygosity of a population. In doing

so, there is an observed increase in the performance of the offspring to that of its parents
(heterosis/hybrid vigor)

 Inbreeding – The mating of individuals that are closely related to each other (up to the third
degree). Subsystems under inbreeding are:

Closebreeding : mating between a parent and its offspring like father x daughter; mother x son

Linebreeding : the mating among the family line like uncle x niece; auntie x nephew, cousin x
cousin

 Prepotency is the phemonenon where the offsprings perform similarly to that of the parents. This
is readily seen in inbred animals. Generally, inbreeding increases the homozygosity of the genes in
a population. In doing so, there will be recessive genes which will be expressed in the phenotype
of an individual.

Reproductive Biotechnology

Different species of farm animals have different cycles and rates of reproduction. Modern day
breeds of chickens could produce as much as 200 to 250 chicks per year as compared to cattle with only
about one calf per cow in two years time. Poultry species could lay eggs almost everyday in all months of
the year whether it is fertile or not. Fertile eggs could then be hatched in multiple depending on the capacity
of the incubators. Cattle on the other hand as well as mammals shed eggs only once in every three weeks
and when the egg is fertilized, embryonic development happens in the uterus for several months until
parturition. Table 1 below gives us an idea on reproduction specifics for some of the species.

Table 1. Frequency of ovulation ,length of embryonic development

And expected number of progeny/year/female in various farm
Animals
Species Estrus cycle (days) Incubation/Pregnancy Expected number of
(days) young per year
Quail 16-19 100-300
Pigeon 17 10-20
Chicken 21 50-300
Mallard Duck 28 50-100
Turkey 28 50-100
Geese 30 20-50
Muscovy duck 36 50-100
Rabbit 15-20 32 10-30
Swine 18-24 114 10-25
Sheep 17 147 1-3
goat 20-21 148 2.5
cattle 21 280 0.5
Water buffalo 22-24 316 0.5

Because of the lower rates of reproduction in some animals, reproductive biotechnologies were brought
forth in an effort to increase the number of young born and these are:
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Artificial Insemination (AI) – This is a process that extends the usefulness of the male in the species by
extending the collected semen and introducing into the female tract artificially using an AI gun. Instead of
one ejaculate servicing one female, it could instead as much as 100 cows if we talk about cattle.

Multiple Ovulation and Embryo Transfer (MOET) - This biotechnology extends the usefulness of the
female. There will be donor and recipient females both of them are synchronized (estrus) simultaneously.
The donor female will be the source of matured egg cells that will be fertilized in vitro and implanted into the
uterus of the recipients.

Sperm Cell sexing and In vitro Fertilization - Sperm cells are sexed in the lab (whether carrying the X or
the Y) chromosome and eventually used to fertilized the collected matured egg cell which if fertilized and
develops as an embryo, will be implanted in females of the species.

Nuclear Cloning – This process exploits the continuous splitting of embryos like that of twins

Table 2. Chromosome numbers in selected animals

Common/Scientific name Diploid Number (2n) Haploid Number (n)
Man (Homo sapiens) 46 23
Horse (Equus caballus) 64 38
Ass (Equus astrus) 62 36
European cattle (Bos taurus) 60 30
American bison (Bison bison) 60 30

Water buffalo (Bubalus 50 25

bubalis),riverine
Water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis), 48 24
swamp
Reindeer (Cervus cervus) 70 35
Sheep (Ovis aries) 54 28
Goat (Capra hircus) 60 30
Swine (Sus domesticus) 38 19
Dog(Canis familiaris) 78 39
Cat (Felis catus) 38 19
Rabbit 44 22
Mouse 40 20
Rat 42 21

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