1

Certificate of Completion
This is to certify that Raman kumar, a student of Class XII,
has successfully completed the Physics Project for the
academic year 2025-26
The project titled Capacitors and their uses is projected
totally following the ISC syllabus. The student has
demonstrated commendable effort, research, and literary
understanding throughout the project.
This work has been submitted in partial fulfilment of the
English coursework requirements under the guidance of [Mr.
Avinash Singh] at [Saint Theresa’s College].

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 Introduction:
Name-Raman kumar
Class-12th Roll no-22
Subject-PHYSICS
SUBJECT Teacher-Mr. Avinash Singh
School-Saint Theresa’s college.

Acknowledgement

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I would like to express my sincere gratitude to everyone who
supported me throughout the completion of this project
First and foremost, I am deeply thankful to my Physics
teacher, [Mr. Avinash Singh] and our respected Principal
(Fr. John Paul Bara), for their guidance, encouragement, and
valuable insights that helped me understand the depth and
beauty of the poem. Their support motivated me to research
and interpret the poem with greater clarity.
I would also like to thank my school, [Saint Theresa’s
College], for providing me with the opportunity and
resources.
A heartfelt thank you to my parents and friends for their
constant encouragement and help during the project. Lastly, I
acknowledge the use of various online educational platforms
and reference materials that greatly enhanced my
understanding.

Index
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[Link]. TITLE PAGE NO.
01 Introduction to capacitors 06

02 Capacitance 07-08

03 Capacitance in series and 09-12

parallel
04 Energy stored in a capacitor 13-15

05 Charging and discharging of a 16-21

capacitor
06 Dielectric Materials used 22-24

07 Applications of Capacitors 25-28

08 Experimental Demonstration 29

09 Conclusion 30

10 Bibliography 31

1 Introduction to Capacitors:

5
What Is a Capacitor?
A capacitor is an electronic component that stores and releases
electrical energy. Think of it like a rechargeable battery, but it
charges and discharges energy much faster.

Structure and Components

A basic capacitor consists of:
 Two conductive plates (usually made of metal)
 A dielectric material (an insulator like ceramic, plastic, or
air) between the plates
When a voltage is applied across the plates, an electric field
forms, storing energy in the dielectric.

How Capacitors Work?

 When connected to a power source, electrons accumulate on
one plate.
 The opposite plate loses electrons, creating a potential
difference.
 This separation of charges stores energy, which can later be
released.

[Link]:
6
The ability of a capacitor to store charge is called capacitance,
measured in farads (F).

 Formula: C = Q/V where:

 C = capacitance
 Q = charge stored, V = voltage across plates
Larger capacitance means more charge can be stored for a given
voltage.

Factors Affecting Capacitance:

 Area of plates: Larger area → higher capacitance
 Distance between plates: Smaller gap → higher
capacitance
 Dielectric material: Better insulator → more energy storage

Types of Capacitors:
Type Features Uses
Ceramic Small, inexpensive General electronics
Electrolytic High capacitance Power supply filtering
Tantalum Stable and reliable Audio and signal circuits
Film High precision, long life Industrial use
Supercapacitor Extremely high storage Backup power

Applications:
 Filtering: Removes noise from signals
 Timing circuits: Determines how long a device runs
 Energy storage: Powers flash units in cameras
 Smoothing: Stabilizes voltage in power supplies
 Coupling: Passes AC signals while blocking DC.

Units

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Capacitance is measured in farads (F). Due to the large value of
one farad, practical capacitors are often in:
 Microfarads (μF = 10⁻⁶ F)
 Nanofarads (nF = 10⁻⁹ F)
 Picofarads (pF = 10⁻¹² F)
Factors affecting capacitance:
 Area of plates (↑ area → ↑ capacitance)
 Distance between plates (↑ distance → ↓ capacitance)
 Permittivity of dielectric (↑ permittivity → ↑ capacitance)

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3. Capacitors in Series and Parallels:
Capacitance in Series

Figure 1a shows a series connection of three capacitors with a voltage applied. As

for any capacitor, the capacitance of the combination is related to charge and
voltage byC=QV.

Note in Figure 1 that opposite charges of magnitude Q flow to either side of the
originally uncharged combination of capacitors when the voltage V is applied.
Conservation of charge requires that equal-magnitude charges be created on the
plates of the individual capacitors, since charge is only being separated in these
originally neutral devices. The end result is that the combination resembles a single
capacitor with an effective plate separation greater than that of the individual
capacitors alone. (See Figure 1b.) Larger plate separation means smaller
capacitance. It is a general feature of series connections of capacitors that the total
capacitance is less than any of the individual capacitances.

Figure 1. (a) Capacitors connected in series. The magnitude of the charge on each plate is Q. (b) An
equivalent capacitor has a larger plate separation d. Series connections produce a total capacitance that is
less than that of any of the individual capacitors.

We can find an expression for the total capacitance by considering the voltage
across the individual capacitors shown in Figure 1. Solving C=QV for V gives V=QC.
The voltages across the individual capacitors are
thusV1=Q/C1,V2=Q/C2, and V3=Q/C3.

The total voltage is the sum of the individual voltages:

9
 V = V1 + V2 +V3.

Now, calling the total capacitance CS for series capacitance, consider that

V=Q/CS=V1+V2+V3.

Entering the expressions for V1, V2, and V3, we get

Q/CS=Q/C1+Q/C2+Q/C3.

Canceling the Qs, we obtain the equation for the total capacitance in series CS to be

1/CS=1/C1+1/C2+1/C3

where “…” indicates that the expression is valid for any number of capacitors
connected in series. An expression of this form always results in a total
capacitance CS that is less than any of the individual capacitances C1, C2, …, as
Example 1 illustrates.

Total Capacitance in Series, Cs

Total capacitance in series:

1/CS=1/C1+1/C2+1/C3

 Capacitors in Parallel
Figure 2a shows a parallel connection of three capacitors
with a voltage applied. Here the total capacitance is easier
to find than in the series case. To find the equivalent total
capacitance Cp, we first note that the voltage across each
capacitor is V, the same as that of the source, since they
are connected directly to it through a conductor.
(Conductors are equipotential, and so the voltage across
the capacitors is the same as that across the voltage
source.) Thus, the capacitors have the same charges on
them as they would have if connected individually to the
voltage source. The total charge Q is the sum of the
individual charges: Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3.

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Figure 2. (a) Capacitors in parallel. Each is connected
directly to the voltage source just as if it were all alone, and
so the total capacitance in parallel is just the sum of the
individual capacitances. (b) The equivalent capacitor has a
larger plate area and can therefore hold more charge than
the individual capacitors.
Using the relationship Q = CV, we see that the total charge
is Q = CpV, and the individual charges
are Q1 = C1V, Q2 = C2V, and Q3 = C3V. Entering these into
the previous equation gives
CpV = C1V + C2V + C3V.
Cancelling V from the equation, we obtain the equation for
the total capacitance in parallel
Cp: Cp = C1 + C2 + C3 + ….
Total capacitance in parallel is simply the sum of the
individual capacitances. (Again the “…” indicates the
expression is valid for any number of capacitors connected

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in parallel.) So, for example, if the capacitors in Example 1
were connected in parallel, their capacitance would be
Cp = 1.000 µF + 5.000 µF + 8.000 µF = 14.000 µF.
The equivalent capacitor for a parallel connection has an
effectively larger plate area and, thus, a larger capacitance,
as illustrated in Figure 2b.
TOTAL CAPACITANCE IN PARALLEL, CP
Total capacitance in parallel Cp = C1 + C2 + C3 + …

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[Link] Stored in Capacitors:
Most of us have seen dramatizations in which medical
personnel use a defibrillator to pass an electric current
through a patient’s heart to get it to beat normally. (Review
Figure 1.) Often realistic in detail, the person applying the
shock directs another person to “make it 400 joules this
time.” The energy delivered by the defibrillator is stored in a
capacitor and can be adjusted to fit the situation. SI units of
joules are often employed. Less dramatic is the use of
capacitors in microelectronics, such as certain handheld
calculators, to supply energy when batteries are charged.
(See Figure 1.) Capacitors are also used to supply energy
for flash lamps on cameras.

Figure 1. Energy stored in the large capacitor is used to

preserve the memory of an electronic calculator when its
batteries are charged. (credit: Kucharek, Wikimedia Commons)

Energy stored in a capacitor is electrical potential energy,

and it is thus related to the charge Q and voltage V on the
capacitor. We must be careful when applying the equation
for electrical potential energy ΔPE = qΔV to a capacitor.
Remember that ΔPE is the potential energy of a
charge q going through a voltage ΔV. But the capacitor
starts with zero voltage and gradually comes up to its full
voltage as it is charged.

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 The first charge placed on a capacitor experiences a
change in voltage ΔV = 0, since the capacitor has zero
voltage when uncharged. The final charge placed on a
capacitor experiences ΔV = V, since the capacitor now has
its full voltage V on it.
The average voltage on the capacitor during the charging
process isV2, and so the average voltage experienced by
the full charge q isV2.
Thus, the energy stored in a capacitor, Ecap,
isEcap=QV2, where Q is the charge on a capacitor with a
voltage V applied. (Note that the energy is not QV,
butQV2.) Charge and voltage are related to the
capacitance C of a capacitor by Q = CV, and so the expression
for Ecap can be algebraically manipulated into three equivalent expressions:

Ecap=QV/2=CV^2/2=Q^2/2C

where Q is the charge and V the voltage on a capacitor C. The energy is in joules for
a charge in coulombs, voltage in volts, and ca6pacitance in farads.

ENERGY STORED IN CAPACITORS

The energy stored in a capacitor can be expressed in three

ways:
“Ecap=QV/2=CV^2/2=Q^2/2C,”
where Q is the charge, V is the voltage, and C is the
capacitance of the capacitor. The energy is in joules for a
charge in coulombs, voltage in volts, and capacitance in
farads.
In a defibrillator, the delivery of a large charge in a short
burst to a set of paddles across a person’s chest can be a
lifesaver. The person’s heart attack might have arisen from
the onset of fast, irregular beating of the heart—cardiac or
ventricular fibrillation.

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The application of a large shock of electrical energy can
terminate the arrhythmia and allow the body’s pacemaker to
resume normal patterns. Today it is common for
ambulances to carry a defibrillator, which also uses an
electrocardiogram to analyse the patient’s heartbeat
pattern. Automated external defibrillators (AED) are found
in many public places (Figure 2). These are designed to be
used by lay persons. The device automatically diagnoses
the patient’s heart condition and then applies the shock with
appropriate energy and waveform. CPR is recommended in
many cases before use of an AED.

Figure 2. Automated external defibrillators are found in many public places. These portable units provide
verbal instructions for use in the important first few minutes for a person suffering a cardiac attack. (credit:
Owain Davies, Wikimedia Commons).

[Link] and Discharging of a

Capacitor through a Resistor
15
Consider a circuit having a capacitance C and a resistance R which are
joined in series with a battery of emf ε through a Morse key K, as shown in
the figure.

Charging of a Capacitor
When the key is pressed, the capacitor begins to
store charge. If at any time during charging, I is the
current through the circuit and Q is the charge on
the capacitor, then
The potential difference across resistor = IR, and
The potential difference between the plates of the
capacitor = Q/C
Consider a capacitor of capacitance C being charged through a
resistor R by a battery of emf V. At any instant during charging,
let q(t) be the charge on the capacitor at time t, and I(t) be the
current.
Using Kirchhoff’s voltage law for the RC circuit:
V = IR + q/C
Since current I = dq/dt, substitute:
V = R(dq/dt) + q/C

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Rewriting the equation:
R(dq/dt) = V - q/C
=> dq/dt = (1/R)(V - q/C)
Separate the variables:
dq / (V - q/C) = dt / R
Multiply numerator and denominator by C:
C dq / (VC - q) = dt / R
Now integrate both sides:
∫ C dq / (VC - q) = ∫ dt / R
Left side integrates to:
 C ln(VC - q) = t / R + constant
Apply limits: at t = 0, q = 0
So, -C ln(VC - 0) = 0 + constant => constant = -C ln(VC)
Now write the full equation:
 C ln(VC - q) + C ln(VC) = t / R
=> C ln(VC / (VC - q)) = t / R
=> ln(VC / (VC - q)) = t / (RC)
Take exponential on both sides:
VC / (VC - q) = e^(t / RC)
Now invert both sides:
(VC - q) / VC = e^(-t / RC)
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1 - q / VC = e^(-t / RC)
=> q / VC = 1 - e^(-t / RC)
=> q(t) = VC (1 - e^(-t / RC))
Since Q = VC is the maximum charge, we get:
q(t) = Q (1 - e^(-t / RC))
This is the equation for the charge on a capacitor at time t during
charging.
To find current during charging, differentiate q(t):
I(t) = dq/dt = d/dt [Q (1 - e^(-t / RC))] = Q / (RC) * e^(-t / RC)
Since Q = VC, then:
I(t) = V / R * e^(-t / RC)
Voltage across capacitor is:
VC(t) = q(t) / C = V (1 - e^(-t / RC))

Time Constant (Tau = RC):

In an RC (resistor-capacitor) circuit, the product of resistance R
(in ohms) and capacitance C (in farads) is called the time
constant, denoted by the Greek letter tau (τ).
Mathematically,
τ=R×C
It represents the characteristic time of the circuit — the time it
takes for the capacitor to charge or discharge significantly.

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During Charging:
After a time t = τ, the charge on the capacitor reaches about 63%
of its maximum value.
So at t = RC,
q(t) = Q (1 - e^(-1)) ≈ 0.63 Q
During Discharging:
After a time t = τ, the charge on the capacitor drops to about 37%
of its initial value.
So at t = RC,
q(t) = Q e^(-1) ≈ 0.37 Q
Thus, the time constant τ tells us how fast the capacitor charges or
discharges. Larger values of R or C make the process slower (i.e.,
larger τ), and smaller values make it faster (i.e., smaller τ).

-Discharging of a Capacitor:
Consider a charged capacitor of capacitance C, initially having charge Q, connected across a
resistor R. At time t = 0, the switch is closed and the capacitor starts discharging through the
resistor.

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Let q(t) be the charge on the capacitor at time t, and I(t) be the current.

Using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:

q/C = IR

Since current I = -dq/dt (negative because charge is decreasing), we substitute:

q/C = -R(dq/dt)

Rewriting:

dq/dt = -q / (RC)

Separate the variables:

dq / q = -dt / (RC)

Integrate both sides:

∫ dq / q = - ∫ dt / (RC)

ln(q) = -t / (RC) + constant

Apply initial condition: at t = 0, q = Q

ln(Q) = constant

Now the full equation:

ln(q) = -t / (RC) + ln(Q)

Use log rules:

ln(q / Q) = -t / (RC)

Take exponential on both sides:

q / Q = e^(-t / RC)

Therefore:

q(t) = Q e^(-t / RC)

This is the equation for the charge remaining on the capacitor at any time t during
discharging.

To find the current:

I(t) = dq/dt = -Q / (RC) * e^(-t / RC)

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I(t) = - (Q / RC) e^(-t / RC)

The negative sign shows that current is in the direction of discharge (opposite to charging).

Voltage across the capacitor:

V_C(t) = q(t) / C = (Q / C) e^(-t / RC) = V e^(-t / RC)

Where V is the initial voltage across the capacitor.

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[Link] Dielectric Material Used in Capacitors:

 The dielectric material used in capacitors

influences the property of capacitance.
 Capacitors can be classified based on
polarization; there are polarized capacitors
and non-polarized capacitors.
 The permittivity is dependent on the
frequency of the voltage applied across the
capacitor .

The dielectric material used in capacitors

influences the property of capacitance.

C= ε 0 ε r a/d.

 ε 0 is the permittivity of vacuum

 ε r is the relative permittivity of the material
 A is the area of the plates
 d is the distance between the plates
 C is the capacitance in Farad

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From this equation, we can see that the
capacitance value is directly proportional to the
relative permittivity of the material that is filled
between the conducting plates of the capacitor.
This article will explore the different dielectrics
and how they influence capacitor performance
and dimensions.

The dielectric material used in capacitors

influences the property of capacitance. When
voltage is applied across the capacitor plates, the
dielectric material blocks the flow of current
through the material. There are changes in the
dielectric material at the atomic level; this
phenomenon is called polarization.

-Dielectric Constant of a Material

The electrical energy stored in the electric field is

dependent on the amount of polarization. The dielectric
constant is the property that indicates the material's
ability to store charge. The dielectric constant , also
called permittivity, is the material's capability to store
electric energy when placed in an electric field.

The absolute permittivity of a material is given by the

product of the permittivity of vacuum and a number
called relative permittivity. The relative permittivity
indicates the ability of the material to store charge in
comparison to vacuum. Generally, the relative

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permittivity of the dielectric materials used in
capacitors is greater than 1.

Dielectric Materials Used in Capacitors

Most capacitors use dielectric materials other than

vacuum. The dielectric material used in a capacitor is
chosen based on its relative permittivity. Some
common dielectric materials used in capacitors are
given in the table below.

Dielectric Material Relative Permittivity

a) Vacuum 1
b) Teflon 2.1
c) Polyethylene 2.25
d) Polypropylene 2.2 - 2.36
e) Polystyrene 2.4 - 2.7
f) Glass 3.7 – 10
g) Titanium dioxide 86 – 173
h) Mica 5.6 – 8
i) Paper 3.85
j) Tantalum oxide 27.7
k) Ceramic porcelain 4.5 - 6.7

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[Link] of Capacitors
Capacitors have many uses in electronic and electrical
systems. They are so ubiquitous that it is rare that an
electrical product does not include at least one for some
purpose. Capacitors allow only AC signals to pass when
they are charged blocking DC signals. The main
components of filters are capacitors. Capacitors have the
ability to connect one circuit segment to another. Capacitors
are used by Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM)
devices to represent binary information as bits.
Applications are as follows:
[Link] storage:

Energy storage capacitor for camera

flash in a vintage Polaroid
A capacitor can store electric energy when it is connected
to its charging circuit and when it is disconnected from its
charging circuit, it can dissipate that stored energy, so it can
be used as a temporary battery. Capacitors are commonly
used in electronic devices to maintain power supply while
batteries are being changed. (This prevents loss of
information in volatile memory.)
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Conventional electrostatic capacitors provide less than
360 joules per kilogram of energy density, while capacitors
using developing technology can provide more than
2.52 kilo joules per kilogram.[1]
In car audio systems, large capacitors store energy for
the amplifier to use on demand.
An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) can be equipped
with maintenance-free capacitors to extend service life.[2]
b. Pulsed power and weapons
Groups of large, specially constructed, low-inductance high-
voltage capacitors (capacitor banks) are used to supply
huge pulses of current for many pulsed power applications.
These include electromagnetic forming, Marx generators,
pulsed lasers (especially TEA lasers), pulse forming
networks, fusion research, and particle accelerators.
Large capacitor banks (reservoirs) are used as energy
sources for the exploding-bridgewire detonators or slapper
detonators in nuclear weapons and other specialty
weapons. Experimental work is under way using banks of
capacitors as power sources
for electromagnetic armour and
electromagnetic railguns or coilguns.
c. Power conditioning
Reservoir capacitors are used in power supplies where they
smooth the output of a full or half wave rectifier. They can
also be used in charge pump circuits as the energy storage
element in the generation of higher voltages than the input
voltage.
Capacitors are connected in parallel with the DC power
circuits of most electronic devices to smooth current
fluctuations for signal or control circuits. Audio equipment,
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for example, uses several capacitors in this way, to shunt
away power line hum before it gets into the signal circuitry.
The capacitors act as a local reserve for the DC power
source, and bypass AC currents from the power supply.
This is used in car audio applications, when a stiffening
capacitor compensates for the inductance and resistance of
the leads to the lead-acid car battery.
d. Power factor correction
In electric power distribution, capacitors are used for power factor correction. Such
capacitors often come as three capacitors connected as a three-phase Electrical
load. Usually, the values of these capacitors are given not in farads but rather as a
reactive power in volt-amperes reactive (VAr). The purpose is to counteract inductive
loading from devices like Induction motors, electric motors and transmission lines to
make the load appear primarily resistive. Individual motor or lamp loads may have
capacitors for power factor correction, or larger sets of capacitors (usually with
automatic switching devices) may be installed at a load centre within a building or in
a large utility electrical substation. In high-voltage direct current transmission
systems, power factor correction capacitors may have tuning inductors to suppress
harmonic currents that would otherwise be injected into the AC power system.

[Link] filters and snubbers

Heavy-duty snubber capacitor with

screw terminals
When an inductive circuit is opened, the current through the
inductance collapses quickly, creating a large voltage
across the open circuit of the switch or relay. If the
inductance is large enough, the energy will generate
an electric spark, causing the contact points to oxidize,

27
deteriorate, or sometimes weld together, or destroy a solid-
state switch. A snubber capacitor across the newly opened
circuit creates a path for this impulse to bypass the contact
points, thereby preserving their life; these were commonly
found in contact breaker ignition systems, for instance.
Similarly, in smaller scale circuits, the spark may not be
enough to damage the switch but will
still radiate undesirable radio frequency interference (RFI),
which a filter capacitor absorbs. Snubber capacitors are
usually employed with a low-value resistor in series, to
dissipate energy and minimize RFI. Such resistor-capacitor
combinations are available in a single package.
Capacitors are also used in parallel to interrupt units of a
high-voltage circuit breaker to distribute the voltage
between these units equally. In this case, they are called
grading capacitors.
In schematic diagrams, a capacitor used primarily for DC
charge storage is often drawn vertically in circuit diagrams
with the lower, more negative, plate drawn as an arc. The
straight plate indicates the positive terminal of the device if
it is polarized (see electrolytic capacitor).

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[Link] Demonstration
Aim: Study charging and discharging using an RC circuit
Apparatus: Capacitor, resistor, battery, switch, stopwatch,
multimeter
Procedure:
1. Connect RC circuit
2. Close switch to charge, open to discharge
3. Record voltage at intervals

Observation Table:

Time (s) Voltage (V)

0 0
1 3.2
2 5.7
... ...

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Graph: Voltage vs. Time

Conclusion: Voltage follows exponential growth/decay

[Link]
Capacitors play an integral role in modern electrical and
electronic systems. From storing and releasing energy to enabling
efficient circuit operation, they are indispensable components
with growing importance in advanced technologies.

30
 [Link]:

 NCERT Physics Textbook Class XII

 Resnick, Halliday, and Walker – Fundamentals of Physics
 Shree Balaji Edition Class 12 physics textbook

31