NOTES

CHEMISTRY
STRUCTURE OF ATOM

REVISION NOTES
CHAPTERWISE &
TOPICWISE
Page 1
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
INDEX

Chapter 2: Structure of atom

Concepts Covered:
1. Discovery of Fundamental Particles
➢ Discovery of Electron
➢ Charge to Mass Ratio of Electron
➢ Origin of cathode rays
➢ Discovery of proton
➢ Discovery of Neutron
2. Atomic Models
➢ Thomson’s atomic model
➢ Rutherford r- scattering Experiment
➢ Rutherford’s Nuclear Atomic Model
3. Atomic Number and Mass Number
➢ Atomic Number (Z)
➢ Mass Number (A)
4. Isotopes, Isobars, Isotones and Isoelectronic
➢ Isotopes
• Isotopes of Hydrogen
• Isotopes of Oxygen
➢ Isobars
➢ Isotones
➢ Isoelectronic species
5. Electromagnetic Radiation
6. Electromagnetic Spectrum
7. Electromagnetic wave theory
8. Plank Quantum Theory
➢ According to Planck’s quantum theory
9. Spectrum
➢ Types of Spectrum
10. Bohr's Model
➢ Postulates of Bohr’s Model of an Atom
➢ Limitations of Bohr’s Model of an Atom
11. Line Spectrum of Hydrogen
➢ Rydberg Formula
• Lyman Series (nl = 1)
• Balmer Series (nl = 2)
• Paschen Series (nl = 3)
• Brackett Series (nl = 4)
• Pfund Series (nl = 5)
12. Towards Quantum Mechanical Model
➢ Dual Behavior of Matter
➢ Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
➢ The Significance of Uncertainty Principle
Page 2
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
INDEX

13. Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom

➢ Probability Density
➢ Concept of orbital
➢ Quantum Numbers
➢ Shape of atomic orbital
➢ Nodes and Nodal Planes
• Radial Nodes
• Planar Nodes
➢ Filling of Orbital in An Atom
• Aufbau Principle
• Pauli Exclusion Principle
• Hund’s Rule
➢ Exceptional configuration of Cr and Cu
➢ Electronic Configuration of Ions
• Cations and Anions
• Magnetic moment
14. Mathematical modelling of bohar's postulates
➢ Mathematical Derivation of Bohr’s Radius
15. Mind Map
(Colourful & Interactive/ Complete All Concept Covered)
Practice Questions (All Topics Available)
Page 3
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
DISCOVERY OF FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES

DISCOVERY OF FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES

Atoms are the building block of the matter. Many atoms combine to form a molecule. Various solid,
liquid and gases are composed of the atoms. Atom is made up of many lightest particles. These
particles are called subatomic particles. The subatomic particles of an atom are proton, neutron,
electrons, alpha particles and beta particles. Among these protons, neutrons and electrons are the
three fundamental particles of atoms.

Atoms are made up of a nucleus with the electron revolving around it. Nucleus is a small dense
material which is composed of nucleons. Protons and neutrons together are called nucleons. Atom’s
mass is present in the nucleus. In the atom, electrons revolving around the nucleus will have a
negative charge. The proton present in the nucleus is said to have a positive charge and neutrons
will have a neutral charge.

Discovery of Electron
Page 4
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
DISCOVERY OF FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES

The electron was the first fundamental particle that was discovered. The credit for the discovery of
the electron and its properties goes to J.J. Thomson based on his experiments carried out in a
discharge tube. He suggested that electrons are necessary constituents of all atoms. J.J. Thomson
carried out experiments by taking a gas at low pressure of 0.01mm Hg in a discharge tube.

The electron is a low-mass, negatively charged particle. As such, it can easily be deflected by passing
close to other electrons or the positive nucleus of an atom.

Properties of Electron

• Electrons are negatively charged particles.

• The mass of the electron is 1/2000 times lesser than the mass of proton and neutron.
• Therefore, the electrons do not contribute to the mass of the atom.
• An electron has an electric charge of -1.602 × 10-19 coulombs.
• Electrons are subatomic particles found outside the nucleus.
• Electrons are continuously moving around the nucleus in orbits or shells.
• The invariant mass of an electron is approximately 9.109 × 10−31 kilograms.

Charge to Mass Ratio of Electron

The charge to mass ratio of the electron is given by:

e/m = 1.758820 × 1011 C/kg

Where,

m = mass of an electron in kg = 9.10938356 × 10-31 kilograms.

e = magnitude of the charge of an electron in coulombs = 1.602 × 10-19 coulombs.

Experimental setup for the determination of charge to mass ratio of the electron
Page 5
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
DISCOVERY OF FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES

While carrying out the discharge tube experiment, Thomson observed that the particles of the
cathode deviate from their path. He noticed the amount of deviation in the presence of an electrical
or magnetic field depends on various related parameters.

• Particles with a greater magnitude of the charge experienced

greater interaction with the electric or magnetic field. Thus, they
exhibited greater deflection.
• Lighter particles experienced greater deflection. Thus, deflection is inversely
proportional to the mass of the particle.
• Deflection of particle from their path is directly proportional to the strength
of the electrical and the magnetic field present.

Charge of Electrons

An electron is a negatively charged particle. The mass of an electron at rest is

approximately 9.11 × 10-31 kilogram (kg) and represented by “me”, and the charge is 1.602 × 10 -19
coulombs, symbolised as “e”.

Origin of cathode rays

Cathode rays are named so because they are emitted by a negative electrode (cathode), in a vacuum
tube, also called the cathode ray tube.

Cathode rays are just a beam of electrons observed in a vacuum tube. When the discharge tube or
evacuated glass tube is facilitated with 2 electrodes and a high voltage, then due to the emission of
electrons traveling perpendicular to the cathode, the glass kept opposite to the negative electrode
(i.e., cathode) is observed to glow.
Page 6
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
DISCOVERY OF FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES

High electric potential is applied between anode and cathode to ionize the residual gas in the tube.
The ions are accelerated by an electric field and collide with the cathode, which releases electrons.
As electrons are negatively charged, they are repelled by the cathode and are attracted by the anode.

Discovery of proton
Proton was discovered by Rutherford when he conducted the famous gold foil experiment. In 1886
Goldstein discovered the presence of positively charged rays while experimenting with the
discharged tube using perforated cathode. The rays were named as anode rays or canal rays. A series
of experiments led to the discovery of protons. Protons are the particles that contribute to the
positive charge of the atom.

“p” represents proton. The absolute charge of a proton is the positive charge of 1.6 × 10-19 coulomb.
The mass of a proton is 1.6 × 10-24g and is considered 1 that is mass of a hydrogen atom.

Proton

A proton is the subatomic particle of an atom found in its nucleus. It has a positive charge equivalent
and opposite to that of electrons.

Properties of Proton

• Protons are positively charged particles.

• They are present inside the nucleus.
• They have a mass of 1.67 × 10−27 kg.
•
Protons are represented as p+
• A proton is said to be very stable whether it's in its free state or inside the atoms. They
do not decay spontaneously.
Page 7
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
DISCOVERY OF FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES

• The atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons in the atom.

Origin of Anode Rays

These rays originate as a result of the knockout of the electrons from the gaseous atoms by the
bombardment of high-speed electrons of the cathode rays on them. Thus, anode rays are not
emitted from the anode but are produced in the space between the anode and the cathode.

Discovery of Neutron
The British physicist Sir James Chadwick discovered neutrons in the year 1932. He was awarded the
Nobel Prize in Physics in the year 1935 for this discovery.

• James Chadwick fired alpha radiation at beryllium sheet from a polonium source. This led to the
production of an uncharged, penetrating radiation.
• This radiation was made incident on paraffin wax, a hydrocarbon having a relatively high
hydrogen content.
• The protons ejected from the paraffin wax (when struck by the uncharged radiation) were
observed with the help of an ionization chamber.
• The range of the liberated protons was measured and the interaction between the uncharged
radiation and the atoms of several gases was studied by Chadwick.
• He concluded that the unusually penetrating radiation consisted of uncharged particles having
(approximately) the same mass as a proton. These particles were later termed ‘neutrons’.

Neutrons

Neutrons are subatomic particles that are one of the primary constituents of atomic nuclei. They are
usually denoted by the symbol n or no. Neutrons do not have any net electric charge associated with
them. They do, however, have a mass which is slightly greater in magnitude than that of a proton.
Page 8
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
ATOMIC MODELS

ATOMIC MODELS
Thomson’s atomic model
J. J. Thomson, in 1898, proposed that an atom possesses a spherical shape (radius approximately 10–
10
m).

Thomson assumed that an electron is two thousand times lighter than a proton
and believed that an atom is made up of thousands of electrons. In this
atomic structure model, he considered atoms surrounded by a cloud
having positive as well as negative charges. The demonstration of the
ionization of air by X-ray was also done by him together with Rutherford.
They were the first to demonstrate it. Thomson’s model of an atom is
similar to a plum pudding.

Drawbacks of Thomson’s atomic model

• Thomson’s atomic model failed to explain how the positive charge holds on the electrons
inside the atom. It also failed to explain an atom’s stability.
• The theory did not mention anything about the nucleus of an atom.
• It was unable to explain the scattering experiment of Rutherford.

Rutherford r- scattering Experiment

The Rutherford alpha particle scattering experiment was discovered by Ernest Rutherford, a New
Zealand Physicist. He was interested in studying the atomic structure and designed the
scattering experiment. Rutherford is famous for his pioneering studies of radioactivity
atoms other than the alpha particle scattering experiment, and he is known
as the father of Nuclear Physics.
Page 9
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
ATOMIC MODELS

Experimental Setup of Rutherford Alpha Scattering Experiment

Rutherford's alpha-particle scattering experiment was a successful attempt to

present an atomic model. In the experiment, Rutherford used an alpha
particle emitter, gold foil, and a movable fluorescent screen.

Gold foil: A thin sheet of gold foil with a thickness of around 100 nm.

Alpha particle emitter: A high-energy beam of α-particles (Helium ions) emitted

from the radioactive source.

Movable Fluorescent screen: A zinc sulphide screen is placed around the gold foil.

The Rutherford scattering experiment diagram

Observations of Rutherford Alpha Scattering Experiment

The observations after the successful execution of the Rutherford scattering experiment were:

• Most of the α-particles that were bombarded on the gold foil passed through the foil with no
deflection. It indicated that most of the space inside an atom is empty.
• Some of the α-particles were deflected from the gold foil by small angles. This indicated that
the positive charge in an atom is not uniformly distributed. This
disproved the J. J. Thomson, uniformly distributed positive charges from
the plum pudding model.
• A very small amount of α-particles (1-2%) were deflected back from the
gold foil at a nearly 180° angle. This indicated that the positive changes
are concentrated in a very small volume. The size of the positively
charged particles is very small as compared to the total size of the atom.
Page 10
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
ATOMIC MODELS

Rutherford’s Nuclear Atomic Model

• The positively charged particles are concentrated in a very small volume as compared to
the total size of the atom. Most of the atom’s mass is also concentrated in this small
volume. Rutherford called this small region inside that atom a “Nucleus”.
• Rutherford proposed that the negatively charged particles (electrons) are
surrounded by the positively charged nucleus. The electrons move around
the nucleus in a circular path at a high speed. He named the circular path of
electrons “Orbit”.
• The dense positively charged nucleus and surrounding negatively charged
electrons are held together by a force of attraction called electrostatic forces of attraction.

Drawbacks of the Rutherford’s Model

Rutherford's model failed to explain the stability of an atom. From the calculations, the moving
electron will collapse in less than 10−8 seconds, making the electron highly unstable. Thus, the
stability of the atom couldn’t be explained by the Rutherford model.

According to Maxwell's theory, charged particles in a circular motion will experience acceleration
and emit electromagnetic radiation. So, the moving electrons around the nucleus in an atom should
emit electromagnetic radiation. The electromagnetic radiation will carry energy from the circular
motion of the electron, and this will lead to the shrinking of the electron's orbit. This will end the
collapsing of the electron with the nucleus.

The Rutherford theory of atomic structure failed to explain the electron arrangement in an atom
which was a major drawback of the model.
Page 11
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBER

ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBER

Atomic Number (Z)
The total number of protons in the nucleus of an atom gives us the atomic number of that atom.

It is represented with the letter ‘Z.’

All the atoms of a particular element have the same number of protons,
and hence the same atomic number.

Atoms of different elements have different atomic numbers.

For example, all carbon atoms have the atomic number of 6, whereas all atoms of
Oxygen have 8 protons in their nucleus.

Mass Number (A)

The number of protons and neutrons combine to give us the mass number of an atom.
It is represented using the letter ‘A.’
As both protons and neutrons are present in the nucleus of an atom, they are together called
nucleons.
For example, an atom of carbon has 6 protons and 6 neutrons. Thus, its mass number is 12.
While the number of protons remains the same in all atoms of an element, the number of neutrons
can vary. Thus, atoms of the same element can have different mass numbers, and these are called
isotopes.
The weight of an electron is almost negligible. Thus, the atomic mass of an atom is almost the same
as its mass number.
[Link]. Parameters Atomic Number Mass Number
The number of protons The mass number is calculated by
1 Definition present in an atom is known taking the sum of the number of neutrons
as the Atomic number. (n) and protons (p) of an atom.
Isotopes have a similar atomic Isotopes have different mass numbers.
2 Isotopes
number.
Isobars The atomic number in isobars The mass number in isobars can be the
3
cannot be the same. same.
The atomic number is always The mass number is always a greater value
4 Value a lesser value than the mass than the atomic number.
number.
Page 12
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
ISOTOPES, ISOBARS, ISOTONES AND ISOELECTRONIC

ISOTOPES, ISOBARS, ISOTONES AND ISOELECTRONIC

Isotopes
Atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. They
share almost the same chemical properties but differ in mass and therefore in physical properties.

Isotopes of Hydrogen

Three naturally existing isotopes of hydrogen are tritium, deuterium, and protium.

Protium (1H): It is one of the common isotopes of hydrogen. It is plenty in nature with an abundance
of 99.98%. One of the reasons for this is that the nucleus of this isotope consists of a single proton
and this proton at no time, it has been reported to be decayed. Mass of protium is 1.007825 amu.
Hydrogen generally combines with other atoms in compounds and are usually found in H2 (diatomic
hydrogen gas).

Deuterium (2H): It comprises 1 proton and 1 neutron in its nucleus. The nucleus of hydrogen 2 is
termed as deuteron. It is not radioactive. Its compounds are used in chemical analysis and solvents
for hydrogen 1. Heavy water is enriched with molecules consisting of deuterium instead of protium.
It used as a coolant and a neutron moderator. Hydrogen 2 is also used as a fuel in nuclear fusion
(commercial). It occurs naturally as deuterium gas.

Tritium (3H): It comprises 2 neutrons and 1 proton in its nucleus. Small traces of hydrogen 3 or tritium
occurs in nature due to the synergy of cosmic rays with atmospheric gases. They are also released in
a small amount at the time of nuclear weapons tests. It is radioactive, it decays into helium 3 through
beta decay. Hydrogen 3 has an atomic mass of 3.0160492 u.
Page 13
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
ISOTOPES, ISOBARS, ISOTONES AND ISOELECTRONIC

Isotopes of Oxygen

Isotopes are the atoms of the same element having the same atomic number but different mass
number. There are three stable isotopes for oxygen, which are O-16, O-17, O-18. Both O-17, O-18
are secondary isotopes.

Isotopes of some common elements

• Carbon-12 is a stable isotope whereas carbon-14 is mostly a

radioactive isotope.
• Nitrogen has two stable isotopes, 14N and 15N,
• Sulphur (S) has 25 known isotopes with mass numbers ranging from 26 to
49, four of which are stable: 32S (95.02%), 33S (0.75%), 34S (4.21%), and 36S
(0.02%).
• There are three naturally occurring isotopes of uranium: uranium-238, the
heaviest and most abundant, uranium-235 and uranium-234.

Relative Abundance

The percentage of atoms with a specific atomic mass found in a naturally occurring sample of an
element is known as its relative abundance.

Isobars
Isobars are the atoms of different elements with the same mass number but different atomic
numbers. In other words, isobars have different number of protons, neutrons and electrons but the
sum of protons and neutrons (i.e., number of nucleons) is same.

Examples:
40 40
(i) 18 Ar , 19 K and 20 Ca40
130
(ii) 52 Te , 54 Xe130 and 56 Ba130
Since isobars are the atoms of different elements, they will have different physical and chemical
properties.

Isotones
Isotones are the atoms of different elements with the same number of neutrons but different mass
numbers, e.g. 14 Si30 , 15 P31 and 16 S 32 Since the variable factor in isotones is the number of protons
(atomic number), they must have different physical and chemical properties.
Page 14
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
ISOTOPES, ISOBARS, ISOTONES AND ISOELECTRONIC

Examples:

(i) 14 Si30 , 15 P
31
and 16 S
32

(ii) 19 K 39 and 20 Ca
40

(iii) 1 H3 and 2 He4

(iv) 6 C13 and 7 N14

Isoelectronic species
Species (atoms, molecules or ions) having same number of electrons are called isoelectronic.

Examples:

(i) N3-, O2-, F-, Ne, Na+, Mg2+, Al3+, CH4, NH3, H2O and HF have 10 electrons each.

(i) P3-, S2-, Cl-, Ar, K+ and Ca2+ have 18 electrons each.

(iii) H-, He, Li+ and Be2+ have 2 electrons each.

(iv) CO, CN- and N2 have 14 electrons each.

(v) N2O, CO2 and CNO- have 22 electrons each.

Page 15
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
In the year 1870, James Maxwell became the first scientist to explain the interaction between the
charges in the presence of electric and magnetic fields. He proposed that when electrically charged
particles perform an accelerating motion, alternating electrical and magnetic fields are produced and
transmitted. These fields traverse in the form of waves known as electromagnetic radiation. A light
wave is an example of electromagnetic radiation.

Electromagnetic Radiation is a form of energy that travels through space in the form of waves. It
consists of oscillating electric and magnetic fields that are perpendicular to each other and propagate
at the speed of light.
Page 16
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

Electromagnetic Radiation Formula

c=ν𝝀

Where,

c = speed of light,

ν = frequency of the electromagnetic wave and

𝝀 = wavelength of the electromagnetic wave.

Electromagnetic Radiation is characterized based on various properties like frequency (ν),

wavelength (λ), time period etc. Apart from frequency and wavelength, some other parameters are
also used to categorize electromagnetic radiation. One of these parameters is the wavenumber. (⊽).

• Wavelength (λ): Wavelength is the distance between successive peaks or troughs of an

electromagnetic wave. It is measured in meters (m) or other units such as nanometers (nm)
or micrometers (μm). Different regions of the electromagnetic spectrum have different ranges
of wavelengths.
• Frequency (ν): Frequency refers to the number of wave cycles that pass a given point per unit
of time. It is measured in hertz (Hz) or other units such as kilohertz (kHz) or megahertz (MHz).
Frequency and wavelength are inversely related by the equation: c = λν, where c is the speed
of light.
• Amplitude: Amplitude represents the maximum displacement or strength of the electric and
magnetic fields in an electromagnetic wave. It determines the intensity or brightness of the
radiation. Higher amplitude corresponds to greater energy carried by the wave.
Page 17
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
The electromagnetic spectrum is a range of frequencies, wavelengths and photon energies covering
frequencies from below 1 hertz to above 10 25 Hz, corresponding to wavelengths which are a few
kilometres to a fraction of the size of an atomic nucleus in the spectrum of electromagnetic waves.
Generally, in a vacuum, electromagnetic waves tend to travel at speeds which is similar to that of
light. However, they do so at a wide range of wavelengths, frequencies and photon energies.

The electromagnetic spectrum consists of a span of all electromagnetic radiation which further
contains many subranges, which are commonly referred to as portions. These can be further
classified as infrared radiation, visible light or ultraviolet radiation.

Regions of the Spectrum

Page 18
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

Radio waves: longest wavelengths used for communication and broadcasting.

Microwaves: Used in microwave ovens, telecommunications, and radar

systems.

Infrared radiation: Heat radiation and used in applications like remote

controls and thermal imaging.

Visible light: The narrow region of the spectrum visible to the human eye.

Ultraviolet radiation: Higher energy than visible light, responsible for sunburns
and used in sterilization and fluorescence.

X-rays: High-energy radiation used for medical imaging and industrial

applications.

Gamma rays: Highest energy radiation emitted during nuclear reactions and radioactive decay.
Page 19
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE THEORY

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE THEORY

This theory was put forward by James clark Maxwell in 1864.

The main points of this theory are:

• The energy is emitted from any source continuously in the form of radiations and is called the
radiant energy.
• The radiations consist of electric and magnetic fields oscillating
perpendicular to each other and both perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of the radiation.
• The radiations possesses wave character and travel with the
velocity of light.
• The radiations are called electromagnetic radiations or
electromagnetic waves.
• These waves do not require any material medium for propagation.

Characteristics of a wave:

Wavelength: Wavelength of a wave is defined as the distance between any two consecutive crest or
trough. It is represented by λ (Lambda) and is expressed in A° or m or cm or nm or pm.

1 A° = 10-8 cm = 10-10 m

1nm = 10-9 m, 1pm= 10-12 m

Frequency: Frequency of a wave is defined as the number of waves passing through a point in 1
seconds. It is represented by ν (nu) and is expressed in hertz (Hz) or cycles/second or sec-1
Page 20
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE THEORY

Velocity: Velocity of a wave is defined as the linear distance travelled by the wave in 1 seconds. It is
represented by c and is expressed in cm/sec or m/sec.

Amplitude: Amplitude of a wave is the height of the crest or the depth of the trough. It is represented
by a and is expressed in the units of length.

Wavenumber: Wavenumber is defined as the number of waves present in 1 cm length. It will be

equal to the reciprocal of the wavelength. It is represented by 𝜈̅ .

Failure of Electromagnetic wave theory

It could not explain the:

• The phenomena of black body radiation

• The photoelectric effect
• The variation of heat capacity of solid as a function of
temperature.
• The line spectra sof atoms with special reference to hydrogen.
Page 21
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
PLANK QUANTUM THEORY

PLANK QUANTUM THEORY

According to Planck’s quantum theory
Different atoms and molecules can emit or absorb energy in discrete quantities only. The smallest
amount of energy that can be emitted or absorbed in the form of electromagnetic radiation is known
as quantum.

The energy of the radiation absorbed or emitted is directly proportional to the frequency of the
radiation.

Meanwhile, the energy of radiation is expressed in terms of frequency as,

E=hν

Where,

E = Energy of the radiation

h = Planck’s constant (6.626 × 10–34 J.s)

ν = Frequency of radiation

This discovery proved significant in the later development of quantum mechanics. Planck’s result
showed that electromagnetic waves behave as both particles and waves when interacting with
matter. This dual nature of electromagnetic radiation led to further investigations by de Broglie. He
was successful in obtaining a formula for the wavelength of any particle with a mass and momentum.
The relation between the wavelength of a body with its momentum is given by:
Page 22
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
PLANK QUANTUM THEORY

h
λ=
mv
Interestingly, Planck has also concluded that these were only an aspect of the processes of
absorption and emission of radiation. They had nothing to do with the physical reality of the
radiation itself. Later in the year 1905, famous German physicist, Albert Einstein also reinterpreted
Planck’s theory to further explain the photoelectric effect. He was of the opinion that if some source
of light was focused on certain materials, they can eject electrons from the material. Basically,
Planck’s work led Einstein in determining that light exists in discrete quanta of energy, or photons.

Relation of black body radiation with Planck’s law

Planck’s radiation law describes the relation of temperature with radiated energy. With the increase
in temperature, the radiation of every wavelength emitted from a black body also increases. The
relation is given by:

2hv 3
B (v, T) = ( 2 ) . (1/ehv/kbT – 1)
c

Where,

v is for frequency,

kb is Boltzmann constant.

h is Planck’s constant.
Page 23
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
SPECTRUM

SPECTRUM
A spectrum is defined as the characteristic wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation (or a portion
thereof) that is emitted or absorbed by an object or substance, atom, or molecule. Examples of a
spectrum include the rainbow, the emission colours from the Sun, and the infrared absorption
wavelengths from a molecule.

Types of Spectrum
An instrument designed for visual observation of spectra is named a spectroscope and the
photographs are a spectrograph. Spectra are also classified according to the character of their origin
i.e., emission or absorption.

Some of the spectra are listed below:

• Electromagnetic spectrum
• Emission spectrum
• Continuous spectra
• Discontinuous spectra
• Absorption spectrum

Electromagnetic Spectrum: The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum

is the range of all kinds of EM radiation. The visible radiation from a lamp to the rays used to figure
out a fractured bone, all are electromagnetic radiation. Also, the series of these totally different
radiations is named the electromagnetic spectrum.
Page 24
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
SPECTRUM

Emission Spectra: The spectrum obtained by the radiation emitted by a substance that has absorbed
energy is named emission spectra. There are 2 kinds of emission spectrum: continuous spectrum
and discontinuous spectrum.

Continuous Spectrum: This spectrum contains all wavelengths of light in a bound range. Hot, dense
light sources like stars, as an example, emit an almost continuous spectrum of light that travels out
in all directions and interacts with different materials in space. The broad range of colours that a star
emits depends on its temperature.

Discontinuous Spectrum: A discontinuous spectrum may be a type that contains gaps, holes, or
breaks in terms of the wavelengths that it contains. Depending on the type of lines obtained, a
discontinuous spectrum will be categorised into the following:

• Line spectra or atomic spectra

• Band spectra or molecular spectra

Absorption Spectrum: It is formed by electromagnetic radiation that has passed through a medium
in which radiation of specific frequencies is absorbed. In an absorption spectrum, parts of a
continuous spectrum seem like dark lines or gaps. These dark lines indicate that the wavelengths are
absorbed by the medium through which the light has passed. An absorption spectrum shows us
which wavelengths of light were absorbed by a specific gas. It's like a continuous spectrum, or
rainbow, with some black lines.
Page 25
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
BOHR'S MODEL

BOHR'S MODEL
The Bohr model of the atom was proposed by Neil Bohr in 1915. It came into existence with the
modification of Rutherford’s model of an atom. Rutherford’s model introduced the nuclear model of
an atom, in which he explained that a nucleus (positively charged) is surrounded by negatively
charged electrons.

ΔE = E2 - E1 = h𝜈

Where,

ΔE = energy absorbed or emitted

h = Plank’s constant

𝜈 = frequency of electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed

The angular momentum of an electron revolving in energy shells is

given by:
nh
me vr =
2π
Where,

n = number of corresponding energy shell; 1, 2, 3…

me = mass of the electron

v = velocity

r = radius

h = Plank’s constant
Page 26
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
BOHR'S MODEL

Postulates of Bohr’s Model of an Atom

In an atom, electrons (negatively charged) revolve around the positively charged nucleus in a definite
circular path called orbits or shells.

Each orbit or shell has a fixed energy, and these circular orbits are known as orbital shells.

The energy levels are represented by an integer (n=1, 2, 3…) known as the quantum number. This
range of quantum number starts from nucleus side with n=1 having the lowest energy level. The
orbits n = 1, 2, 3, 4… are assigned as K, L, M, N…. shells and when an electron attain the lowest energy
level, it is said to be in the ground state.

The electrons in an atom move from a lower energy level to a higher energy level by gaining the
required energy and an electron moves from a higher energy level to lower energy level by losing
energy.

Limitations of Bohr’s Model of an Atom

Bohr’s model of an atom failed to explain the Zeeman Effect (effect of magnetic field on the spectra
of atoms).

It also failed to explain the Stark effect (effect of electric field on the spectra of atoms).

It violates the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.

It could not explain the spectra obtained from larger atoms.

Page 27
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
LINE SPECTRUM OF HYDROGEN

LINE SPECTRUM OF HYDROGEN

When hydrogen gas present on discharge tube passed through high voltage & low pressure, the
radiations emitted passed through spectroscope and spectrum is obtained on photographic plate.
Hydrogen spectrum contains several lines known as series. The series present in hydrogen spectrum
are:-

Series n1 n2 Spectral region

Lyman 1 2,3,4,.. Ultraviolet
Balmer 2 3,4,5…. Visible
Paschen 3 4,5,6,7.. Infrared
Brackett 4 5,6,7… Infrared
Pfund 5 6,7,8… Infrared

Balmer showed that wave no. of spectral lines in visible region is given by.

1 1
= 109677 ( − )
22 n2

where n is an integer equal to or greater than 3 (i.e., n = 3, 4, 5, ....)

Wave no. for any two series is obtained by.

1 1
= R( − )
n12 n22

n1, n2 = level of series

The value R = 109,677 cm-1 is called the Rydberg constant for hydrogen.

The below shows the Lyman, Balmer and Paschen series of transitions for hydrogen atom.
Page 28
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
LINE SPECTRUM OF HYDROGEN

Rydberg Formula

Rydberg formula relates to the energy difference between the various levels of Bohr’s model and the
wavelengths of absorbed or emitted photons. It is mathematically expressed as-

1 1 1
= RZ2 ( 2 − 2 )
λ nl nh

Where,

𝜆 is the wavelength.

R is the Rydberg constant has the value 1.09737 × 107 m-1

Z is the atomic number

nl is the lower energy level.

nh is the higher energy level.

Lyman Series (nl = 1)

Page 29
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
LINE SPECTRUM OF HYDROGEN

Theodore Lyman founded the series between 1906 and 1914. As a result, it is named for him.
According to Bohr’s concept, the Lyman series appears when electrons shift from higher energy
levels (nh = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, …) to nl = 1 energy state. The wavelengths of the Lyman series are all in the
ultraviolet range.

Balmer Series (nl = 2)

Balmer series is displayed when electron transition takes place from higher energy states (nh = 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, …) to nl = 2 energy state. All the wavelength of Balmer series falls in visible part of
electromagnetic spectrum (400nm to 740nm). In astronomy, the presence of Hydrogen
is detected using H-Alpha line of the Balmer series, and it is also a part of the solar
spectrum.

Paschen Series (nl = 3)

Paschen series is displayed when electron transition takes place from higher energy
states (nh = 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, …) to nl = 3 energy state. All the wavelength of the Paschen series
falls in the Infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The shortest wavelength of
the next series, i.e., the Brackett series, overlaps with the Paschen series. From this
series, all subsequent series overlap.

Brackett Series (nl = 4)

Brackett series is displayed when electron transition takes place from higher energy
states (nh = 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 …) to nl = 4 energy state. All the wavelength of the Brackett series falls in the
Infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Pfund Series (nl = 5)

Pfund series is displayed when electron transition takes place from higher energy states (nh = 6, 7,
8, 9, 10, …) to nl = 5 energy state. All the wavelength of Pfund series falls in Infrared region of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
Page 30
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
TOWARDS QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL

TOWARDS QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL

Although Bohr’s model of the atom is the most commonly used model, scientists continued to
develop new and improved models for the atom. Two concepts that contributed significantly to the
development of improved models were – the Dual behaviour of matter and the Heisenberg
uncertainty principle.

Dual Behavior of Matter

In 1924, de Broglie, the French physicist proposed that matter, like radiation, should show dual
behaviour i.e. both wave-like and particle-like properties. This means that just like photons, electrons
should also have a wavelength as well as momentum. From this, de Broglie gave an equation that
relates wavelength and momentum of a material particle-
h h
λ = =
mv p
where h is the Planck’s constant (6.626 × 10-34), m is the mass of the particle, v is the velocity and p
is the momentum of the particle.

This prediction of de Broglie’s was experimentally proven when it was found that an
electron undergoes diffraction, a property characteristic of waves. This knowledge
has been used to construct an electron microscope. Just as an ordinary
microscope uses the wave nature of light, an electron microscope uses the
wave-like behaviour of electrons.

An electron microscope achieves a magnification of about 15 million times and

therefore is a powerful tool in scientific research. According to de Broglie, every object
in motion has a wave-like character. The wave properties of ordinary objects are hard
to detect because their wavelengths are so short. For example, to find out the
wavelength of a ball of mass 0.1 kg moving with a velocity of 10ms-1, we will use de
Broglie’s equation –

h 6.626 × 10−34
λ = = = 6.626 × 10−34 m
mv (0.1 × 10)

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

His principle states that – It is impossible to determine, simultaneously, the exact position and exact
momentum (or velocity) of an electron. He gave the following equation –
h
∆x × ∆px ≥ ORe
4π
Page 31
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
TOWARDS QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL

h
∆x × ∆(mvx ) ≥ OR
4π
h
∆x × ∆vx ≥
4πm
where ∆x is the uncertainty in position and ∆px or ∆vx is the uncertainty in momentum (or velocity)
of the particle. If ∆x is small, then ∆vx is large, while if ∆vx is small then ∆x will be large. Thus, is we
physically measure the electron’s position or velocity, the outcome is always fuzzy or a
blur.

We can best explain the uncertainty principle with an example. Suppose you are
asked to measure the thickness of a sheet of paper with an unmarked ruler.
Obviously, the results will be inaccurate and meaningless. To do this correctly, you
will have to use a graduated or marked ruler with units smaller than the thickness of the
sheet of paper.

Similarly, in order to measure the position of an electron, we need to measure with a

meter stick with units smaller than the dimensions of an electron. We can observe an
electron by illuminating it with “light” or electromagnetic radiation. This “light” should
have a wavelength smaller than the dimensions of an electron.
h
The collision of the high momentum photons of light (p = ) with the electrons,
λ
change the energy of the electrons. This way, we will be able to calculate the position of the electron
but we will still know very little about the velocity of the electron after a collision.

The Significance of Uncertainty Principle

It rules out the existence of definite paths or trajectories of electrons and other similar particles. The
trajectory of an object involves the location and velocity of the object. If we know the location of a
body at a particular instant and we know its velocity and the forces acting on it, we can determine
where the body will be sometime later.

The effect of Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle is significant only for the motion of microscopic
objects and is negligible for that of macroscopic objects. For example, if we apply the uncertainty
principle to an object of mass 1 milligram (10-6 kg), then.

h 6.626 × 10−34 Js
∆v. ∆x = = −6
≈ 10−28 m2 s −1
4πm (4 × 3.1416 × 10 kg)
For milligram-sized or heavier objects, the associated uncertainties are of hardly any real
consequence. The reason for this is that the value of ∆v.∆x obtained is small and insignificant.
Page 32
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
TOWARDS QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL

The precise statements of the position and momentum of electrons have to be replaced by the
statements of probability, that the electron has at a given position and momentum.

For a microscopic object like an electron, ∆v.∆x is much larger and the uncertainties are of real
consequence. For example, for an electron with a mass of 9.11 × 10-31 kg, according to the
Heisenberg uncertainty principle –

h 6.626 × 10−34 Js
∆v. ∆x = = −31
= 10−4 m2 s−1
4πm (4 × 3.1416 × 9.11 × 10 kg)
This means that if you try to find the location of an electron to an uncertainty of about 10-8m, then
the uncertainty ∆v in velocity would be –

10−4 m2 s−1 /10−8 m ≈ 104 ms −1

This value is so large that the idea of electrons moving in Bohr’s orbits does not hold good. This is
why the precise statements of the position and momentum of electrons have to be replaced by the
statements of probability, that the electron has at a given position and momentum. This is what
happens in the quantum mechanical model of the atom.
Page 33
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF ATOM

QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF ATOM

The model that underpins contemporary knowledge of the atom is regarded as the quantum
mechanical model of atom. Schrodinger's wave equation cannot be precisely solved for a multi-
electron atom, making its application to multi-electron atoms challenging. Approximate techniques
were used to get around this problem. The Schrodinger wave equation was used to determine the
structure of an atom, which resulted in the development of the quantum mechanical model of atom.

Probability Density
It aids in delivering a 3D picture of the expected location of an atom by approximating the allowed
energy significance from the atoms. The ψ² helps to be known about the distance from the nucleus
as it behaves like a function. It is always positive.

Concept of orbital
Atomic orbitals are the 3-dimensional spaces around the nucleus where the probability of finding an
electron is maximum. The molecules orbitals are formed by combining the atomic orbitals. In
quantum chemistry we have encounter orbitals which are s, p, d and f subshells. Orbitals are of
different shapes and sizes and they can be determined by the square of the wave function.

Quantum Numbers
The set of numbers used to describe the position and energy of the electron in an atom are called
quantum numbers. There are four quantum numbers, namely, principal, azimuthal, magnetic and
spin quantum numbers.
Page 34
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF ATOM

Principal Quantum Number

The Principal Quantum Number represents the principal energy level or shell in which an electron
revolves around the nucleus. It is denoted by the letter n and can have any integral value except the
0 i.e. n = 1, 2, 3, 4 … etc. The energies of the various principal shells will follow the sequence as:

K < L < M < N < O …..

1 < 2 < 3 < 4 < 5 …….

Azimuthal Quantum Number

Azimuthal quantum number, also known as orbital quantum number

determines the subshell to which an electron belongs. As a matter of
result, the number of electronic jump increases and the number of lines at the
same time.

• For a given value of n, it can have any integral value ranging from 0 to n – 1.
• For the 1st Shell, say K, n =1, you can have only one value i.e., l = 0.
• For the 2nd Shell, say L, n = 2, you can have two values i.e., l = 0 and 1.
• For the 3rd Shell, say M, n = 3, you can have three values i.e., l = 0, 1 and 2.
• For the 4th shells, say N, n = 4, you can have 4 values i.e., l = 0, 1, 2 and 3.

Magnetic Quantum Number

Page 35
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF ATOM

Magnetic Quantum Number denoted by the symbol m is what represents the orientation of atomic
orbital in space. The value of the Magnetic Quantum Number, m, depends on the value of l. Magnetic
Quantum Number can have a total number of (2l + 1).

Sublevel I mI
s 0 0
p 1 -1, 0, + 1
d 2 -2, -1, 0, + 1, + 2
f 3 -3, -2, -1, 0, + 1, + 2, + 3

Spin Quantum Number

Spin Quantum Number represents the direction of the spin of the electrons. This can either be in the
direction of clockwise or even anti-clockwise. Spin Quantum Number is denoted by the symbol s. It
1 1
can have about only two values i.e., + or −
2 2

Shape of atomic orbital

s Orbital: S orbital is a spherically symmetrical orbital around the atomic nucleus. The energy level
increases as we move away from the nucleus, therefore, the orbitals get bigger. The order of size is
1s< 2s< 3s<.

p Orbital: The p orbitals are dumbbell-shaped The node in the p orbital occurs at the centre of the
nucleus. The p orbital can occupy a maximum of six electrons due to the presence of three orbitals.
The three p orbitals are oriented at right angles to each other. The size of the p orbitals depends on
the principal quantum number n, i.e., 4p > 3p > 2p.
Page 36
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF ATOM

d Orbital: The d orbital is cloverleaf or two dumbbells in a plane. For d orbital, the value of l=2; thus,
the minimum value of the principal quantum number n is 3. The value for l cannot be greater than
n-1. The values of ml corresponding to the d orbital are (–2, –1, 0, +1 and +2) for l = 2; therefore,
there are five d orbitals.
Page 37
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF ATOM

Nodes and Nodal Planes

Node: The space or region around the nucleus where the probability of finding an electron is zero is
called node.

Nodal Plane: The plane passing through the nucleus where the probability of finding an electron is
zero is called nodal plane.

Example: For 3d electron

number of Radial nodes = n - 1 - 1 = 3 - 2 - 1 = 0

number of nodal planes = l = 2

Radial Nodes

Radial nodes are the spherical surface region where the probability of finding an electron is zero. It
depends on both the values of the principal quantum number and the azimuthal quantum number.
The number of nodes of particular orbital an increases with increase in their principal quantum
number.

Radial nodes can be find out by the formula

Number of Radial nodes = n - l - 1 = n - (l + 1)

Where n = principal quantum number, l = Azimuthal quantum number

(a) Calculating the number of radial nodes of 1s orbital;

In 1s orbital, the value of principal quantum number (n)= 1 and the value of Azimuthal quantum
number (l)= 0

Number of Radial nodes = n – l -1 = 1-0-1= 0

(b) Calculating the number of radial nodes of 2s orbital;

In 1s orbital, the value of principal quantum number (n)= 2 and the value of
Azimuthal quantum number (l)= 0

Number of Radial nodes = n – l - 1= 2 - 0 - 1 = 1

(c) Calculating the number of radial nodes of 3s orbital.

In 1s orbital, the value of principal quantum number (n) = 3 and the value of Azimuthal
quantum number (l) = 0

Number of Radial nodes = n – l -1 = 3 – 0 – 1= 2

Page 38
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF ATOM

(d) Calculating the number of radial nodes of 2p orbital.

In 2p orbital, the value of principal quantum number (n)= 2 and the value of Azimuthal quantum
number (l) = 1

Number of Radial nodes = n - l - 1 = 2 - 1 - 1 = 0

(e) Calculating the number of radial nodes of 3d orbital.

In 2p orbital, the value of principal quantum number (n) = 3 and the value of Azimuthal quantum
number (l) = 2

Number of Radial nodes = n - l - 1 = 3 - 2 - 1 = 0

Planar Nodes

The planes or planar areas around the nucleus where the probability of finding an electron is zero
are called angular nodes. The value of the angular nodes does not depend upon the value of the
principal quantum number. It only depends on the value of the azimuthal quantum number.

Number of Angular nodes = l

Where l = Azimuthal quantum number

Calculation of Angular node

(a) Calculating the angular nodes/ nodal planes of 1s orbital.

In 1s orbital, the value of Azimuthal quantum number (l)= 0

Number of Angular nodes = l = 0

(b) Calculating the angular nodes/ nodal planes of 2s orbital.

In 2s orbital, the value of Azimuthal quantum number (l)= 0

Number of Angular nodes = l = 0

Page 39
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF ATOM

(c) Calculating the angular nodes/ nodal planes of 2p orbital.

In 2p orbital, the value of Azimuthal quantum number (l)= 1

(d) Calculating the angular nodes/ nodal planes of 3d orbital;

In 3d orbital, the value of Azimuthal quantum number (l)= 2

Number of Angular nodes = l = 2

Page 40
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF ATOM

Calculations of a Total number of nodes

The total number of nodes is defined as the sum of the number of radial nodes and angular nodes.

Total number of nodes = Number of radial nodes + Number of Angular nodes

= (n - l - 1) + l

= (n - 1)

Total number of nodes = (n - 1)

Filling of Orbital in An Atom

Aufbau Principle

• This principle is named after the German word ‘Aufbeen’ which means ‘build up’.
• The Aufbau principle dictates that electrons will occupy the orbitals having lower energies
before occupying higher energy orbitals.
• The energy of an orbital is calculated by the sum of the principal and the azimuthal quantum
numbers.
• According to this principle, electrons are filled in the following order: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d,
4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p…
Page 41
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF ATOM

Pauli Exclusion Principle

• The Pauli exclusion principle states that a maximum of two electrons, each having opposite
spins, can fit in an orbital.
• This principle can also be stated as “no two electrons in the same atom have
the same values for all four quantum numbers”.
• Therefore, if the principal, azimuthal, and magnetic numbers
are the same for two electrons, they must have opposite
spins.

Hund’s Rule

• This rule describes the order in which electrons are filled in all the orbitals belonging to a
subshell.
• It states that every orbital in a given subshell is singly occupied by electrons before a second
electron is filled in an orbital.
• In order to maximize the total spin, the electrons in the orbitals that only contain one electron
all have the same spin (or the same values of the spin quantum number).

Exceptional configuration of Cr and Cu

• The electronic number of Chromium and Copper is 24, 29 respectively.
• The expected electronic configuration of Chromium and Copper is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d4 4s2
and 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d9 4s2 respectively.
• But these electronic configurations are incorrect.
• According to the Aufbau principle, the subshell that is half-filled or fully filled has greater
stability.
• Therefore, in the electronic configuration of Chromium and Copper, if one electron of 4s2
comes to the previous shell, it will make 3d4 to 3d5 and 3d9 to 3d10 .
• Now the d-orbital of Chromium and Copper is half-filled and fully filled and this will increase
the stability of the atom.
• So, the correct configuration of Chromium is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1 and Copper is
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1 .
Page 42
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF ATOM

Symmetrical distribution

As everyone knows that symmetry leads to stability. The orbitals in which the sub-shell is exactly
half-filled or completely filled are more stable because of the symmetrical distribution of electrons.

Exchange energy

The electrons which are there in degenerate orbitals have a parallel spin and tend to exchange their
position. Exchange energy is nothing but the energy released during this process. When the orbitals
are half-filled or completely filled then the number of exchanges is maximum. Therefore, its stability
is maximum.

Electronic Configuration of Ions

The electron configuration of an element describes how electrons are distributed in its atomic
orbitals. Electron configurations of atoms follow a standard notation in which all electron-containing
atomic subshells (with the number of electrons they hold written in superscript) are placed in a
sequence. For example, the electron configuration of sodium is 1s22s22p63s1.

However, the standard notation often yields lengthy electron configurations (especially for elements
having a relatively large atomic number). In such cases, an abbreviated or condensed notation may
be used instead of the standard notation. In the abbreviated notation, the sequence of completely
filled subshells that correspond to the electronic configuration of a noble gas is replaced with the
symbol of that noble gas in square brackets. Therefore, the abbreviated electron configuration of
sodium is [Ne]3s1 (the electron configuration of neon is 1s22s22p6, which can be abbreviated to
[He]2s22p6).

Neon 1s22s22p6

Aluminium 1s22s22p6 3s23p1 Becomes [Ne] 3s23p1

Argon 1s22s22p6 3s23p6

Calcium 1s22s22p6 3s23p6 4s2 Becomes [Ar] 4s2

Electronic Configuration of First 30 Elements with Atomic Numbers

Page 43
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF ATOM

Atomic Number Name of the Element Electronic Configuration

1 Hydrogen (H) 1s1
2 Helium (He) 1s2
3 Lithium (Li) [He] 2s1
4 Beryllium (Be) [He] 2s2
5 Boron (B) [He] 2s2 2p1
6 Carbon (C) [He] 2s2 2p2
7 Nitrogen (N) [He] 2s2 2p3
8 Oxygen (O) [He] 2s2 2p4
9 Fluorine (F) [He] 2s2 2p5
10 Neon (Ne) [He] 2s2 2p6
11 Sodium (Na) [Ne] 3s1
12 Magnesium (Mg) [Ne] 3s2
13 Aluminium (Al) [Ne] 3s2 3p1
14 Silicon (Si) [Ne] 3s2 3p2
15 Phosphorus (P) [Ne] 3s2 3p3
16 Sulphur (S) [Ne] 3s2 3p4
17 Chlorine (Cl) [Ne] 3s2 3p5
18 Argon (Ar) [Ne] 3s2 3p6
19 Potassium (K) [Ar] 4s1
20 Calcium (Ca) [Ar] 4s2
21 Scandium (Sc) [Ar] 3d1 4s2
22 Titanium (Ti) [Ar] 3d2 4s2
23 Vanadium (V) [Ar] 3d3 4s2
24 Chromium (Cr) [Ar] 3d5 4s1
25 Manganese (Mn) [Ar] 3d5 4s2
26 Iron (Fe) [Ar] 3d6 4s2
27 Cobalt (Co) [Ar] 3d7 4s2
28 Nickel (Ni) [Ar] 3d8 4s2
29 Copper (Cu) [Ar] 3d10 4s1
30 Zinc (Zn) [Ar] 3d10 4s2

Cations and Anions

Cations are positively charged ions. They are formed when a metal loses its electrons. They lose one
or more than one electron. It has fewer electrons than protons. Therefore, they possess a net
positive charge. Some examples of cations are Calcium (Ca2+), Potassium (K+), hydrogen (H+).
Page 44
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF ATOM

Anions are negatively charged ions. They are formed when non-metal gains the electrons. They gain
one or more than one electron. Therefore, they possess a net negative charge. Some examples of
anions are Iodide (I–), chloride (Cl–), hydroxide (OH–).

Magnetic moment

Spin only magnetic moment:

• When electrons move around freely, they create a magnetic field; this magnetic field created
by electron motion is known as the magnetic moment.
• A spin-only magnetic moment occurs when an electron rotates on its own axis and generates
a magnetic field.

The formula for the calculation of spin only magnetic moment

• μs = √n(n + 2)
• Here, n is the number of unpaired electrons.
• The unit for a spin-only magnetic moment is the Bohr magneton (BM).
Page 45
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF BOHAR'S POSTULATES

MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF BOHAR'S POSTULATES

Mathematical Derivation of Bohr’s Radius
Consider an atom having one electron. The charge of the nucleus is Ze+. The electron of mass ‘m’ is
moving in a circular manner with the radius ‘r’ with velocity ‘v’.

The number of photons is Z and e+ is the charge of a photon.

Diagram of Bohr’s atomic model

The force with which the electron wants to fly away is the centripetal force.

F = mv2/r

The force is balanced by the electrostatic force of attraction of the electron (Ze +) and the nucleus
(Ze+). According to coulombs law, the force of attraction is F = Ze+. e– /4π ∈or2

Here ∈0 (epsilon) is a proportionally constant. It is known as the permittivity of the vacuum. Its
numerical value is ∈0 = 8.854 x 10-12C2J-1m-1

The electron can only revolve in orbit if the centripetal force and the coulombic are equal.

mv2 /r = Ze2/4π ∈or2

mv2 = Ze2/4π ∈or

r = Ze2/ 4π ∈or2
Page 46
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF BOHAR'S POSTULATES

According to equation (5), the radius of the atom is inversely proportional to the electron. It means
that when the electron goes to the higher orbits its velocity decreases.

But the determination of the velocity of the revolving electrons in a very small-sized atom is
impossible. So we eliminate the factor of velocity from equation (5). For this purpose, we take the
help of the fourth postulate of Bohr’s model.

nh
Mvr =
4π

nh
V =
2πmr

Taking Square,

n2 h2
V2 = … (6)
4π2 m2 r 2

Putting equation (6) into equation (5)

Ze2 n2 h2
r = m× 2 2 2
4 ∈0 4π m r

Simplifying this equation, taking r on L.H.S. and other factors on right R.H.S.

n2 h2 ∈o
r= … (7)
πmZe2

h2 ∈o
e = … (8)
2 n2
πme ( )
Z

Actually, we have re- arranged the equation (7) and the constant factors have been
taken outsides the brackets. If we do the calculations of these factors, by putting
their values as,

h = 6.625 x 10−34 Js, ∈o = 8.854 × 10−12 C J−1 m−1

π = 3.1416, m = 9.106 × 10−31 kg,

Page 47
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF BOHAR'S POSTULATES

e− = 1.602 × 10−19 C

h2 ∈o
Then, = 0.529 × 10−10 m
πme2

‘m ’is the unit of length

Since, 10-10 m = 1Ao so equation (8) becomes

r = 0.529 (n2/z) Ao

This equation (9) is for any atomic system having one electron, and revolving around Z-protons.

Let us apply this equation on the hydrogen atom for which Z = 1 (H atom has one proton in the
nucleus)

r = 0.529(n2) Ao

With the help equation (10) let us calculate the radii of first five orbits of hydrogen atom

r1 = 0.529Ao (12) = 0.529Ao

r2 = 0.529Ao (22) = 2.41Ao

r3 = 0.529Ao (32) = 4.8Ao

r4 = 0.529Ao (42) = 8.4Ao

3 = 0.529Ao (52) = 13.2Ao

These calculations show that distances between adjacent orbits go on increasing

from the lower to higher ones.
Page 48
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF BOHAR'S POSTULATES

Radii of the first five orbits of hydrogen atom in other words, r2 - r1 < r3 - r2 < r4 - r3 and so on.

These calculations tell us that the second orbit is four times more away than the first one from the
nucleus. The third orbit is nine times away. In other words, the atom becomes thinner as one goes
away from the nucleus.
Page 49
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
MIND MAPS - I
Page 50
Class 11th Chemistry

02 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
MIND MAPS - II
CLICK TO DOWNLOAD MORE CHAPTERS
Dear Teachers and Students,

Join School of Educators' exclusive WhatsApp, Telegram, and Signal groups for FREE access
to a vast range of educational resources designed to help you achieve 100/100 in exams!
Separate groups for teachers and students are available, packed with valuable content to
boost your performance.

Additionally, benefit from expert tips, practical advice, and study hacks designed to enhance
performance in both CBSE exams and competitive entrance tests.

Don’t miss out—join today and take the first step toward academic excellence!

Join the Teachers and Students

Group by Clicking the Link Below
JOIN OUR
WHATSAPP
GROUPS
FOR FREE EDUCATIONAL
RESOURCES
JOIN SCHOOL OF EDUCATORS WHATSAPP GROUPS
FOR FREE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES
We are thrilled to introduce the School of Educators WhatsApp Group, a
platform designed exclusively for educators to enhance your teaching & Learning
experience and learning outcomes. Here are some of the key benefits you can
expect from joining our group:

BENEFITS OF SOE WHATSAPP GROUPS

Abundance of Content: Members gain access to an extensive repository of

educational materials tailored to their class level. This includes various formats such
as PDFs, Word files, PowerPoint presentations, lesson plans, worksheets, practical
tips, viva questions, reference books, smart content, curriculum details, syllabus,
marking schemes, exam patterns, and blueprints. This rich assortment of resources
enhances teaching and learning experiences.

Immediate Doubt Resolution: The group facilitates quick clarification of doubts.

Members can seek assistance by sending messages, and experts promptly respond
to queries. This real-time interaction fosters a supportive learning environment
where educators and students can exchange knowledge and address concerns
effectively.

Access to Previous Years' Question Papers and Topper Answers: The group
provides access to previous years' question papers (PYQ) and exemplary answer
scripts of toppers. This resource is invaluable for exam preparation, allowing
individuals to familiarize themselves with the exam format, gain insights into scoring
techniques, and enhance their performance in assessments.
 Free and Unlimited Resources: Members enjoy the benefit of accessing an array of
educational resources without any cost restrictions. Whether its study materials,
teaching aids, or assessment tools, the group offers an abundance of resources
tailored to individual needs. This accessibility ensures that educators and students
have ample support in their academic endeavors without financial constraints.

Instant Access to Educational Content: SOE WhatsApp groups are a platform where
teachers can access a wide range of educational content instantly. This includes study
materials, notes, sample papers, reference materials, and relevant links shared by
group members and moderators.

Timely Updates and Reminders: SOE WhatsApp groups serve as a source of timely
updates and reminders about important dates, exam schedules, syllabus changes, and
academic events. Teachers can stay informed and well-prepared for upcoming
assessments and activities.

Interactive Learning Environment: Teachers can engage in discussions, ask questions,

and seek clarifications within the group, creating an interactive learning environment.
This fosters collaboration, peer learning, and knowledge sharing among group
members, enhancing understanding and retention of concepts.

Access to Expert Guidance: SOE WhatsApp groups are moderated by subject matter
experts, teachers, or experienced educators can benefit from their guidance,
expertise, and insights on various academic topics, exam strategies, and study
techniques.

Join the School of Educators WhatsApp Group today and unlock a world of resources,
support, and collaboration to take your teaching to new heights. To join, simply click
on the group links provided below or send a message to +91-95208-77777 expressing
your interest.

Together, let's empower ourselves & Our Students and

inspire the next generation of learners.

Best Regards,
Team
School of Educators
 Join School of Educators WhatsApp Groups

You will get Pre- Board Papers PDF, Word file, PPT, Lesson Plan, Worksheet, practical
tips and Viva questions, reference books, smart content, curriculum, syllabus,
marking scheme, toppers answer scripts, revised exam pattern, revised syllabus,
Blue Print etc. here . Join Your Subject / Class WhatsApp Group.

Kindergarten to Class XII (For Teachers Only)

Class 1 Class 2 Class 3

Class 4 Class 5 Class 6

Class 7 Class 8 Class 9

Class 10 Class 11 (Science) Class 11 (Humanities)

Class 11 (Commerce) Class 12 (Science) Class 12 (Humanities)

Class 12 (Commerce) Kindergarten

Subject Wise Secondary and Senior Secondary Groups
(IX & X For Teachers Only)
Secondary Groups (IX & X)

SST Mathematics Science

English Hindi-A IT Code-402

Hindi-B Artificial Intelligence

Senior Secondary Groups (XI & XII For Teachers Only)

Physics Chemistry English

Mathematics Biology Accountancy

Economics BST History

 Geography Sociology Hindi Elective

Hindi Core Home Science Sanskrit

Psychology Political Science Painting

Vocal Music Comp. Science IP

Physical Education APP. Mathematics Legal Studies

Entrepreneurship French IT

Artificial Intelligence

Other Important Groups (For Teachers & Principal’s)

Principal’s Group Teachers Jobs IIT/NEET

 Join School of Educators WhatsApp Groups

You will get Pre- Board Papers PDF, Word file, PPT, Lesson Plan, Worksheet, practical
tips and Viva questions, reference books, smart content, curriculum, syllabus,
marking scheme, toppers answer scripts, revised exam pattern, revised syllabus,
Blue Print etc. here . Join Your Subject / Class WhatsApp Group.

Kindergarten to Class XII (For Students Only)

Class 1 Class 2 Class 3

Class 4 Class 5 Class 6

Class 7 Class 8 Class 9

Class 10 Class 11 (Science) Class 11 (Humanities)

Class 11 (Commerce) Class 12 (Science) Class 12 (Humanities)

Class 12 (Commerce) Artificial Intelligence

(VI TO VIII)
Subject Wise Secondary and Senior Secondary Groups
(IX & X For Students Only)
Secondary Groups (IX & X)

SST Mathematics Science

English Hindi IT Code

Artificial Intelligence

Senior Secondary Groups (XI & XII For Students Only)

Physics Chemistry English

Mathematics Biology Accountancy

Economics BST History

 Geography Sociology Hindi Elective

Hindi Core Home Science Sanskrit

Psychology Political Science Painting

Music Comp. Science IP

Physical Education APP. Mathematics Legal Studies

Entrepreneurship French IT

AI IIT/NEET CUET
Groups Rules & Regulations:
To maximize the benefits of these WhatsApp groups, follow these guidelines:

1. Share your valuable resources with the group.

2. Help your fellow educators by answering their queries.
3. Watch and engage with shared videos in the group.
4. Distribute WhatsApp group resources among your students.
5. Encourage your colleagues to join these groups.

Additional notes:
1. Avoid posting messages between 9 PM and 7 AM.
2. After sharing resources with students, consider deleting outdated data if necessary.
3. It's a NO Nuisance groups, single nuisance and you will be removed.
No introductions.
No greetings or wish messages.
No personal chats or messages.
No spam. Or voice calls
Share and seek learning resources only.

Please only share and request learning resources. For assistance,

contact the helpline via WhatsApp: +91-95208-77777.
 Join Premium WhatsApp Groups
Ultimate Educational Resources!!

Join our premium groups and just Rs. 1000 and gain access to all our exclusive
materials for the entire academic year. Whether you're a student in Class IX, X, XI, or
XII, or a teacher for these grades, Artham Resources provides the ultimate tools to
enhance learning. Pay now to delve into a world of premium educational content!

Click here for more details

Class 9 Class 10 Class 11

Class 12

📣 Don't Miss Out! Elevate your academic journey with top-notch study materials and secure
your path to top scores! Revolutionize your study routine and reach your academic goals with
our comprehensive resources. Join now and set yourself up for success! 📚🌟

Best Wishes,

Team
School of Educators & Artham Resources
 SKILL MODULES BEING OFFERED IN
MIDDLE SCHOOL

Artificial Intelligence Beauty & Wellness Design Thinking & Financial Literacy
Innovation

Handicrafts Information Technology Marketing/Commercial Mass Media - Being Media

Application Literate

Data Science (Class VIII Augmented Reality /

Travel & Tourism Coding
only) Virtual Reality

Digital Citizenship Life Cycle of Medicine & Things you should know What to do when Doctor
Vaccine about keeping Medicines is not around
at home

Humanity & Covid-19 Blue Pottery Pottery Block Printing

 Food Food Preservation Baking Herbal Heritage

Khadi Mask Making Mass Media Making of a Graphic

Novel

Kashmiri Embroidery Satellites

Rockets
Embroidery

Application of Photography
Satellites
SKILL SUBJECTS AT SECONDARY LEVEL (CLASSES IX – X)

Retail Information Technology Automotive

Security

Introduction To Financial Introduction To Tourism Beauty & Wellness Agriculture

Markets

Food Production Front Office Operations Banking & Insurance Marketing & Sales

Health Care Apparel Multi Media Multi Skill Foundation

Course

Artificial Intelligence
Physical Activity Trainer Electronics & Hardware
Data Science
(NEW)

Foundation Skills For Sciences Design Thinking & Innovation (NEW)

(Pharmaceutical & Biotechnology)(NEW)
 SKILL SUBJECTS AT SR. SEC. LEVEL
(CLASSES XI – XII)

Retail InformationTechnology Web Application Automotive

Financial Markets Management Tourism Beauty & Wellness Agriculture

Food Production Front Office Operations Banking Marketing

Health Care Insurance Horticulture Typography & Comp.

Application

Geospatial Technology Electrical Technology Electronic Technology Multi-Media

 Taxation Cost Accounting Office Procedures & Shorthand (English)
Practices

Shorthand (Hindi) Air-Conditioning & Medical Diagnostics Textile Design

Refrigeration

Salesmanship Business Food Nutrition &

Design
Administration Dietetics

Mass Media Studies Library & Information Fashion Studies Applied Mathematics
Science

Yoga Early Childhood Care & Artificial Intelligence Data Science

Education

Physical Activity Land Transportation Electronics & Design Thinking &

Trainer(new) Associate (NEW) Hardware (NEW) Innovation (NEW)
 Join School of Educators Signal Groups

You will get Pre- Board Papers PDF, Word file, PPT, Lesson Plan, Worksheet, practical
tips and Viva questions, reference books, smart content, curriculum, syllabus,
marking scheme, toppers answer scripts, revised exam pattern, revised syllabus,
Blue Print etc. here . Join Your Subject / Class signal Group.

Kindergarten to Class XII

Class 2 Class 3
Class 1

Class 5 Class 6
Class 4

Class 7 Class 8 Class 9

Class 10 Class 11 (Science) Class 11 (Humanities)

Class 11 (Commerce) Class 12 (Science) Class 12 (Humanities)

Class 12 (Commerce) Kindergarten Artifical intelligence

 Subject Wise Secondary and Senior Secondary
Groups IX & X

Secondary Groups (IX & X)

SST Mathematics Science

Hindi-B
English Hindi-A

IT Artifical intelligence
IT Code-402

Senior Secondary Groups XI & XII

Physics Chemistry English

Biology Accountancy
Mathematics

BST History
Economics
 Geography Sociology Hindi Elective

Hindi Core Home Science Sanskrit

Psychology Political Science Painting

IP
Vocal Music Comp. Science

Physical Education APP. Mathematics Legal Studies

IIT/NEET
Entrepreneurship French

Artifical intelligence CUET

 Join School of Educators CBSE Telegram Groups

Kindergarten

All classes Class 1 Class 2

Class 3 Class 4 Class 5

Class 6 Class 7 Class 8

Class 9 Class 10 Class 11 (Sci)

Class 11 (Com) Class 11 (Hum) Class 12 (Sci)

Class 12 (Com) Class 12 (Hum) JEE/NEET

CUET NDA, OLYMPIAD, NTSE Principal Professional Group

Teachers Professional Group Project File Group

Join School of Educators ICSE Telegram Groups

Kindergarten Class 1 Class 2

Class 3 Class 4 Class 5

Class 6 Class 7 Class 8

Class 9 Class 10 Class 11 (Sci)

Class 11 (Com) Class 11 (Hum) Class 12 (Sci)

Class 12 (Com) Class 12 (Hum)