UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN

FACULTY OF ARTS

DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

COURSE CODE: HIS 327

COURSE TITLE: INTERNATIONAL POLITICS SINCE 1945

LECTURER IN CHARGE: DR. ABOYEJI SOLOMON

GROUP NUMBER: GROUP 1

GROUP QUESTION: DEFINITION AND THEORY OF

INTERNATIONAL POLITICS.
 NAMES AND MATRICULATION NUMBER

S/N NAMES MATRIC NUM

1. ADEOLA MERCY OLUWABUNMI 20/15CF021
2. ABDULRASAQ MARIAM OMOTOKE 21/15CA010
3. ADENEKAN MONSURAT TEMILOLA 21/15CA034
4. AJAYI OPEYEMI OLUWASEUN 21/15CA060
5. AJETUNMOBI HIKMAT TITILADE 21/15CA062
6. AKANBI ZAIDAT AYOMIDE 21/15CA066
7. AROWOLO OLUWAPELUMI DEBORAH 21/15CA096
8. AWE TOYOSI DEBORAH 21/15CA104
9. AYENI JOSIAH EHIS 21/15CA109
10. BALOGUN SHUKURAT OPEYEMI 21/15CA123
11. BELLO PLEASANT OMADE 21/15CA129
12. FESOMADE RUKAYAT OLAMIPOSI 21/15CA149
13. JUBRIL ARAFAT OYINKANSOLA 21/15CA182
14. KAREEM TAIWO NURAT 21/15CA183
15. OJULARI MUHAMMED OLAMILEKAN 21/15CA226
16. OLASUNKANMI ZAINAB ADENIKE 21/15CA254
17. OLUSEGUN BOLUWATIFE PRAISE 21/15CA268
18. OMOLE AYOKUNUMI 21/15CA272
19. SANNI BENITA OYINLOLA 21/15CA313
20. SULYMAN MUIBAT TITILOPE 21/15CA328
 OUTLINE

● ABSTRACT.

● BACKGROUND AND INTRODUCTION.

● DEFINITIONS OF INTERNATIONAL POLITICS.

● THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS IN INTERNATIONAL

POLITICS.

● CONTEMPORARY ISSUES AND PROGRESS OF

INTERNATIONAL POLITICS SINCE 1945.

● CONCLUSION.

● REFERENCES.
 ABSTRACT.

This paper offers a detailed analysis of international politics from 1945

onwards. It explains the key definitions, historical origins of
international politics, and differentiate between international politics and
international relations. It also traces the evolution of modern
international politics back to the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 and the
establishment of the League of Nations in 1919, discussing essential
concepts that govern the international political system, such as
sovereignty, anarchy, national power, and the balance of power. Major
actors including states, international organizations, and non-state entities
are outlined.

Theoretical frameworks, notably realism, liberalism/Idealism, and

constructivism, alongside perspectives such as Marxism and feminism,
are examined in this write up. The impact of significant 20th-century
events like the World Wars and the Cold War on global politics are
addressed given an analysis of the post-Cold War era, characterized by
multipolarity, globalization, and technological advancements among
others.
 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND.

International Politics as an academic field of study has often been used

synonymously or interchangeably with International Relations. International
Relations since its onset have focused on the global community-in a broader
sense(international law, international affairs, international politics, collective
security e.t.c). On the other hand, International Politics focuses mainly on the
struggle for power among states in the international landscape.

In our contemporary global environment, “politics “on its own has focused
on the challenges we face, power and struggles, and the opportunities, as well
as obstacles for peaceful relations among people, societies, states,
organizations.

International politics can now be viewed as how powers operate and perform
within or between sovereign states in the international arena. It broadens our
understanding on how these states make decisions, protects its national
interests, interacts and relates with other actors in the international
community.

Different scholars and political writers have argued on their respective

perspectives to conclude on which theory governs or directs the course of
affairs in the International Political landscape. These theories, such as
realism, liberalism, and constructivism, have helped in explaining why states
act the way they do on the world stage. It is about ideas: different
understandings of how the world works, what is important and how we might
tackle the challenges we face.

In today’s world, international politics is more critical than ever. It’s about
understanding why countries make their choices, defend their sovereignty,
and confront global challenges—from economic crises to climate change.
 DEFINITIONS OF INTERNATIONAL POLITICS.

International Politics has been described as the “process of influencing,

manipulating or controlling major groups in the world, so as to safeguard
and advance the interests of some against the opposition of others”.

International Politics is about the world we live in, the challenges we face,
power and struggles, and the opportunities – as well as obstacles – for
peaceful relations among peoples, societies, states, organizations. It is also
about ideas: different understandings of how the world works, what is
important and how we might tackle the challenges we face. It considers the
histories of peoples and places but also how our world is becoming
increasingly complex and interdependent, especially in the increasing conflict
and era of climate change.

Hans J Morghentau in his seminal work, “Politics Among Nations: The

Struggle for Power and Peace”, he defines International politics as

“the struggle for power among nations.”

International politics, also known as global politics, is the study of

relationships between countries, focusing on the interactions that influence
power, global stability, economic prosperity, and security. The field
encompasses various theories, approaches, and frameworks to understand the
dynamics of global governance, diplomacy, power, and conflict.

Although, international politics and international relations are often used

interchangeably, they are two different fields of study: International relations
lay emphasis on the interaction between states and other international actors
which can include economic, social and cultural exchanges while
international politics is seen as an aspect of international relations, it focuses
on the political relationships between sovereign states with each states as the
primary actors in the international realm.
International Politics is defined by Norman J. Padelford and George A.
Lincoln as:

“the interaction of individual nation-states in the pursuit of their perceived

national interests and goals”.

Palmer and Perkins also defined international politics as the study of state
systems, including the interactions of nation-states, international
organizations, and groups

Penn State defined international politics as the study of how power operates
between and within states, and includes topics such as human rights,
terrorism, and economic development

Image of the International Community.

SCHOLARLY DEFINITION OF INTERNATIONAL POLITICS

1. HANS J MORGHENTAU define International politics as the struggle

for power among nations. This realist perspective emphasizes the role
of power and national interest in shaping international relations.
2. KENNETH WALTZ defined International politics as a struggle for
power among states in an anarchic system. This neorealist theory
highlights the importance of the structure of the international system,
particularly the absence of a central authority, in shaping state behavior.
3. ROBERT O. KEOHANE :International politics is a complex web of
interactions among states, international organizations, and non-state
[Link]'s liberal theory emphasizes the role of institutions and
norms in shaping international cooperation.
4. According to ALEXANDER WENDY, states are what they are in
relation to what others are, and what they might become in relation to
one [Link]'s constructivist theory highlights the role of social
interactions and norms in shaping state identity and interests.
5. MARTIN WIGHT defined International politics as the study of the
relations of states with each other and with international organizations
and certain subnational entities." Wight's definition emphasizes the
importance of both states and non-state actors in shaping international
relations.
6. According to HEDLEY BULL, international politics is the study of
the relations of states with each other and with international
organizations and certain subnational entities. Bull's definition is
similar to Wight's, emphasizing the importance of both states and
non-state actors.
7. ANDREW LINKLATER sees International politics as the study of the
relations of states with each other and with international organizations
and certain subnational entities. Linklater's definition is also similar to
Wight's and Bull's, emphasizing the importance of both states and
non-state actors.
ORIGIN OF INTERNATIONAL POLITICAL SYSTEM

The historical origins of international politics can be traced back to ancient

civilizations, where interactions between different city-states, empires, and
kingdoms involved diplomacy, alliances, and conflict. A typical example of
these ancient states are the Greek city-states. However, the modern origin of
international politics can be traced to the treaty of Westphalia in 1648.

The treaty, which marked the end of the Thirty Years' War and established the
principle of sovereign states. It introduced the concept of territorial integrity,
non-interference, and the balance of power, which laid the foundation for the
modern international system as we have it today

The aftermath of World War I saw the birth of international relations as an

academic discipline. Scholars began to analyze the causes of the war and the
potential for future conflicts and also how to prevent another war from
erupting. The creation of the League of Nations in 1919 was an early attempt
at international cooperation to prevent war.

The league of nations however failed to live up to the expectations as the

world soon witnessed the outbreak of another world war. The outbreak of the
Second World War led to new developments in the international field. The
impact of the war led to the creation of the United Nations in 1945, a more
robust international organization aimed at maintaining peace and security.

KEY CONCEPTS OF INTERNATIONAL POLITICS.

● Sovereignty: This is the supreme and independent political authority of

a state within its territorial boundaries that enables it to make and
enforce laws without the intervention of external force. Each state in
the international political system is a sovereign state.
● Anarchy:This is the absence of a central governing authority in the
international system.
● National Power: This is the ability of a state to influence the behavior
of other states. It represents the relationship between two or more
political actors where one actor has the ability to control the mind and
behavior of other actors in a way different from their original intent
● National Interest: This is the goals and objectives that a state seeks to
achieve in international relations. How a country wields its national
power determines whether such a country would be available to
achieve its national interest.
● Balance of Power: This is the process of using a two or more country's
power to balance or keep a more powerful country in check. It is a
 series of counterbalancing coalitions that has repeatedly been formed in
history, in order to prevent one state from conquering an entire region.

Actors in International Politics

● States:Sovereign political entities with defined territories and

populations.
● International Organizations: Intergovernmental bodies like the United
Nations, the European Union, and the African Union.
● Non-State Actors: Entities that are not states but still influence
international politics, such as multinational corporations, NGOs, and
terrorist groups.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK IN INTERNATIONAL POLITICS

A theoretical framework in international politics is essentially a structured

lens through which scholars analyze global events, relationships, and
phenomena. It provides a set of concepts, assumptions, and propositions that
guide the analysis of complex issues in international relations, such as power
dynamics, conflicts, diplomacy, and cooperation among states.

Key theoretical frameworks in international politics include:

1. Realism, which views the international system as anarchic, where states act
primarily in their own self-interest, focusing on power and security.

2. Liberalism, which emphasizes cooperation, institutions, and international

organizations, arguing that states can work together to achieve common goals
and maintain peace.

3. Constructivism, which suggests that international relations are shaped by

social interactions, ideas, identities, and beliefs rather than purely material
factors like military power. 4. Marxism, which focuses on economic
inequalities and class struggles, viewing international relations as a reflection
of global capitalism and exploitation by powerful states or corporations.
5. Feminism, which examines how gendered perspectives influence
international politics, often highlighting the role of gender inequalities and
advocating for more inclusive policy [Link].

Using these frameworks allows scholars to systematically evaluate causes,

effects, and underlying structures in global politics, offering explanations and
predictions about international behavior and trends.

REALISM

Realism in the context of international relations theory, is the perspective that

sees the international system as anarchic, meaning there is no overarching
authority above states. Realists believe that states are the primary actors and
operate in a self-interested manner, primarily focused on survival and
security.

According to realism, states prioritize their national interests and seek power
to ensure their security in an uncertain, competitive world. This often leads to
conflicts and alliances as states try to balance against potential threats or
rivals. Realism is grounded in the assumption that human nature and the
international environment drive states to prioritize power and security over
ideals, cooperation, or ethical considerations. Prominent realist theorists
include Hans Morgenthau, Kenneth Waltz, and John Mearsheimer, who
emphasize aspects such as power dynamics, military capability, and the
challenges of trust and cooperation in an anarchic system.

Realism in international politics is built on several key principles that define

how states behave in the international system. Some of the main principles
include; Anarchy, State-centrism, Rationality and self-interest, Power and
security, Balance of power, etc.

I. Anarchy: In realism, "anarchy" refers to the absence of a central authority

or governing body in the international system. Unlike in domestic politics,
where laws and police enforce order, there is no global government to
regulate state behavior. This lack of oversight compels states to prioritize
their security independently. Imagine a frontier town in the Wild West, where
there’s no sheriff or law enforcement. Each family or group has to rely on its
own resources and strategies for protection. In international relations, this is
similar to how each state feels responsible for its own security and survival.

II. State-Centrism: Realism places states at the center of international

relations. While non-state actors (like multinational corporations or
international organizations) exist, they are viewed as secondary in terms of
influence and power. Realists argue that only states have the power and
authority to make decisions about war, peace, and security.

III. Rationality and Self-Interest: Realism assumes that states act rationally,
meaning they make decisions that maximize their self-interest, often defined
in terms of security and power. States evaluate costs and benefits of actions to
ensure the greatest advantage, primarily focusing on their own survival and
wellbeing. For example, consider a business that only invests in ventures with
a high return on investment, regardless of social or ethical implications.
Similarly, states focus on decisions that benefit their national interests, even if
those decisions might conflict with moral considerations.

IV. Power and Security: This emphasizes that power, especially military
power, is essential for a state's security. In an anarchic world, states prioritize
building and maintaining power to defend against potential threats. This drive
for power often leads to arms buildups, alliances, and sometimes conflict.
Illustratively, During the Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union
engaged in a massive arms race, each building nuclear weapons to match or
exceed the other's arsenal. This build up was based on the realist view that
having strong military power would prevent the other side from threatening
their security

V. Balance of Power: The balance of power principle suggests that states act
to prevent any one state from becoming too powerful. States often form
alliances or take measures to counteract a rising power, aiming to maintain
stability in the international [Link], before World War I, European
powers like Britain, France, and Russia formed alliances to balance against
Germany and Austria-Hungary, fearing that unchecked power could disrupt
the European order. This balancing behavior is typical of realism, as states
seek to prevent any one state from dominating the [Link]

These principles collectively illustrate how realists see the world as an arena
of competing, self-interested states operating under conditions of anarchy.
This competition often drives states to prioritize security, power, and rational
self-interest over ideals, cooperation, or ethics.

MAJOR THEORIST OF REALISM

It will be of great importance to highlight some of the major theorists who

developed and refined the theory "REALISM",which include; Hans
Morgenthau, Kenneth Waltz, John Mearsheimer, Stephen Waltz, etc.

a. Hans Morgenthau is often considered the father of modern realism. His

work, Politics Among Nations (1948), outlines the principles of political
realism, emphasizing the concept of power politics. He argued that
international relations are governed by objective laws rooted in human
nature, with self-interest and the pursuit of power being primary drivers of
state behavior.

b. Kenneth Waltz introduced the concept of neorealism or structural realism

in his influential book Theory of International Politics (1979). Unlike
Morgenthau, who focused on human nature, Waltz attributed state behavior to
the structure of the international system. According to him, the anarchic
structure forces states to act in ways that maximize their security, leading to a
balance of power.
c. John Mearsheimer, a proponent of offensive realism, argues that states are
inherently driven to achieve dominance. His book The Tragedy of Great
Power Politics (2001) emphasizes that states seek to maximize their power,
often leading to conflicts as they attempt to secure their position and prevent
others from gaining dominance.

d. Stephen Walt introduced the concept of balance of threat as a modification

to traditional balance of power theory. He argued that states balance against
perceived threats, not just power. This distinction provides insight into
alliances and rivalries, especially in understanding how states perceive each
other's intentions.

e. Robert Gilpin contributed to hegemonic stability theory, suggesting that the

international system is more stable when a single dominant power (hegemon)
exists. His work highlights the cyclical nature of international order, with
hegemonic powers rising and declining, leading to shifts in global stability.

These theorists differ in their interpretations but share a core belief in the
centrality of power, self-interest, and the constraints imposed by the anarchic
structure of the international system. Their work has profoundly influenced
both the academic study of international relations and the practical conduct of
foreign policy.

REALISM IN THE POST-1945 ERA

After World War II, realism became one of the dominant theories in
international relations, largely due to the tumultuous and polarized global
landscape. Realism, rooted in a pessimistic view of human nature and the
anarchic structure of international politics, emphasized that states were
primarily concerned with their own security and power rather than
ideological or ethical considerations. Key themes of post-World War II
realism include:

[Link] Politics; Realists argued that power was the primary currency in
international relations, and that states sought to maximize their power relative
to other states. This emphasis on power led to the Cold War competition
between the United States and the Soviet Union, as both superpowers sought
to increase their influence and prevent the other from gaining dominance.

2. Security Dilemma; Realists also highlighted the security dilemma, where

actions taken by one state to increase its security (like building up its
military) were seen as threats by others, prompting them to build up their
own defenses. This mutual distrust was particularly evident during the arms
race between the U.S. and the Soviet Union, leading to a buildup of nuclear
weapons as each sought to deter the other from aggression.

3. Balance of Power; They argued that stability in international relations

could be achieved through a balance of power, where no single state held
overwhelming power. The Cold War’s bipolarity (two powerful blocs led by
the U.S. and the USSR) was seen by realists as a somewhat stable system, as
both superpowers could check each other’s ambitions, thus preventing global
dominance.

4. National Interest and Pragmatism: Realism also argues that states are
driven by national interest and pragmatism, often at the expense of ideology
or moral considerations. For instance, during the Cold War, both the U.S. and
USSR supported various authoritarian regimes if it served their strategic
interests, rather than out of ideological alignment.

In brief, the theoretical framework of "realism" offers a foundational

understanding of the competitive, often adversarial nature of international
relations, focusing on state sovereignty, power, and anarchy.

LIBERALISM/IDEALISM

Liberalism in international politics presents a framework that highlights the

importance of cooperation, institutions, and shared norms among states to
achieve collective security and prosperity. It diverges from realism by
suggesting that states are not only driven by self-interest and power but also
by the potential benefits of interdependence, diplomacy, and adherence to
rules. Liberalism holds that international relations are not solely shaped by an
anarchic system but can be organized around laws, institutions, and
agreements that promote peace and mutual gain.

Key Principles of Liberalism

1. Cooperation and Interdependence: Liberalism argues that states can

cooperate for mutual benefit, especially through trade, alliances, and treaties.
This cooperation reduces the likelihood of conflict, as interdependent
economies and common interests discourage war.

2. Democratic Peace Theory: A cornerstone of liberalism is the belief that

democracies are less likely to go to war with one another due to shared norms
of negotiation and political accountability. The spread of democracy is thus
seen as a path to greater global stability.

3. Role of International Institutions: Institutions like the United Nations

(UN), World Trade Organization (WTO), and International Monetary Fund
(IMF) are seen as critical for promoting global governance, managing
conflicts, and encouraging cooperation. These organizations provide
platforms for negotiation and help enforce international agreements.

4. Economic Liberalism and Free Trade: Liberalism posits that free trade
fosters peace by creating economic ties that make conflict more costly.
Economic interdependence among nations encourages them to work together,
thereby aligning their interests for greater stability. 6 Human Rights and
Global Norms: Liberals emphasize the promotion of human rights and ethical
standards in foreign policy, arguing that respect for individual rights and
justice is essential for sustainable peace.

MAJOR THEORIST OF LIBERALISM/IDEALISM

Robert Keohane: Keohane advanced the concept of "neoliberal

institutionalism," arguing that while the international system is anarchic,
states create institutions and regimes that reduce uncertainty and promote
cooperation. His influential work, After Hegemony (1984), examines how
states maintain cooperation even without a dominant power enforcing rules,
emphasizing the importance of institutions in a globalized world.

Joseph Nye: Known for developing the concept of "soft power," Nye argued
that states can influence others not only through military might or economic
sanctions but also through cultural appeal, political values, and diplomacy.
His ideas have reshaped how policymakers view influence in global affairs,
highlighting that power in the liberal sense includes the attraction of values
and norms as well as cooperation.

LIBERALISM IN THE POST-1945 ERA

After World War II, liberalism became highly influential as nations sought to
prevent further global conflicts and create a stable international order. The
establishment of the United Nations and the Bretton Woods institutions
(World Bank and IMF) reflected liberal goals of promoting peace through
collective security, economic interdependence, and international governance.
Economic liberalism flourished with the rise of free trade agreements and
multilateral economic institutions, such as the GATT (later the WTO), which
lowered trade barriers and promoted interdependence among nations. This
interconnectedness aimed to make war less appealing, as countries became
economically invested in each other's stability.

The period also saw the spread of democracy, bolstered by the democratic
peace theory. Western nations, especially the United States, promoted
democratic governance as a pathway to peace, supporting democratic
movements in Eastern Europe, Latin America, and parts of Asia. Human
rights advocacy, underscored by documents like the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights (1948), became integral to liberal thought, emphasizing that
individual rights and freedoms should be protected globally. Many
democracies adopted policies linking foreign aid and trade agreements to
human rights standards, advancing liberal values in international relations.
The post-1945 era also underscored multilateralism through alliances and
treaties like NATO, which served as collective security arrangements
grounded in liberal principles. This period emphasized a "rules-based
international order," in which open markets, democratic governance, and
cooperation are central to stability and prosperity, exemplifying the enduring
influence of liberalism in global politics.

CONSTRUCTIVISM

Constructivism offers an alternative approach to understanding international

politics, focusing on the role of social interactions, ideas, identities, and
beliefs in shaping state behavior. Unlike realism and liberalism, which often
assume fixed interests and behaviors, constructivism posits that international
relations are socially constructed—meaning that they are shaped by the
identities and beliefs of states rather than solely by material forces or
self-interest. This approach highlights how norms, culture, and shared
meanings influence state actions and can alter the nature of the international
system over time.

Key Principle of Constructivism

1. Social Construction of Reality: Constructivism argues that reality in

international relations is not objective or fixed but is created through social
interactions and shared understandings. The meanings that states assign to
each other and to their actions, often shaped by historical and cultural
contexts, determine how they behave and perceive threats or allies.

2. Identity and Interests: According to constructivists, states’ interests are not

given or static but are shaped by their identities and social roles. A state’s
behavior is influenced by how it sees itself (its identity) and its place in the
international system. For instance, a democratic state might define its interest
in promoting democracy abroad as part of its national identity.
3. importance of Norms and Ideas: Constructivists emphasize the role of
norms (shared expectations about appropriate behavior) and ideas in guiding
states' actions. Norms like sovereignty, human rights, and non-proliferation
influence how states interact and can shape global behavior over time.

4. Change through Interaction: Constructivism sees the potential for change

in the international system through evolving norms and ideas. Through
dialogue, diplomacy, and shared experiences, states can change their views of
one another, creating opportunities for new alliances or shifts in global
politics.

MAJOR THEORIST OF CONSTRUCTIVISM

Alexander Wendt: A leading figure in constructivism, Wendt’s

groundbreaking work Social Theory of International Politics (1999) argues
that "anarchy is what states make of it." He suggests that the international
system does not inherently compel states to act in any specific way; rather,
the behaviors and norms of the international system are constructed through
state interactions. Wendt’s theory challenges the realist notion that states must
inevitably act in self-interest within an anarchic system, arguing that
cooperative, peaceful relationships can develop if states view each other as
partners.

Nicholas Onuf: Onuf is credited with coining the term “constructivism” in

the context of international relations. His work emphasizes that language,
discourse, and the construction of meaning play essential roles in shaping the
rules and structures of international politics. Onuf’s World of Our Making
(1989) highlights that states create their social environment through
communication and interpretation.

CONSTRUCTIVISM IN THE POST-1945 ERA

In the post-1945 period, constructivism gained traction as scholars sought to

understand the dynamic and often unpredictable shifts in international
relations, including the rise of non-state actors and the role of ideologies.
Constructivist ideas helped explain significant changes in global politics that
could not be fully understood through realist or liberal lenses alone, such as
the fall of the Soviet Union, the spread of human rights norms, and the
emergence of transnational movements.

One of the key areas where constructivism has been applied is in analyzing
the end of the Cold War. Traditional theories struggled to explain the rapid
shift in Soviet-American relations and the peaceful dissolution of the Soviet
Union. Constructivists argued that these changes were the result of evolving
identities, perceptions, and ideological shifts within the Soviet Union and in
its relationship with the west.

The constructivist emphasis on norms and ideas also helps explain the rise of
international human rights standards and environmental initiatives. In the
20th and 21st centuries, norms around human rights, sustainable
development, and climate change gained prominence, influencing the
behavior of states even when such behavior did not align with immediate
material interests. This shift underscores constructivism’s view that changes
in ideas and shared understandings can reshape the international order.

In addition, constructivism has contributed insights into the influence of

global institutions like the United Nations and the International Criminal
Court, which promote norms that shape state behavior beyond material
incentives. Through these institutions, ideas about justice, humanitarianism,
and environmental stewardship have become more entrenched in global
politics, reflecting the constructivist view that norms and beliefs are powerful
forces in international relations.

OTHER THEORIES IN INTERNATIONAL POLITICS

Beyond realism, liberalism, and constructivism, international politics also

encompasses alternative theories that offer distinct perspectives on global
dynamics. Among these are Marxism and Critical Theory, which focus on
economic structures and power inequalities, and Feminist Perspectives,
which highlight the impact of gender on international relations. These
theories provide valuable insights into issues of inequality, power
distribution, and the often- overlooked influence of gender in shaping global
affairs.

MARXISM THEORY

Marxism and Critical Theory examine international politics through the lens
of economic structures, class struggles, and power disparities, critiquing the
role of global capitalism in perpetuating inequality and exploitation. These
theories argue that the international system is dominated by capitalist
interests that benefit wealthy states and powerful corporations at the expense
of poorer nations and marginalized populations.

1. Economic Inequality and Class Struggle: Marxism views international

relations as a reflection of capitalist structures that prioritize profit and
economic dominance over social welfare and equity. According to Marxist
theory, the world system is divided into “core” countries (wealthy,
industrialized nations) and “periphery” countries (poorer, often resource-rich
nations). Core countries exploit periphery nations for raw materials and cheap
labor, perpetuating global inequality. This framework explains why economic
policies and trade agreements often favor wealthy states and multinational
corporations.

2. Dependency Theory: Rooted in Marxist thought, Dependency Theory

argues that the economic development of poorer nations is hindered by their
dependence on wealthier nations, which exploit their resources and labor.
This creates a cycle of dependency and underdevelopment, making it difficult
for periphery countries to achieve genuine economic progress and autonomy.

3. Critical Theory and Emancipation: Critical Theory, associated with

thinkers like the Frankfurt School, seeks to challenge the status quo by
promoting social and political transformation. Critical theorists argue that
international relations should focus on emancipation—freeing individuals
from oppressive structures and promoting justice and equality. This theory
encourages questioning existing power structures, both within and between
states, and advocates for policies that address social injustices, human rights,
and global inequality.

4. Prominent Marxist and Critical Theorists; Immanuel Wallerstein: Known

for his World-Systems Theory, Wallerstein divides the global economy into
core, semi-periphery, and periphery nations, arguing that this structure leads
to systemic inequality and exploitation.

Antonio Gramsci: Gramsci’s concept of “hegemony” extends to the

international system, where dominant states maintain control not only
through coercion but also through cultural influence, shaping norms and ideas
to preserve their power.

FEMINISM THEORY

Feminist theories in international relations highlight how gender shapes

global politics, emphasizing the importance of including gendered
perspectives in analyzing international issues. Feminist scholars argue that
traditional theories often overlook the impact of gender on power dynamics,
security, and decision-making processes, resulting in incomplete
understandings of global issues.

1. Gender and Power: Feminist theorists argue that international politics is

often driven by masculine values, such as competition, aggression, and
dominance. This masculinized perspective marginalizes women and ignores
issues like sexual violence, human trafficking, and gender-based
discrimination, which disproportionately affect women worldwide. Feminist
theories call for a more inclusive approach that values cooperation, empathy,
and social justice.

2. The Role of Women in Global Politics: Feminist perspectives emphasize

the need to recognize the contributions of women in international relations,
both as policymakers and as individuals affected by global events. Feminist
scholars examine how war, poverty, and migration impact women differently
and advocate for policies that promote gender equality and address gender-
specific issues in conflict and development.

3. Intersectionality: Feminist theories highlight the importance of considering

intersectionality, which recognizes that experiences of oppression and
privilege are shaped by multiple, overlapping identities, such as race, class,
and sexuality. Intersectionality in international relations helps explain why
certain groups face unique challenges and advocates for policies that address
these complex intersections.

Prominent Feminist Theorists:

Cynthia Enloe: Known for her work on militarism and gender, Enloe
explores how military policies and actions are influenced by gendered
assumptions, particularly regarding women’s roles in conflict and peace.

J. Ann Tickner: Tickner critiques the male-dominated field of international

relations, arguing for a more inclusive approach that considers women’s
experiences and contributions to peacebuilding and security.

Other Alternative Theories

1. Post-Colonial Theory: Post-colonialism examines the lasting impact of

colonialism on international relations, emphasizing how former colonial
powers continue to exert influence over former colonies through economic,
political, and cultural means. This theory critiques the dominance of Western
perspectives in international politics and seeks to amplify the voices and
experiences of non-Western actors.

2. Environmental and Green Theories: Green theories focus on

environmental issues, highlighting the impact of ecological degradation,
climate change, and resource scarcity on international relations. These
theories advocate for sustainable development and argue that environmental
concerns should be central to global policymaking to ensure long-term
stability and security.

3. Post-Structuralism: Post-structuralist theories challenge the idea of

objective truths in international relations, arguing that knowledge is
constructed through language, discourse, and power relations.
Post-structuralists critique traditional narratives and emphasize the
importance of understanding how language shapes our perceptions of
security, identity, and power. Application of Alternative Theories in
Contemporary Politics

These alternative theories provide frameworks for understanding complex

global issues that traditional theories may overlook. For instance, Marxism
and Critical Theory help explain economic inequalities and the influence of
corporate power on global governance. Feminist theories offer insights into
the unique impacts of conflict on women and advocate for gender- sensitive
policies in peacebuilding efforts. Post-colonial theory sheds light on the
ongoing impact of colonial legacies in former colonies, while environmental
theories emphasize the global nature of ecological challenges, urging for
cooperative solutions to address climate change and resource scarcity.

In sum, these alternative theories expand the scope of international relations

by addressing issues of inequality, social justice, and environmental
sustainability, calling for a more inclusive and equitable approach to global
politics.

CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN INTERNATIONAL POLITICS

International politics today is shaped by several key issues that affect

countries around the world.

And it can be broken down into cyber security, climate change, terrorism, and
the overall progress of international politics.
1. WHAT IS CYBER SECURITY:Cyber security involves protecting
computers, networks, and data from attacks or damage. As more of our lives
move online, the risks increase.

Countries face threats from hackers who might steal personal information,
disrupt services, or even attack critical infrastructure like power grids.
Governments and organizations must work together to create stronger
defenses and respond to these threats.

Cyber security requires international collaboration, as attacks can come from

anywhere in the world. Countries must share information and strategies to
protect themselves and their citizens.

2. WHAT IS CLIMATE CHANGE: Climate change refers to the long-term

changes in temperatures and weather patterns on earth, mainly caused by
human activities like burning fossil fuels.

This issue affects everyone, leading to extreme weather events, rising sea
levels, and threats to food and water supplies. It poses risks to health,
economies, and biodiversity.

The international response is that countries are trying to work together to

reduce greenhouse gas emissions through agreements like the Paris
Agreement. However, disagreements often arise about responsibilities and the
best ways to tackle the problem.

3. WHAT IS TERRORISM: Terrorism involves the use of violence or threats

to intimidate or coerce, often for political purposes. It affects many countries
and can create fear and instability.

Terrorist groups use various methods, including online recruitment and

radicalization. The threat is not limited to any one region; it can emerge
anywhere.
Countries are cooperating to combat terrorism through intelligence sharing,
military action, and community programs to prevent radicalization. However,
finding effective solutions remains a challenge.

4. PROGRESS OF INTERNATIONAL POLITICS

International politics refers to how countries interact, negotiate, and work

together on global issues. This can include trade agreements, security
alliances, and humanitarian efforts.

In recent years, we’ve seen both cooperation and conflict. While some
countries work together on issues like climate change and health pandemics,
others face tensions over trade, military actions, and territorial disputes.

New global players, like China and India, are changing the dynamics of
international politics. Their rise influences global policies and economic
relations, leading to shifts in power.

CONCLUSION

In summary, international politics is a multidisciplinary field that draws on

various theories to explain how and why states interact as they do. Each
Scholarly definition stated earlier offers unique insights, with some
emphasizing power and security while others focus on economic systems and
ideational influences on state behavior.

The theories of international politics provide a range of perspectives for

analyzing global relations. Realism focuses on power and self-interest,
portraying states as rational actors constantly seeking security. Building on
this, neorealism contends that much of state behavior is influenced by the
anarchic nature of the international system. In contrast, liberalism emphasizes
the possibilities for cooperation and interdependence, especially through
international institutions and norms that promote peaceful interactions.
Constructivism introduces the idea that concepts, beliefs, and social
interactions are as influential as material power in shaping international
relations. Meanwhile, world-systems theory and Marxist approaches draw
attention to the economic inequalities and exploitative dynamics present in
the global capitalist system.

Together, these theories underscore that international politics is a complex

and multifaceted field, where no single theory can explain every aspect.
Instead, each approach provides insights that highlight different
drivers—whether power, economic interests, cultural norms, or social
structures. The coexistence of these theories allows for a richer understanding
of global politics, equipping scholars and policymakers with varied tools to
interpret and address international challenges.

REFERENCES

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