Introduction to Control Engineering

Course code: ECEg4165

1
 CHAPTER3
TIME DOMAIN ANALYSIS AND ROOT LOCUS
ANALYSIS
3.1. Introduction
➢ The first step in analysing a control system was to
derive a mathematical mode of the system. Once such a
model is obtained, various methods are available for
the analysis of system performance.

➢ Performance of a system is its response to an input

signal.
2
 Cont. …
➢ In designing a control system we have to choose a
system with better performance, i.e., systems are to be
compared by their response to particular test signal.

3.2. Standard Test Signals

➢ The commonly used test input signals are: step
functions, impulse functions, ramp functions, parabolic
functions, sinusoidal functions.
❖ Unit step function:
1 for t ≥ 0
u t =
0 else where
3
 Cont. …
❖ Unit Impulse Function:

1 for t = 0
δ t =
0 elsewhere
❖ Unit Ramp Function:

t for t ≥ 0
r t =
0 elsewhere
❖ Sinusoidal function:

𝑓 𝑡 = sin 𝑡

4
 Cont. …
❖ The time response of a control system consists of two
parts: the transient response and the steady-state
response.
❖ Transient response
➢ It is a particular part of the time response of the system
which tends to zero as time increases. It goes from initial
state to the final state.
❖ Steady state response
➢ It is a particular part of the time response of the system
which remains after the transient part has reached
zero/die out. 5
 Cont. …
➢ The total solution of a time response of a system 𝑦(𝑡) is

the sum of the transient response 𝑦𝑡𝑟 (t) and the steady

state response 𝑦𝑠𝑠 (t).

𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑦𝑡𝑟 𝑡 + 𝑦𝑠𝑠 (𝑡)

lim 𝑦𝑡𝑟 𝑡 = 0
𝑡→∞

lim 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑦𝑠𝑠 (𝑡)

𝑡→∞

6
3.3. Time domain specifications of closed-loop
control systems
➢ In many practical cases, the desired performance
characteristics of control systems are specified in terms of
time domain quantities.

➢ Systems with energy storage can not respond

instantaneously and will exhibit responses whenever they
are subjected to inputs or disturbances.

➢ Frequently, the performance characteristics of a control

system are specified in terms of the transient response of a
unit step input since it is easy to generate and is sufficiently
drastic. 7
 Cont. …
➢ In specifying the transient response characteristics of a
control system to a unit step input, it is common to
specify the following.

i. Delay time (𝒕𝒅 ): It is the time required for the response

to reach half of its final value.

𝑦(𝑡)|𝑡=𝑡𝑑 = 𝑦 𝑡𝑑 = 50%. 𝑟 𝑡 = 1ൗ2 . 1 = 0.5

ii. Peak time (𝒕𝒑 ): It is the time required for the response
to reach the first peak of the shoot.

𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
⃒𝑡 = 𝑡𝑝 = 0
𝑑𝑡 8
 Cont. …
[Link] time (𝒕𝒓 ): It is the time require for the response to
rise from 10% to 90%, 5% to 95% or 0% to 100% of its
final value. For under damped second order systems,
the 0% to 100% rise time is normally used. For over
damped systems, the 10% to 90% rise time is
commonly used. For 0 to 100% rising

𝑦 𝑡𝑟 = 100%. 𝑟 𝑡 = 1.1 = 1 since 𝑟 𝑡 = 1

iv. Settling time (𝒕𝒔 ): This is the time required by the

response y(t) to reach and remain within a certain range
of its final value.
9
 Cont. …
➢ This range is usually from 2 to 5% of amplitude of the
final value.

v. Maximum overshoot (𝐌𝐩 ): It is the maximum peak

value of the response curve measured from unity.

➢ It is the difference between the maximum value of the

response and the final value (the steady state response).

➢ The amount of maximum (percent) overshoot directly

indicates the relative stability of the system.

10
 Cont. …
y t p − y(∞)
Mp = ∗ 100%
y(∞)

Fig.3.1: Unit-step response curve showing t d , t r , t p , t s , and Mp .

11
3.4. Analysis of First-order and Second-order
Systems
3.4.1. Analysis of first-order systems
➢ Consider a first-order system shown by block diagram
and simplified block diagram below.

where, T − is time constant, determines how quickly the

response move to steady state. k − is the static gain,
determine size of steady state response when input is
constant. 12
 Cont. …
➢ For simplicity let k = 1, then input output relationship is,

Y(s) 1
=
R(s) Ts + 1

i. Unit step response of first-order systems

Y(s) 1 1
= →Y s = R s
R(s) Ts+1 Ts+1

1 1
But, R s = then Y s =
s Ts+1 s

➢ Expanding Y(s) into partial fractions gives

13
 Cont. …
1 1 1 1
Y s = − = −
s Ts + 1 s s + 1ൗ
T
➢ Taking the inverse Laplace transform
1Τ 𝑡
𝑦 𝑡 =1 −𝑒 − 𝑇 for 𝑡 ≥ 0

➢ From this equation, initially the output 𝑦(𝑡) is zero and

finally it becomes unity.

➢ One important characteristic of such an exponential

response curve 𝑦(𝑡) is that at 𝑡 = 𝑇 the value of 𝑦(𝑡) is
0.632, or the response 𝑦(𝑡) has reached 63.2% of its
total change.
14
 Cont. …
That is,
−(TൗT)
At t = T, y T =1−e = 1 − e−1 = 0.632

➢ For 2% of final value, the settling time can be derived as

y t s = 0.98 ∗ r t = 0.98 ∗ 1 = 0.98
t
− sൗT
y t s = 0.98 → 1 − e = 0.98 → t s ≈ 4T

➢ For t ≥ 4T, the response reaches to its steady state value.

𝒕Τ
➢ Steady state response: 𝒚𝒔𝒔 𝒕 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒚(𝒕) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟏 − −
𝒆 𝑻 =𝟏
𝒕→∞ 𝒕→∞

−𝒕Τ −𝒕Τ
➢ Transient response: 𝒚𝒕𝒓 𝒕 = 𝒚 𝒕 − 𝒚𝒔𝒔 𝒕 = 𝟏 − 𝒆 𝑻 −𝟏=𝒆 𝑻

15
 Cont. …

Fig.3.2: Unit step response of first-order system.

16
 Cont. …
ii. Unit ramp response of first-order systems
1 1
Y s = R s = 2
TS + 1 s (Ts + 1)
➢ Since the Laplace transform of the unit-ramp function is
1
𝑅 𝑠 = 2 . Expanding Y s into partial fraction gives
𝑠

1 T T2
Y s = 2− +
s s Ts + 1
➢ Taking the inverse Laplace transform gives
−tൗ
y t = t − T + Te T , for t ≥ 0

➢ The transient response of y t can be obtained as

−tൗ
ytr t = lim y(t) = lim (t − T + Te T ) =0
t→∞ t→∞
17
 Cont. …
−tൗ
➢ From this limit only Te T will converges to zero as time
−tൗ
tends to infinity. → 𝑦𝑡𝑟 𝑡 = Te T

➢ Steady state response:

−tൗ −tൗ
𝑦𝑠𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑦𝑡𝑟 𝑡 = t − T + Te T − Te T =t−T

➢ The error signal 𝑒(𝑡) is then

−tൗ −tൗ
e t = r t − y t = t − t − T + Te T = T(1 − e T )

➢ At steady state the error signal will converges to T

−tൗ
lim e(t) = lim T(1 − e T ) =T
t→∞ t→∞
18
 Cont. …
➢ The smaller the time constant T, the smaller the steady
state error in ramp input.

Fig.3.3: Ramp response of first-order system. 19

 Cont. …
[Link] impulse response of first-order systems
➢ For the unit-impulse input, 𝑅 𝑠 = 1 and the output of first
order system can be obtained as

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏ൗ
𝑻
𝒀 𝒔 = 𝑹 𝒔 = =
𝑻𝑺+𝟏 (𝑻𝒔+𝟏) 𝒔+𝟏ൗ𝑻

𝟏 −𝒕Τ
→𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒆 𝑻 for 𝒕 ≥ 𝟎
𝑻

Fig.3.4: Impulse response of first order system.

Exercise3.1: Find steady state and transient response.

20
3.4.2. Analysis of second-order systems
➢ Consider the standard the second-order system with the
closed-loop transfer function.

Y(s) ωn 2
G s = = 2
R(s) s + 2ζωn s + ωn 2

Where the constants 𝜔𝑛 and ζ are called the undamped

natural frequency and the damping ratio of the system
respectively.

➢ G s can be also written in the form of the following

𝜔𝑛 2
𝐺 𝑠 =
(𝑠 + ζ𝜔𝑛 + 𝜔𝑛 ζ2 − 1)(𝑠 + ζ𝜔𝑛 − 𝜔𝑛 ζ2 − 1) 21
 Cont. …
➢ The poles of G(s) are

𝑠1, 2 = −ζ𝜔𝑛 ± 𝜔𝑛 ζ2 − 1 = −ζ𝜔𝑛 ± 𝜔𝑛 (−1)(1 − ζ2 )

𝑠1,2 = −ζ𝜔𝑛 ± 𝜔𝑛 −1 1 − ζ2 = −ζ𝜔𝑛 ± 𝑗𝜔𝑛 1 − ζ2

𝑠1,2 = −𝜎 ± 𝑗𝜔𝑑

where 𝜎 = ζ𝜔𝑛 is damping constant or attenuation

𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔𝑛 1 − ζ2 is damped natural frequency of

the system.

22
 Cont. …
Example3.1: Consider RLC circuit

di(t)
vi t = Ri t + L + vo (t) (3.1)
dt

1
vo t = ‫׬‬i t dt
C
dvo (t)
i t = C (3.2)
dt
➢ Taking Laplace transform of Eq. (3.1) and (3.2) gives
vi s = RI s + LsI s + vo (s) (3.3)

I s = CSvo (s) (3.4)

23
 Cont. …
➢ Substituting Eq.(3.4) into Eq.(3.3) and rearranging will
result the following transfer function.

𝐯𝐨 (𝐬) 𝟏ൗ
𝐋𝐂
= 𝐑
𝐯𝐢 (𝐬) 𝐬 𝟐 + 𝐬+𝟏ൗ𝐋𝐂
𝐋

➢ When we comparing this result to the general second

order system, we will got the following results.

2 1 1 1
ωn = → ωn = =
LC LC LC

R R R R C
2ζωn = →ζ= = ∗ LC =
L 2Lωn 2L 2 L
24
 Cont. …
❖ The dynamic behaviour of the second order systems can
then be described in terms of two parameters ζ and 𝜔𝑛 .

• case1: If 0 < 𝜁 < 1 , the closed loop poles are complex

conjugates and lie in the left half s-plane. The system is
called under damped and the transient response is
oscillatory.

• Case2: If 𝜁 = 0, the transient response does not die out.

• Case3: If 𝜁 = 1, the two poles are equal and the system is

called critically damped.

• Case4: If 𝜁 > 1, the closed loop poles are negative real and
unequal and the system is called over damped. 25
 Cont. …
i. Unit step response of second-order systems

ωn 2 1
C s = where R s =
s(s2 +2ζωn s+ωn 2 ) s

1 s+2ζωn
C s = −
s s2 +2ζωn s+ωn 2

1 s+ζωn ζωn
C s = − 2 −
s s +2ζωn s+ωn 2 s2 +2ζωn s+ωn 2

1 s+ζωn ζωn
C s = − −
s (s+ζωn )2 +ωn 2 (1−ζ2 ) (s+ζωn )2 +ωn 2 (1−ζ2 )

1 s+ζωn ζωn
C s = − −
s (s+ζωn )2 +(ωd )2 (s+ζωn )2 +(ωd )2

26
 Cont. …
❖ Case1: undamped system (𝜻 = 𝟎)

1 s
C s = −
s s2 +ωn 2

➢ In this case the poles of C s are zero and imaginary 𝑠 =

± 𝑗𝜔𝑛 . If we expand C s in partial fractions, we have

1 s
C s = −
s s2 +ωn 2

1 s
∴ c t = L−1 C(s) = L−1 − = 1 − cosωn t
s s2 +ωn 2

27
 Cont. …
➢ As we can observe from the above equation, the
response 𝑐(𝑡) is a sustained oscillation with constant
frequency 𝜔𝑛 and constant amplitude equal to 1. In this
case the system is called undamped.

Fig.3.5: Unit step response of undamped second order system.

28
 Cont. …
❖ Case2: Under damped system (𝟎 < 𝜻 < 𝟏):
➢ In this case the poles of 𝐺(𝑠) = 𝐶(𝑠)Τ𝑅(𝑠) are complex
conjugate pair since 𝑠1, 2 = −𝜎 ± 𝑗𝜔𝑑 .
➢ For a unit step input, the response 𝐶(𝑠) can be written as

ωn 2
C s =
s(s2 +2ζωn s+ωn 2 )

1 s+2ζωn
C s = −
s (s2 +2ζωn s+ωn 2 )

1 s+2ζωn
C s = − 2
s (s +2ζωn s+ζ2 ωn 2 −ζ2 ωn 2 +ωn 2 )

1 s+2ζωn
C s = − 2 29
s (s +2ζωn s+ζ2 ωn 2 )+ωn 2 (1−ζ2 )
 Cont. …
But s2 + 2ζωn s + ζ2 ωn 2 = (s + ζωn )2 and ωn 2 1 − ζ2 = ωd 2

1 s+ζωn +ζωn
C s = −
s (s+ζωn )2 +ωd 2

1 s+ζωn ζωn ωd
C s = − − ∗
s (s+ζωn )2 +ωd 2 (s+ζωn )2 +ωd 2 ωd

1 s+ζωn ζωn ωd
C s = − −
s (s+ζωn )2 +ωd 2 ωd (s+ζωn )2 +ωd 2

𝑠 ωd
But 𝐿−1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑑 𝑡 𝐿−1 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑑 𝑡
𝑠 2 +ωd 2 𝑠 2 +ωd 2

𝑠+ζωn ωd
𝐿−1 = 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑑 𝑡 𝐿−1 = 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑑 𝑡
(s+ζωn )2 +ωd 2 (s+ζωn )2 +ωd 2

Then c t = L−1 C(s)

30
 Cont. …
ζωn −ζω t
c t =1− e−ζωn t cosωd t − e n sinωd t
ωd
ζωn
c t =1− e−ζωn t cosωd t + sinωd t
ωn (1−ζ2 )

−ζωn t ζ
c t =1−e cosωd t + sinωd t
(1−ζ2 )
1
c t =1− ζ𝑠𝑖𝑛ωd t + (1 − ζ2 )cosωd t e−ζωn t
(1−ζ2 )

(1−𝜁 2 )
Let 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝜁, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = (1 − 𝜁2) → 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝜁

(1−𝜁 2 )
Then 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝜁

e−ζωn t
c t =1− cosθsinωd t + sinθcosωd t
(1−ζ2 )

e−ζωn t
c t =1− sin(ωd t + θ)
1−ζ2
31
 Cont. …
𝐞−𝛇𝛚𝐧 𝐭 (𝟏−𝛇𝟐 )
∴𝐜 𝐭 =𝟏− 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐝 𝐭 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ) for 𝑡 ≥ 0.
𝛇
𝟏−𝛇𝟐

➢ Thus , when 0 < ζ < 1 we observe that the response c(t)

is damped oscillation which tends to 1 as t → ∞. In this
case, we say that the system is under damped.

lim c(t) = 1 = Css (t)

t→∞

➢ The error signal for this system is

e−ζωn t
e t = r t − c t = 1 − (1 − sin ωd t + θ
1−ζ2

e−ζωn t
e t = sin(ωd t + θ)
1−ζ2
32
 Cont. …
➢ This error signal exhibits a damped sinusoidal oscillation. At
steady state (𝑡 → ∞), no error exists between the input and
output.

Fig.3.6: Unit step input response of under damped system for

different damping ratio. 33
 Cont. …
❖ Case3: Critically damped system (𝜻 = 𝟏)
➢ In this case the poles of 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝐶(𝑠)Τ𝑅(𝑠) are real
1
double pole −ωn . For unit step input R s = , the
s

response C(s) of critically damped case becomes

ωn 2 ωn 2
C s = =
s(s2 +2ωn s+ωn 2 ) s s+ωn 2

➢ If we expand C(s) in partial fractions we have

1 1 ωn
C s = − −
s s+ωn s+ωn 2

c t = L−1 C(s) = 1 − e−ωn t − ωn te−ωn t

c t = 1 − e−ωn t (1 + ωn t), for t ≥ 0. 34

 Cont. …
➢ Thus, when ζ = 1 we observe that the wave form of the
response c(t) involves no oscillations, asymptotically
tends to 1 as t → ∞.

Fig.3.7: unit step response of second order critically damped

system. 35
 Cont. …
Case4: overdamped system (𝜻 > 𝟏)
➢ In this case, the two poles of 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝐶(𝑠)Τ𝑅(𝑠) are
negative real and unequal s1,2 = −σ ± ωn ζ2 − 1. For a
1
unit-step input, R s = and C(s) can be written as,
s

ωn 2
C s = proof after taking inverse Laplace
s(s2 +2ζωn s+ωn 2 )

transform it gives,

ωn 𝐞−𝐬𝟏 𝐭 𝐞−𝐬𝟐 𝐭
𝐜 𝐭 =𝟏+ 2
( − )
𝟐 ζ −1 𝐬𝟏 𝐬𝟐

Where s1 = ωn ζ + ζ2 − 1 and s2 = ωn (ζ − ζ2 − 1)
36
Cont. …

37
 Cont. …
❖ For a desirable transient response of a second order

system, the damping ratio must be between 0.4 and 0.8.

The Small value of ζ (𝜁 < 0.4) yield excessive overshoot

in the transient response, and a system with large value

of ζ ( 𝜁 > 0.8) responds sluggishly.

38
 Transient response specification parameters of
under-damped Second-Order Systems
i. Rise time (𝐭 𝐫 ): Based up on the time required for the
response to rise from 0% to 100%, the rise time can be
obtained from
c t = 100%r(t), where r t = u t = 1 for t ≥ 0
ζ
c t = 1 − e−ζωn t cosωd t + sinωd t for t ≥ 0
(1−ζ2 )
Then at t r , c t = 1
→ c tr = 1
ζ
→1 − e−ζωn 𝑡𝑟 cosωd 𝑡𝑟 + sinωd 𝑡𝑟 = 1
1−ζ2
ζ
→ e−ζωn 𝑡𝑟 cosωd 𝑡𝑟 + sinωd 𝑡𝑟 = 0
1−ζ2
39
 Cont. …
Since e−ζωn tr ≠ 0, the above equation can be simplified to
ζ
→ cosωd t r + sinωd t r = 0
1−ζ2

1−ζ2
→ sinωd t r = − cosωd t r
ζ

1−ζ2
→ tanωd t r = − but ωd = ωn 1 − ζ2 and σ = ζωn
ζ

ωn 1−ζ2 ωd
→ tanωd t r = − = −
ζωn σ
−1 ωd
→ ωd t r = tan (− )
σ
1 ω
→ t r = tan−1 (− d )
ωd σ
π−β
→ tr =
ωd
For the smallest value of t r , ωd must be large.
40
 Cont. …
ii. Peak time (𝐭 𝐩 ): It can be obtained by differentiating c(t)
with respect to time and letting this derivate equal to
zero.

Exercise 3.2: Proof that the peak time and delay time for
second order underdamped system are given by

π 1+0.7𝛇
tp = and td =
ωd ωn

41
 Cont. …
iii. Maximum overshoot (𝐌𝐩 ): the maximum overshoot occurs
at the peak time. Assuming that the final value of the
response is unity, Mp can be obtained from

c(tp )−c(∞)
Mp = but c ∞ = 1
C(∞)

c(tp )−1 𝜋
→ Mp = = c(t p ) − 1 where 𝑡𝑝 =
1 𝜔𝑑

−ζωn ∗𝜋ൗ𝜔𝑑 𝜋Τ ζ
→ Mp = 1 − e cosωd ∗ 𝜔𝑑 + sinωd ∗ 𝜋Τ𝜔𝑑 − 1
1−ζ2

−ζωn ∗𝜋ൗ𝜔𝑑 ζ −ζωn ∗𝜋ൗ𝜔𝑑

→ Mp = −e cos𝜋 + sin𝜋 = −e (−1 + 0)
1−ζ2
𝜎
∗𝜋 −( )𝜋
→ Mp = e−ζωn ൗ𝜔𝑑 =𝑒 ωd
42
 Cont. …
➢ The maximum percent overshoot is
𝜎
−(ω )𝜋
Mp = 𝑒 d ∗ 100%
iv. Settling time ( 𝐭 𝐬 ): For an underdamped second order
system, the transient responses are obtained from.

ζ
c t =1 − e−ζωn t cosωd t + sinωd t
(1 − ζ2 )
➢ The settling time corresponding to a 2% or 5% tolerance
may be measured from the determinant factors that can lead
the response to the steady state value. The determinant
factors of c(t) for settling are
1 − e−ζωn t 43
 Cont. …

For 2% tolerance For 5% tolerance

𝟏 − 𝒆−𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝒕𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖 𝟏 − 𝒆−𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝒕𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓

𝒆−𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝒕𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝒆−𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝒕𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓

𝟒 𝟑
𝒕𝒔 = 𝒕𝒔 =
𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝜻𝝎𝒏

44
 Cont. …
Exercise 3.3
1) Find the time response of the following system for unit step
input
C(s) 25 C(s) 20
a) = b) =
R(s) s2 +7s+25 R(s) s2 +7s+25
C(s) 50
2) For a system having = ,
find its time response
R(s) s2 +7s+25
specifications and the expression for the output for unit step
input.
𝑑 2 𝑦(𝑡) 5𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
3) For a system given by + + 16𝑦 𝑡 = 9𝑟(𝑡), where
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
y(t) is the output and r(t) is the input. Determine,
a) Time response specifications.
b) Time response of the system for unit step input.
𝑘
4) A system has 𝐺 𝑠 = with unity feedback when k and
𝑠(𝑇𝑠+1)
T are constant. Determine the factor by which k should be
multiplied to reduce the overshoot from 85% to 35%.
45
 3.5. Stability
➢ Stability implies that small change in system input or small
change in system initial condition or small change in system
parameter do not produce large change in system output.
➢ The stability control system can be analysed using the
location of the pole in the complex plane and Hurwitz
Stability criterion.

3.5.1. stability analysis based on location of pole in the

complex plane
➢ The stability of a linear closed-loop system can be
determined from the location of the closed-loop poles in the
s-plane.
46
 Cont. …
➢ If any of these poles lie in the right-half s-plane, the system is
unstable.

➢ If any poles lie in the right-half s-plane, then with increasing

time they give rise to the dominant mode, and the transient
response increases monotonically or oscillates with
increasing amplitude. For such a system, as soon as the
power is turned on, the output may increase with time.

➢ If no saturation takes place in the system and no mechanical

stop is provided, then the system may eventually be subjected
to damage and fail since the response of a real physical
system cannot increase indefinitely.
47
 Cont. …
➢ Therefore, closed-loop poles in the right-half s-plane are not
permissible in the usual linear control system.

➢ If all closed-loop poles lie to the left-half s-plane (𝑗𝜔 axis),

the system is stable. For such a system the transient response
eventually reaches equilibrium.

➢ Whether a linear system is stable or unstable is a property of

the system itself and does not depend on the input or
driving function of the system. The poles of the input, or
driving function, do not affect the property of stability of the
system, but they contribute only to steady-state response
terms in the solution.
48
 Cont. …
➢ Thus, the problem of absolute stability can be solved readily
by choosing no closed-loop poles in the right-half s-plane,
including the 𝑗𝜔 axis (closed-loop poles on the 𝑗𝜔 axis will
yield oscillations, the amplitude of which is neither decaying
nor growing with time).

➢ Note: All closed-loop poles lie in the left-half s-plane does

not guarantee satisfactory transient-response characteristics.
If dominant complex-conjugate closed-loop poles lie close
to the 𝑗𝜔 axis, the transient response may exhibit excessive
oscillations or may be very slow.

49
 Cont. …
➢ Therefore, to guarantee fast, yet well-damped, transient

response characteristics, it is necessary that the closed-

loop poles of the system lie in a particular region in the

complex plane, such as the region bounded by the

shaded area shown in Fig.3.9.

50
 Cont. …

Fig.3.9: Region in the complex plane satisfying the

conditions 𝜁 > 0.4 and 𝑡𝑠 < 4Τ𝜎.
51
 cont. …
2.5.2. Stability analysis using Routh’s stability
criterion
➢ The most important problem in linear control systems
concerns stability. Most linear closed-loop systems have
closed-loop transfer functions of the form

𝐶(𝑠) 𝑏0 𝑠 𝑚 + 𝑏1 𝑠 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠 + 𝑏𝑚

=
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑎0 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 + 𝑎𝑛

where the a's and b's are constants and 𝑚 ≤ 𝑛.

➢ Routh's stability criterion, enables us to determine the
number of closed-loop poles that lie in the right-half s-plane
without having to factor the denominator polynomial. 52
 Cont. …
➢ This stability criterion applies to polynomials with only a
finite number of terms.

➢ The procedure in Routh's stability criterion is as follows:

1) Write the denominator polynomial in s in the following form:

𝑎0 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 + 𝑎𝑛 = 0
where the coefficients are real quantities. We assume that
𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0; that is, any zero root has been removed.
2) The necessary but not sufficient condition for stability is that
all the coefficients of the denominator of transfer function
should present and all have a positive sign. (If all a's are
negative, they can be made positive by multiplying both
sides of the equation by -1). 53
 Cont. …
➢ If any of the coefficients are zero or negative in the presence
of at least one positive coefficient, there is a root or roots that
are imaginary or that have positive real parts. In this case,
the system is not stable.

3) If all coefficients are positive, arrange the coefficients of the

polynomial in rows and columns according to the following
pattern:

54
 Cont. …
➢ The process of forming rows continues until we run out of
elements. (The total number of rows is 𝑛 + 1 .) The
coefficients 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 , and so on, are evaluated as follows until
the remaining ones are all zero.

and

➢ The same pattern of cross-multiplying the coefficients of the

two previous rows is followed in evaluating the d's, e's, and
so on. 55
 Cont. …
➢ This process is continued until the nth row has been
completed. The complete array of coefficients is triangular.

➢ Routh's stability criterion states that the number of roots of

the denominator of transfer function with positive real parts
is equal to the number of changes in sign of the coefficients
of the first column of the array.

➢ The necessary and sufficient condition that all roots of the

denominator of transfer function lie in the left-half s plane is
that all the coefficients of the denominator should be
positive and all terms in the first column of the array have
positive signs.
56
 Cont. …
Example3.2: Investigate the stability of a system with
characteristics polynomials

a) s 4 + 2s 3 + 3s 2 + 4s + 5 = 0
b) P s = s 4 + s 3 + s 2 + 2s + 4

c) P s = s 3 + s 2 + 2s + 1
Solution: a) All the coefficients are positive numbers.
Forming the array

2∗3−1∗4 2∗5−1∗0
b1 = = 1, b2 = =5
2 2
𝑏1 ∗4−2∗b2 1∗4−2∗5
c1 = = = −6
𝑏1 1
𝑐1 ∗b2 −b1 ∗0 −6∗5−1∗0
d1 = = =5
𝑐1 −6
57
 Cont. …
Therefore

Special cases

➢ There are two cases in which the Routh criterion, as it has

been presented above can not be applied. For these two
cases certain modifications are necessary so that the above
procedure is applicable.
58
 Cont. …
Case1: A zero element in the first column of the Routh
array
➢ In this case the Routh array cannot be completed because
the element below the zero elements in the first column will
become infinite. To overcome this difficult,

• Method1: If a first-column term in any row is zero, but the

remaining terms are not zero or there is no remaining term,
then the zero term is replaced by a very small positive
number 𝜖 and the rest of the array is evaluated.

• Method2: Multiply the characteristics polynomial 𝑝(𝑠) with a

factor 𝑠 + 𝑎 , where 𝑎 > 0 and −𝑎 is not the root of 𝑝(𝑠).
59
 Cont. …
• The conclusions regarding stability of the new polynomial
𝑝Ƹ 𝑠 = 𝑠 + 𝑎 𝑝(𝑠) are obviously the same as those of the
original polynomial 𝑝(𝑠).
Example3.3: Consider the following equation
𝑝 𝑠 = 𝑠 4 + 2𝑠 3 + 𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 4
Construct the Routh array as,

60
 Cont. …
Method1: Replace the zero term by a very small positive
number 𝜖 and then evaluate the rest of the array.

There are two sign changes of the

coefficients in the first column. It show
that p(s) has two roots in the right half
complex plane and therefore the
8
system is unstable (lim ∈ − = −𝑣𝑒).
∈→0 ∈

Method2: If we multiply the polynomial p(s) by the factor (𝑠 +

1), we have,

pො s = s + 1 p s = s 5 + 3s 4 + 3s 3 + 3s 2 + 6s + 4

Next construct the Routh array

61
 Cont. …
According to the above Routh array,
one observes that the polynomial pො (s)
and p(s) have two roots in the right half
complex plane and therefore the system
with characteristics polynomial P(s) is
unstable

Case2: A zero row in the Routh array

➢ In this case the Routh array cannot be completed, because in

computing the rest of the elements that follow zero rows,
indeterminate form 0Τ
0 will appear. To overcome this
difficulty:
62
 Cont. …
1) Form the auxiliary polynomial q(s) of the row which
precedes the zero row.

2) Take the derivative of q(s) with respect to s and replace

the zero row with the coefficients of qሶ s .

3) Complete the construction of the Routh array in the

usual manner.

Example3.4: investigate the stability of a system with

characteristic polynomial
𝑝 𝑠 = 𝑠 4 + 3𝑠 3 + 4𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 3

63
 Cont. …
Solution: construct the Routh array as follow,
Since the row 𝑠1 of the Routh array involves
only zeros, it is clear that the Routh array
cannot be completed. At this point form
auxiliary polynomial 𝑞 𝑠 = 3𝑠 2 + 3 of the
row 𝑠 2 . Taking the derivative of q(s),
𝑞ሶ 𝑠 = 6𝑠. The replace the zero row (i.e. 𝑠1 )
with the coefficient of 𝑞ሶ 𝑠 and complete the
Routh array in the usual manner to yield

Since the first column of the new Routh array

doesn’t have sign change the system is stable.

64
 Cont. …
❖ Relative Stability Analysis: Routh's stability criterion
provides the answer to the question of absolute stability.
In many practical cases this is not sufficient.

➢ We usually require information about the relative

stability of the system.

• Absolute stability: Indicates stability or unstability of a

system under consideration.

• Relative stability: Indicates how close a system is to

instability.

65
 Cont. …

➢ Routh's stability criterion is of limited usefulness in

linear control system analysis mainly because it does not

suggest how to improve relative stability or how to

stabilize an unstable system.

➢ It is possible, however, to determine the effects of

changing one or two parameters of a system by

examining the values that cause instability.

66
 Cont. …
Example 3.5: Let us determine the range of ‘k’ such that the
system with characteristic polynomial

p s = s4 + s3 + 2s 2 + s + 2k is stable.
Solution:

For the system to be stable all elements of

the first column of Routh array must have
the same sign. Hence there must be
2𝑘 > 0 and 1 − 2𝑘 > 0
𝑘 > 0 and 𝑘 < 0.5
Hence the system is stable for 0 < 𝑘 < 0.5

67
 Cont. …
Exercise3.4:
1) Determine the stability of a system with closed loop
transfer function:

1
a) G s =
2s5 +3s4 +2s3 +3s2 +2s+1

10
b) G s =
s5 +2s4 +3s3 +6s2 +5s+3

1
c) G s =
2s5 +7s4 +6s3 +42s2 +8s+56

1
d) G s =
s3 +5s2 +6s+30

68
 Cont. …
10
2) For a unity feedback system with 𝐺 𝑠 = determine the
𝑠(𝑠+1)(𝑠+2)
stability using Routh criterion.

𝑠+6
3) For a unity feedback system given below with 𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠(𝑠+1)(𝑠+3)
determine the range of k that makes the system stable.

69
 Cont. …
5) Investigate the stability of the given closed loop control
system by using Routh criterion.

70
3.6. Analysis steady state errors
❖ Consider the control system with the open-loop transfer
function given by :

k Ta s + 1 Tb s + 1 … (Tm s + 1)
G s H(s) = N
s T1 s + 1 T2 s + 1 … (Tp s + 1)
➢ It involves the term sN in the denominator, representing a
pole of multiplicity N at the origin. The system is classified
based on the number of integrations indicated by the open-
loop transfer function. A system is called type 0, type 1, type
2, . . . , if N = 0, N = 1, N = 2, . . . , respectively.
➢ As the type number is increased, accuracy is improved;
however, increasing the type number aggravates the stability
problem. 71
 Cont. …
❖Steady-State Errors:
➢ Consider the system shown in block diagram below

➢ The error is given by,

E s = R s − H s C(s), C s = G s E(s)

E s = R s − H s G s E(s)

1
E s = R(s)
1+H s G(s)
72
 Cont. …
➢ By using final value theorem, the steady state error is

1
ess = lim e(t) = lim SE(s) = lim 𝑆 × × R(s)
t→∞ s→0 s→0 1 + H s G(s)

i. The steady-state error of the system for a unit-step

input is

1 1 1
ess = lim SE(s) = lim 𝑆 × × =
s→0 s→0 1+H s G(s) 𝑆 1+H(0)G(0)

➢ The static position error constant k p , is defined by

k p = lim H(s)G(s) = H(0)G(0)

s→0
73
 Cont. …
➢ Thus, the steady-state error in terms of the static position
error constant k p , is given by

1
ess =
1 + kp

❖ For a type 0 system,

k Ta s + 1 Tb s + 1 …
k p = lim =k
s→0 T1 s + 1 T2 s + 1 …

❖ For a type 1 or higher system,

k Ta s+1 Tb s+1 …
kp = lim N = ∞ for N ≥ 1
s→0 s T1 s+1 T2 s+1 …
74
 Cont. …
➢ For a unit-step input, the steady-state error 𝑒𝑠𝑠 , may be
summarized as follows:

1
ess = , for type 0 systems
1+k

ess = 0, for type 1 or higher systems

[Link] steady-state error of the system with a unit-ramp

input is,

1 1 1
ess = lim SE(s) = lim 𝑠 × × = lim
s→0 s→0 1+H s G(s) s2 s→0 s+sH(s)G(s)

1 1
ess = lim = lim
s→0 s+sH(s)G(s) s→0 sH(s)G(s)
75
 Cont. …
➢ The static velocity error constant k v is defined by

k v = lim sH(s)G(s)
s→0

➢ Thus, the steady-state error in terms of the static velocity

error constant k v , is given by

1
ess =
kv

❖ For a type 0 system

sk Ta s+1 Tb s+1 …
kv = lim =0
s→0 T1 s+1 T2 s+1 …

76
 Cont. …
❖ For a type 1 system

sk Ta s + 1 Tb s + 1 …
k v = lim =k
s→0 𝑠 T1 s + 1 T2 s + 1 …

❖ For type 2 or higher system

sk Ta s+1 Tb s+1 …
k v = lim = ∞, for 𝑁 ≥ 2
s→0 𝑠𝑁 T1 s+1 T2 s+1 …

➢ The steady-state error ess , for the unit-ramp input can be

summarized as follows:

ess = ∞, for type 0 system

1
ess = , for type 1 system 77
k
 Cont. …
ess = 0, for type 2 and higher system

[Link] steady-state error of the system with a unit-

parabolic input (acceleration input) is
1 1 1 1
ess = lim 𝑠 × × = lim = lim
s→0 1+H(s)G(s) s3 s→0 𝑠 2 +𝑠 2 H(s)G(s) s→0 𝑠 2 H(s)G(s)

𝑡2
, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0
Where, 𝑟 𝑡 = 2
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 00,
𝑡2 1
𝑅 𝑠 = 𝐿 𝑟(𝑡) = 𝐿 = 3
2 𝑠
➢ The static acceleration error constant k a , is defined by

k a = lim s 2 H(s)G(s)
s→0 78
 Cont. …
➢ The steady-state error interms of k a is then

1
ess =
ka

❖ For a type 0 system,

s 2 k Ta s + 1 Tb s + 1 …
k a = lim =0
s→0 T1 s + 1 T2 s + 1 …

❖ For a type 1 system,

s 2 k Ta s + 1 Tb s + 1 …
k a = lim =0
s→0 𝑠 T1 s + 1 T2 s + 1 …

79
 Cont. …
❖ For a type 2 system,

s2 k Ta s + 1 Tb s + 1 …
k a = lim 2 =k
s→0 𝑠 T1 s + 1 T2 s + 1 …

❖ For a type 3 or higher system,

s2 k Ta s+1 Tb s+1 …
ka = lim 𝑁 = ∞, for 𝑁 ≥ 3
s→0 𝑠 T1 s+1 T2 s+1 …

➢ Thus, the steady-state error for the unit parabolic input is

summarized as
ess = ∞, for type 0 and 1 systems
1
ess = , for type 2 systems
𝑘
ess = 0, for type 3 and higher systems
80
 Cont. …

Table 3.1: Summary (steady-state error in terms of gain k)

81
 Cont. …
Exercise3.5
1) Identify the type of system given below
k(1+3s) 5s+1
a) G s = and H s =
s2 s2 +6s+7

k(1+3s)
b) G s = and H s =1
𝑠

4
c) G s = and H s =s+3
𝑠 2 +6𝑠+7

𝑘(𝑠+4)
2) For a system having 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 = , find
𝑠(𝑠 3 +5𝑠 2 +6𝑠)

i. Type of the system

ii. Error coefficients
iii. Error due to unit parabolic input
82
 Cont. …

3) Find the error coefficient for the system given by block

diagram.

83
3.7. Root-Locus Concept
3.7.1. Introduction
➢ The basic characteristics of the transient response of
closed loop system is closely related to the location of
closed loop poles.

➢ The change of system parameter change the location of

closed loop poles.

➢ If parameter adjustment alone does not yield a desired

result, addition of a compensator to the system will be
necessary.
84
 Cont. …
➢ Note: The parameter is usually the gain, but also other
variable of open loop transfer function may be used.
Unless stated the gain of open loop transfer function is
the parameter.

➢ The Routh criterion determine whether the system is

stable or unstable. But it has certain drawbacks.

1) It does not give sufficient information about the relative

stability of the system, i.e. amount of overshoot , settling
time and etc.

85
 Cont. …
2) It doesn’t help much in design problem’s in which
designer is required to achieve the desired performance
specification by varying one or more parameters.

➢ Roots of characteristic equation of a given system

migrate on complex plane (s-plane) as one of design
parameter is adjusted.

➢ The locus of this migration is known as root locus. Once

the locus is obtained, one can select the poles on the root
locus which meet the desired specification and can
obtain adjustable design parameter.
86
 Cont. …
➢ The root locus for the system defined as the path of the

closed-loop poles as the gain k is varied from zero to

infinity.

➢ In other ways, it is a graphical method of plotting the

locus of poles in s-plane as the design parameter of the

system is varied (usually open loop system gain k which

varies from 0 to ∞).

87
 Cont. …
Root-locus plots for negative feedback systems
❖ Angle and magnitude conditions

➢ Consider the negative feedback system shown in Figure

3.10. below

Fig.3.10.
88
 Cont. …
➢ The closed-loop transfer function is

C(s) G(s)
=
R(s) 1 + H s G(s)

➢ The characteristic equation for this closed-loop system

is
1 + H s G s = 0 ⇒ H s G s = −1

➢ Angle condition:
∠𝐻 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 = ±180° 2𝑘 + 1 , 𝑘 = 0, 1,2, …

➢ Magnitude condition:
H s G s =1
89
 Cont. …
➢ The values of s that fulfill both the angle and magnitude
conditions are the roots of the characteristic equation, or
the closed-loop poles.
➢ A locus of the points in the complex plane satisfying the
angle condition alone is the root locus.
➢ The roots of the characteristic equation (the closed-loop
poles) corresponding to a given value of the gain can be
determined from the magnitude condition.

➢ Then the root loci for the system are the loci of the
closed-loop poles as the gain k is varied from zero to
infinity. 90
 Cont. …
➢ Let consider characteristic equation of nth order system.
k ςm
i=1(s+zi )
1 + H s G s = 0, let H s G s = ςn
j=1(s+pj )

𝑘 ς𝑚
𝑖=1(𝑠 + 𝑧𝑖 )
1+ 𝑛 =0
ς𝑗=1(𝑠 + 𝑝𝑗 )

𝑛 𝑚

ෑ(𝑠 + 𝑝𝑗 ) + k ෑ(𝑠 + 𝑧𝑖 ) = 0 → (𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑥𝑥. 𝐸𝑞𝑛. )

𝑗=1 𝑖=1

𝑛 𝑚
1
ෑ(𝑠 + 𝑝𝑗 ) + ෑ(𝑠 + 𝑧𝑖 ) = 0
𝑘
𝑗=1 𝑖=1
91
 Cont. …
i. When k = 0, the roots (poles) of characteristic equation
will be system open loop poles.

ෑ(𝑠 + 𝑝𝑗 ) = 0
𝑗=1

ii. When 𝑘 → ∞ , the roots (poles) of characteristic

equation will be system open loop zeros.

ෑ(𝑠 + 𝑧𝑖 ) = 0
𝑖=1
92
 Cont. …
➢ It can be concluded that as k varies from 0 to ∞ the loci
of the roots of characteristic equations begins at open
loop poles (k = 0) and terminates at open loop system
zeros (k → ∞).

➢ Note that to begin sketching the root loci of a system by

the root-locus method we must know the location of the
poles and zeros of G s H(s).

➢ The angle of the complex quantities originating from the

open-loop poles and open-loop zeros to the test point ‘s’
are measured in the counterclockwise direction.
93
 Cont. …

k(s+z1 )
Example: H s G s =
s+p1 s+p2 s+p3 s+p4

∠H s G s = ϕ1 − θ1 − θ2 − θ3 − θ4

k s + z1 𝑘𝐵1
H s G s = =
s + p1 s + p2 s + p3 s + p4 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3 𝐴4

where A1 , A2 , A3 , A4 , and B1 are the magnitudes of the

complex quantities s + p1 , s + p2 , s + p3 , s + p4 and s + z1
respectively as shown in figure 3.11 below.

94
 Cont. …

Fig.3.11: (a) and (b) Diagrams showing angle measurements from

open-loop poles and open-loop zero to test point s. 95
3.7.2. General rules for construction of root-loci
1) Locate poles and zeros of H s G(s) on the s-plane.

➢ The root locus branches start from open-loop poles

(when k = 0) and terminate at open-loop zeros (finite
zeros or zeros at infinity).

➢ The root loci are symmetrical about real axis of the s-

plane, because the complex poles and complex zeros
occur only in conjugate pair.

➢ The number of branches is equal to the order of

characteristic polynomial (number of poles of open
loop transfer function). 96
 Cont. …
➢ The number of branches terminating at infinity equals to
the difference between number of poles and number of
zeros (𝑛 − 𝑚). Where n-number of finite poles and m-
number of finite zeros.

2) Determine the root loci on real axis.

➢ All point on real axis lies on root locus, if the sum of poles
and zeros on the real axis to the right of test point is an
odd number.

➢ The complex conjugate poles and zeros of the open loop

transfer function have no effect on the location of root loci.
97
 Cont. …
3) Determine asymptotes of root loci. Angle of asymptotes
is given by:

±180°(2q+1)
ϕA = , q = 0, 1, 2, … , (n − m − 1)
n−m

Where n- number of finite poles of H s G(s) and m-

number of finite zeros of H s G(s).

4) Determine centroid(𝐶𝛿 ): It is the point of intersection of

asymptotes with real axis. It is given by
𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑯(𝒔)𝑮 𝒔 − 𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒛𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒔 𝑯 𝒔 𝑮(𝒔)
𝑪𝜹 =
𝒏−𝒎

98
 Cont. …
5) Find the break away and break in points.

➢ Point at which multiple roots of characteristic equation

𝑑𝑘
occur and solution of = 0.
𝑑𝑠

➢ Break-away point: The point at which root locus comes

out of real axis.

➢ Break-in point: The point at which root locus enters the

real axis.

6) Determine the angle of departure (angle of arrival) of

the root locus from complex poles (at a complex zeros).
99
 Cont. …
➢ The angle of departure from complex open-loop pole is
given by

𝜙𝑝 = ±180° 2𝑞 + 1 + 𝜙, 𝑞 = 0, 1, 2, …

Where, 𝜙 is the net angle contribution to this pole by all

other open loop poles and zeros.

➢ The angle of arrival at complex open-loop zero is given

by

𝜙𝑧 = ±180° 2𝑞 + 1 − 𝜙, 𝑞 = 0, 1, 2, …

Where 𝜙 is the net angle contribution to this zero by all

other open loop poles and zeros. 100
 Cont. …
7) Find the points where the root locus may cross the

imaginary axis (intersection of root locus with

imaginary axis). It is obtained using Routh criterion.

8) Open-loop gain k at any point 𝑠0 on root locus is given

by

ς s0 + pi
k=
ς s0 + zj

101
 Cont. …
➢ Note: Slight change in pole-zero configuration may
cause significant change in root locus configuration.

➢ In pole-zero cancellation, to obtain the complete set of

closed-loop poles, we must add cancelled poles of
H s G(s) to those closed-loop poles obtained from the
root-locus plot of H s G(s).

➢ If the number of open-loop poles exceeds the number

of finite zeros by three or more, there is a value of gain k
beyond which the root loci enter the right half of s-plane
and the system become unstable.
102
 Cont. …
➢ Note: A particular problem may be to determine a pair of
dominant complex conjugate closed-loop poles with a given
damping ratio ζ .

➢ If s1 is one of the such a pair points, then

i. s1 must be on the root loci.

ii. The line joining s1 to the origin must make an angle β =
± cos −1 ζ with negative real axis.

➢ Thus, s1 can be determined as the intersection of root loci with a

ray (straight line) from the origin making an angle of β with
negative real axis. Once s1 , is determined, the corresponding
gain k can be determined by magnitude condition.
103
 Cont. …
Example: Sketch root locus of a unity feedback system
having open loop transfer function given by G s =
k
and determine the gain at a point s = −1.
s(s+2)(s+3)

Solution: Open-loop poles are 𝑠 = 0, −2 & − 3 and

there is no open-loop zeros.

➢ Number of root locus branches are three since 𝑛 = 3.

The three branches of root locus originates from open
loop poles at 𝑠 = 0, −2 & − 3 when 𝑘 = 0 and terminates
at infinity.
104
 Cont. …
➢ All point on real axis between 0 & − 2, between −3 & −
∞ lie on root locus for which number of open-loop poles
and zeros to the right of test point are 1 & 3 respectively.

➢ The three root locus branches proceed to infinity and do

so along asymptotes with angle

180°(2q+1)
ϕA = , q = 0, 1, 2
n−m

180°(2q+1)
ϕA = = 60°, 180° & 300°
3
➢ Centroid:
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻(𝑠)𝐺 𝑠 − 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 𝐺(𝑠)
𝐶𝛿 =
𝑛−𝑚
105
 Cont. …
(0 − 2 − 3) − (0) −5
𝐶𝛿 = = = −1.667
3−0 3
dk
➢ Break away point of root locus = 0,
ds

C(s) k
= 3
R(s) s + 5s 2 + 6s + k
s 3 + 5s 2 + 6s + k = 0 → k = −(s 3 + 5s 2 + 6s)

dk
= − 3s 2 + 10s + 6 = 0 → s = −2.5485 & − 0.7847
ds
➢ The point −2.5485 is not on root locus. Therefore, break
away point is −0.7847 which is on root locus. 106
 Cont. …
➢ Intersection of root locus with imaginary axis
s 3 + 5s 2 + 6s + k = 0
s3 1 6 0
s2 5 k 0
1 30−k
s a= b=0
5
s0 c=k
30−k
➢ To find maximum gain considers >0&k>0
5
∴ 0 < 𝑘 < 30
➢ To find point of intersections considers 𝑠 2 row when
𝑘 = 30
107
 Cont. …
5𝑠 2 + 𝑘 = 0 → 5𝑠 2 + 30 = 0 → 𝑠 = ± −6 = ±𝑗2.449

𝑘 = 𝑠(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 + 3) = −1(−1 + 2)(−1 + 3) = 2 0r

𝑘 = 𝑠 𝑠 + 2 𝑠 + 3 = −1 −1 −2 = 2
108
 Cont. …
Example: Sketch the root locus for a unity feedback
system with open loop transfer function 𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑘
𝑆(𝑠2 +8𝑠+32)
Solution:
➢ Open loop poles are 𝑠 = 0, −4 + 𝑗4 & − 4 − 𝑗4 and there
is no open loop zeros.

➢ Number of root locus branches are three since 𝑛 = 3.

The three branches of root locus originates from open
loop poles at 𝑠 = 0, −4 + 𝑗4 & − 4 − 𝑗4 when 𝑘 = 0 and
terminates at infinity when 𝑘 → ∞.

109
 Cont. …
➢ All point on real axis between −∞ & 0 lie on root
locus since there is one pole to the right of this.

➢ Asymptotes angle of branches

180°(2q+1)
ϕA = , q = 0, 1, 2
n−m

180°(2q+1)
ϕA = = 60°, 180° & 300°
3

➢ centroid
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻(𝑠)𝐺 𝑠 − 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 𝐺(𝑠)
𝐶𝛿 =
𝑛−𝑚

110
 Cont. …
(0 − 4 − 4) − (0) −8
𝐶𝛿 = = = −2.667
3−0 3
dk
➢ Break away point of root locus = 0,
ds

C(s) k
= 3
R(s) s + 8s2 + 32s + k
s3 + 8s2 + 32s + k = 0 → k = −(s3 + 8s2 + 32s)

dk 2
−8 ± 𝑗4 2
= − 3s + 16s + 32 = 0 → s =
ds 3

111
 Cont. …
The point are not on the root locus. Therefore, there is
no break away point.

➢ Angle of departure of root locus from a complex

open loop poles is
𝜙𝑝 = 180° + 𝜙
Angle of departure at 𝑝2
𝜙𝑝2 = 180° + 𝜙
𝜙 = 𝜙𝑧 − 𝜙𝑝1 + 𝜙𝑝3 + 𝜙𝑝4 + ⋯
➢ But not include at a poles we are find departure
angle(𝜙𝑝2 ).
112
 Cont. …
since there is no zero, ϕz = 0
ϕp1 = 135° & ϕp3 = 90

ϕ = ϕz − ϕp1 + ϕp3 = 0 − 135° + 90° = −225°

ϕp2 = 180° + ϕ = 180° + −225° = −45°

Angle of departure at p3

ϕp3 = 180° + ϕ

ϕ = ϕz − ϕp1 + ϕp2 , ϕp1 = 45° & ϕp2 = 90°

ϕ = ϕz − ϕp1 + ϕp2 = 0° − 45° + 90° = −135°

ϕp3 = 180° + ϕ = 180° + −135° = 45° 11
 Cont. …
➢ Intersection of root locus with imaginary axis
s3 + 8s2 + 32s + k = 0
s3 1 32 0
s2 8 k 0
256−k
s1 a= b=0
8
s0 c=k
256−k
To find maximum gain considers >0&k>0
8
∴ 0 < 𝑘 < 256
To find point of intersections considers 𝑠 2 row when
𝑘 = 256 11
 Cont. …
8𝑠 2 + 𝑘 = 0 → 8𝑠 2 + 256 = 0 → 𝑠 = ± −32 = ±𝑗5.657

11
 Cont. …
Example: Sketch the root loci of the system shown in
Figures 3.12 as k varies from zero to infinity. Determine
the value of k such that the closed loop poles have
damping ratio 𝜁 of 0.7.

Fig.3.12: Control system. 116

 Cont. …
10
Solution: G s = , H s =1
s+1+10k s
10
➢ Open-loop Transfer function, H(s)G s = s+1+10k s
Y(s) 10
➢ Closed-loop transfer function, =
R(s) s2 +s+10ks+10

Since k is not a multiplying factor, modify the equation

such that k appear as multiplying factor.
➢ The characteristic equation is
s 2 + s + 10ks + 10 = 0
We rewrite this equation as,

10𝑘𝑠
1+ 2 =0
s + s + 10
117
 Cont. …
Let, k1 = 10k
k1 𝑠
1+ 2 =0
s + s + 10
Step1: open-loop poles are: 𝑠 = −0.5 ± 𝑗3.1225 and
open-loop zero is, 𝑠 = 0

➢ Number of root locus branches are 2 since 𝑛 = 2

➢ All branches start at 𝑠 = −0.5 ± 𝑗3.1225 and terminate at

𝑠 = 0 and infinity.

Step2: All point on real axis between −∞ & 0 lies on root

locus
118
 Cont. …
Step3: Asymptotes angle of branches
2q+1 180°
ϕA = ,q = 0
n−m
ϕA = 180°
Step4: Break in point
−𝑠 2 − 𝑠 − 10
s 2 + s + 10 + k1 s = 0 ⇒ k1 =
𝑠
𝑑k1 −𝑠 2 + 10
=0 ⇒ 2
=0
𝑑𝑠 𝑠
𝑠 = 10 = ±3.1623
➢ 𝑠 = −3.1623 is the actual break in point. since 𝑠 = 3.1623
is not on root locus, it can not be a break in point. 119
 Cont. …
Step5: Angles of departure
𝜙𝑝 = 180° + 𝜙

➢ Angles departure at 𝑠 = −0.5 + 𝑗3.1225

𝜙𝑝1 = 180° + 𝜙, 𝜙𝑝2 = 90° and 𝜙𝑧 = 99°

𝜙 = 𝜙𝑧 − 𝜙𝑝2 = 99° − 90° = 9°

∴ 𝜙𝑝1 = 180° + 9° = 189°

➢ Angles departure at 𝑠 = −0.5 − 𝑗3.1225

Since the root locus is symmetric about real axis

∴ 𝜙𝑝1 = −189°
120
 Cont. …
Step6: Sketch root loci

121
 Cont. …
➢ Angle condition
𝑘1 𝑠
∠2 = ±180° 2𝑘1 + 1
𝑠 +𝑠+10

∠𝑠 − ∠𝑠 + 0.5 + j3.1225 − ∠𝑠 + 0.5 − j3.1225 = ±180° 2𝑘1 + 1

where, 𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔
∠𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔 − ∠𝜎 + 0.5 + j(𝜔 + 3.1225) − ∠𝜎 + 0.5 + 𝑗(𝜔 − 3.1225) =
±180° 2𝑘1 + 1

∠𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔 ± 180° 2𝑘1 + 1 = ∠𝜎 + 0.5 + j(𝜔 + 3.1225) + ∠𝜎 +

0.5 + 𝑗(𝜔 − 3.1225)

122
 Cont. …
𝜔 + 3.1225 𝜔 − 3.1225 𝜔
tan−1 + tan−1 = tan−1 ± 180° 2𝑘1 + 1
𝜎 + 0.5 𝜎 + 0.5 𝜎

➢ Taking tangent both sides

𝜔 + 3.1225 𝜔 − 3.1225 𝜔
tan tan−1 + tan−1 = tan tan−1 ± 180° 2𝑘1 + 1
𝜎 + 0.5 𝜎 + 0.5 𝜎

𝜔 + 3.1225 𝜔 − 3.1225
+ 𝜔
𝜎 + 0.5 𝜎 + 0.5 =
𝜔 + 3.1225 𝜔 − 3.1225 𝜎
1−
𝜎 + 0.5 𝜎 + 0.5

2𝜔 𝜎 + 0.5 𝜔
=
𝜎 + 0.5 2 − 𝜔 − 3.1225 2 𝜎
𝜔 𝜎 2 − 10 + 𝜔2 = 0
123
 Cont. …
𝜔 = 0, 𝜎 2 + 𝜔2 = 10, this is equation of root locus
➢ To obtain the dominant pole at a given 𝜁, we equate the
equation of the straight line passing through origin with
angle 𝛽 with negative real axis.

𝛽 = ± cos 0.7 = ±45.57°,

𝜔
tan 45.57 = = 1.02 ⇒ 𝜔 = 1.02𝜎
𝜎
𝜔2 + 𝜎 2 = 10

2
10
1.02𝜎 + 𝜎2 = 10 ⇒ 𝜎 = ± = ±2.214, 𝜔 = 1.02𝜎 = 2.258
2.04
124
 Cont. …
➢ Therefore, the intersection is at
𝑠 = −2.214 ± 𝑗2.258

𝑠+0.5+j3.1225 𝑠+0.5−j3.1225
𝑘1 = at 𝑠 = −2.214 + 𝑗2.258
𝑠

𝑘1
𝑘= = 0.3427
10
Exercise3.6:

1) Draw the root locus for the unity negative feedback

system with forward transfer function given below.

k k
a) G s = b) G s = 125
s(s+1)(s+3) s s2 +6s+25
 Cont. …
2) Sketch the root-loci for the following negative feedback
system with open-loop transfer functions:

k(s+2)(s+4)
a) H s G(s) =
s(s+6)

k
b) H s G(s) =
s(s+1)(s+2)

k(s+2)
c) H s G(s) =
s2 +2s+3

k(s+1)(s+3)
d) H s G(s) =
s(s+2)(s+4)

k(s+1)
e) H s G(s) = 126
s2 +4s+13
 Cont. …
3) Sketch the root-loci for the following system given by block
diagram.

4) For the negative feedback system shown below, sketch the

root locus and then determine the value of k such that the
damping ratio (𝜁) of a pair of dominant complex conjugate
closed-loop poles is 0.7.

127