BOILER ENGINEERING‘The information peesented in this publication is forthe general education of the reader. Because neither the author nor the publisher have any control over the use of the inform2- sion by the reader, both the author and the publisher discaimn any and all abiiey of any kind arising out of such use. The reader is expected to exercise sound professional judgment in using any of the information presented in 2 particular application. ‘Additionally neither the author nor the publisher have investigated or considered the effect of any patents on the ability of the reader to use any of the information in a particular appli- ‘ation. The reader is responsible for reviewing any possible patents that may affect any particular use of the information presented. Any references to commercial products in the work are cited as examples only, Neither the ‘asthor nor the publisher endorses any referenced commercial product. 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Publication Data Library of Congress Cataloging Gilman, G.F (ery) Boiler control systems engineering / G.E (ferry) Gilman, pe ISBN 1-55617-907-3 (pbk) 41, Seeam-boiless--Automatic control. I-Tite. 728.6527 2005 621.1994—de22 2005010930 About the Author Jerry Gilman’ career has spanned over 35 years with Procter & Gamble (P&G), and its sub- [Link] 4 process control systems engineer for P&G, Gilman was dedicated to improving control systems and implementing new cechnology in numerous product areas at P&G in the US and foreign countries. One of his aeas of expertise has been with boiler contiol systems engineering: improving efficiency, conserving energy, and working asa primary troubleshooter fon boilers and other combustion systems. A licensed profesional engineer, Jerry Gilman currently provides training and consulting to numerous utility and industrial plants. This includes performing startups, tunting, and tou bleshooting more than a hundred boilers and combustion systems such as dryers, roasters, and ovens. Gilman's experte in fuels and combustion contol ranges from finding solutions for new unit applications to retcofiting existing installations in order to save fel, change feels, or improve overall contcol. He has applied his experience in combustion testing and energy uti zation to help simplify boiler performanee monitoring technigues and methods. His approaches are easy to understand and use effectively. Jerry Gillman is ako an insteuctor and course reviewer for ISA (The Instrumentation, Systems, ‘and Automation Society) and developed the “ISA Boiler Control Systems Engineering” and “ISA Burner Management Systems Engineering” taining courses. He has been a guest speaker oon boiler control, burner management, and boiler safety issues at various ISA section meetings and other user groups and seminars. Additionally, he was a technical advisor for “Win Boiler Sins!” 2 PC based boiler taining program sold through ISA. Jerry Gilman is an active member on the following ISA Standards Committees: ISA SP84 Pro- igrmumable Electronic Systems (PES) for Use in Safery Applications, ISA SP84 Burner “Management System Working Geoup; and ISA SP77 Fossil Fuel Power Plant Standards About the Cover Illustration ‘The cover graphic is 2 representation of the fuel gas, water tube, forced draft boiler simulated in the program Win Boiler Sim developed by Len Klochek and sold through ISA. The Windows-based simulation program was developed as 2 taining cool, allowing personnel swhose interests include boiler operations, as well as instrumentation and céntrol maintenance and design, to obtain an understanding of the variows control strategies and tuning procedures used on water tube boilers including: three clement/single clement drum level control, ait flow/fuel flow cross limiting, and steam pressure control. In addition, a burner management system that follows the requirements of the NFPA 85 Boiler and Combustion Systems Hazard Code, 2004 Edition, Chapter 5: Single Burner Boiler, is part of the simulation allowing per- sonnel to simulate a fall boiler startup ffom fling boiler drum, light-off to fill load. The program is used by the author as part of the ISA. taining seminars on boiler controlvil 1 i 2 2 2 2 a5 ay 6 6 7 8 Table of Contents Chapter 1 — Boiler Fundamentals . Basic Boilers a Boiler Components Furnace. . Fans. Windbox Flue Gas Heat Exchangers... Combustion Air Preheater Economizer ..... Supecheater eh Boiler Drums 3 Piping and Instrament Diagrams (PIDs) . Design Basis Check List Chapter 2 — Control of Boilers Control Strategies « Bumopless Transier Simple Feedback Control. Feedforward plus Feedback Control.......2. 10 Cascade Control ....0060000+ : bee elt Ratio Control SS pnesectgee le Feedforward Control Ss Ogee ee Controller Tuning a 13 Determining Gain, Reset, and Derivative... 0... 15 Gain vs. Propoztional Band (PB) v Controller Actions. . : oa a Conteollex Actions Setup ate 56 20 The Effects on Taning.....- cecee ee 20 Calibration Effect on Gain. . esol sgl Transmitters he sirinkiiiop an 0 Redundancy : at Interlock Circui Beacon sts e 21 Final Control Element... weve ne Chapter 3 — Furnace Draft... sites aston 23 Pressure Fired Boilers. 23 Balanced Draft Boiler Fans. 4 Furnace Pressure Control, : 24vi Chapter 4 — Feedwater .... Pree oo oT Once-Through Boilers see 31 Drum Level Feedwaver Control... ao i nae Transmitters... ee aes NY Shrink and Swell 38 Single Element Level Control . 40 ‘Two Element Level Control helio ene vv ad aera) ‘Three Element Level Control... 244 Control System Configuration.......... 44 Summer : sescegee 44 Chapter 5 — Coal Fired Boilers . ee) Pulverized Coal Fired Boilers. ee 49 Raw Coal and Feeder .... os j eee Stoker Boilers 54 Cyclone Boiler... s 34 Chapter 6 — Fuel and Air Control... 0.606066. Fuel and Air Control Gas Oi ins Fuel and Air Control Characterization Excess Air to Oxygen . . Multiple Fuel Contzol Oxygen (©,)Trim Control Maltiple Boilers ...... Chapter 7 — Steam Temperature se shee tie chs ‘Three Element Level Control Ee Chapter 8 Burner Management Systems 83 Burner Management System (BMS) Contol....... : 83 NFPA 85 Code = hee BS Purge Control. . oe 4 Requirement for Independence of Control (Hardware/Software) 85 Flame Detection ae sug saaeeek 6 Flame Monitoring and Tripping System (Multiple Burner Boilers) ........ 86 Flame Tripping Validation. . ts -87 Chapter 9— Environment.......... 9 NO, and NO, Control : ee) Excess Air to Oxygen ... arte woes MUL Chapter 10 — Control Valve Sizing. ....- Valve Characteristics. Valve Characteristic Graph . Recommended Velocities. . ‘Valve Sizing for Different Control Media Control Valve Sizing Calculations Gas Valve Sizing Acronyms... Appendix A........ Appendix B ..... ae Bibliography... Reference Glossary. x = 103 103 - 104 = 104 105 105 106 109 id 121 127 29 137Figures and Tables Chapter 1 Figure 1-1 Basic diagram of a boiler. ...« Figure 1-2 Boiler componeats . Figure 1-3 Typical power plant effluents and emissions Figure 1-4 Simple boiler plus combustion air Figure 1-5 Economizer Figure 1-6 Boiler drums...... Chapter 2 Figure 2-1. Simple Sedback control o Figure 2-2 Feedforward plus feedback contol Figure 2-3. Cascade control. Figure 2-4 Ratio control Figure 2-5 Ziegler Nichols tuning . Table 2-1 Tuning terms/equations. Figure 2-6 Typical control system responses Figure 2-7 ‘Typical output variable Figure 2-8 Deviation between set point and process vaiable Figure 2-9 Upset in return to recovery with reset Figure 2-10 Upset in zeeurn to recovery with derivative action and reset. . Figare 2-11 Steady proces variable with randomly varying load. Chapter 3 Figure 3-1 Pressure fired boiler < Figure 3-2 Block diagram of boiler conte ~ furnace conto. Figure 3-3. Furnace pressure transmitier ee Figure 3.4 Furnace pressure transmitcers Figure 3-5 SAMA logic for furrnace draft Figre 3-6 Furnace dint conarl, Single-clement feedback contol of 2 induced draft fan.) induced draft fan.) Figure 3-8 Damper and fan speed const Figure 3.9 Damper and fan speed control non-interscting method Figure 3-10 Variable speed fan characteristics ~ reduction in horsepower x Woauben i 18 18 19 219 223 12d 23 = 26 nat +28 Figure 3-7 Furnace draft consol. (Feedfocward-plos-feedback contol ofan fe) 29 29 30xi xu Chapter 4 Figure 6-12 Excess air vs. boiler load as 07 Figure 41 Block diagram of boiler control — dramlevel feedwater... 31 Table 6-1 Relationship of excess air to oxygen 68 Figure 4-2. Boiler drums/level measurement oo ces Figure 6-13 Dual fuel cross limiting control ..-+ +--+ eeeee -69 Figure 4-3 Indicated level vs. drum pressure « 88 Figure 6-14 Running fuel change, dual fzel O, crim. ..... na Figure 4-4 Typical drum level differential pressure transmitter connections .. 34 Table 6-2 Various fiel Beu values per pound by state... 2 Figure 4.5 Gage glass drum level indication, eas Figure 4-6 Drum level transmitter Leese 35 Chapter 7 Figure 4-7 Simple feedback control loop .... 36 Figure 7-1 Block diagram of boiler control ~ steam temperature control . . 73 Figure 4-8 Single element control action . ee ah Figure 7-2. Typical single element superheat control 74 Figure 4.9 Shrink and swell Weir 38 Figure 7-3 Typical two element superheat control. ...... B Figure 4-10 Single clement control — drum level 39 Figure 7-4 ‘Typical three clement superheat control... seni 76 Figure 4-11, Single clement feedwater control (SAMA symbol) 39 Figure 7-5 Typical superheater single-stage attemperator arrangement... 77 Figure 412, Single clement feedwater control (ISA symbol)... 240 Figure 7-6 Temperature measurement taken at outled of intermediate Figure 4413 Two clemene feedwater control... Sah eee aL supetheater section... igese aco Figure 414 Performance two clement (ideal conditions)... ae Figure 7-7 Three element control for spray attemperator. ......0s0.. 79 Figure 4-15 Performance two clement (effect of feedwater variation)... 42 Figure 4-16 Two element feedwater control a6 a Chapter 8 Figure 417 Three clement feedwater contol... cS Figure 81 Flame detectors eebebesia BO Figure 4-18 PédID for three element control using ISA symbols... 2. 46 Figure 8-2 Inverlock system for mulkiole burner boiler 88 Table 8-1 NEPA table of shutdown requirements ..... ee 89 Chapter 5 Table 8-2 Communicating startup permissives, shutdown, lars and Table Fuel BurValues per Pound by State... ee ee eee eeee eee AD. status ~ single boilers ee)! Figure 5-1 Direct fring system for pulverized coal gees 2150 j ‘Table 8-3. Communiating stamp permissves, shutdown, alarms and Figure 5-2 Modified ditect fired pulverized coal system. 31 status ~ multiple boilers......... 92 Figure 5-3 Control system for a pulverized coal boiler Sinden 58 Figure 8-3 Typical gas igniter 8 Figure 5-4 Excess oxygen and carbon monoxide relationship at Figure 8-4 Typical steam or air atomizing system light oll ............. 94 | various loads for a gas-fired boiler ........00... ose Figure 8-5 Typical main oil burner system mechanical atomizing ....... 95 | Figare 5-5 Chain grate stoker. .. 55 Figure 8-6 Typical main gas burner system .......- 500+ 96 | Figure 5-6 Control scheme for a stoker boiler... 55 Figure 8-7 Typical steam or air atomization system... eevee or ! Figure 5-7 Combustion control for cyclone-fired boiler ..............56 | Chapter 6 Chapter 9 Figure 6-1 Block diagram of boiler control ~ fel ait conteol. 59 Figure 9-1 Controlling ammonia injection .... 101 i Figure 6-2. Mechanical positioning system. : cea ue) | Figure 6-3 Parallel positioning with no fel air measurement ..........60 Chapter 10 | Figure 64 Fuel follow air series metering system BE unee Figs 10/1) Typical Wr charadeecinte cir «0 os og laeaulhn AO | Figure 6-5 Air follow fuel series metering system ... Sa 62 Figure 6-6 Basic parallel metering... .. ease eae: | Figure 6-7 Parallel meter fuel flow interlock... sees eee - 64 Figure 6-8 Parallel meter air fow interlock sonnet Figure 6-9 Firing single fixel/cross limiting ........ : 65 Figure 6-10 Output fiom flow transmitters... 0... 66 Figure 6-11 Characterization curve. .... o7CHAPTER Boiler Fundamentals Basic Boilers ‘A boiler is comprised of two basic systems. (See Figure 1-1.) One system is the steam water system also called the waterside of the boiler. In the waterside, water is introduced and heated by transference through the water tubes, converted 10 steam, and leaves the system as steam, Boilers must maintain a chemical balance. The manner in whic this is done can interact with the feedwater concrol system. The amount of blowdown must be considered in the feedwater control scheme, especialy ifthe blowdown is continuous. Often, the blowdown flow is divided by the concentration ratio times the ftedwater flow: Continuous blowdown is the common method for contlling the chemical concentration, On large boiler this may be done auto matically by measuring che boiler water conductivity to contol che bloweown rate, The blowdown rate may also be achieved by combining the conductivity with ratio control of blowdown, rtfoing blowdown to feedwater flow. In utility plants, conductivity is usually meas- ured and Blowdown is achieved manually. This is required on a periodic basis or when the conductivity get too high. Conductivity is measured in micro mihos which is equal to the reciprocal of { mechanical ohm. (esistance). The other boiler system is the fuel air-flue gas system, ako referred to as the fireside of the boiler This system provides the heat that is transferred to the water. The inputs to this system are the fuel and air required to burn che fre The fitel and air chamber is alo referred to as the windbos. The outputs are the flue gas and ash sTeata waren, STEAMWATER SYSTEM SLOWDOWN Fuet MaxXINoF | FURNACE HEAT FLUE GAS, ar! on FESS FUEL EIR TRANSFER SURFACE af ASH AR | rd Figure 1-1 Basic diagram of a boiler. Boller Fundamentsio 12 Boller Contral Systems Engineering Boiler Components Note that in the boiler diagram, the steam goes to 2 header: This is common in industrial power plants; however, in utility planss the boiler is direcly connected to the turbine. The firing demand in industrial plants is based on header pressure or drum presuze. Usbiry planes control the fring rate on megawatt demand, or throttle pressure. The firing rate demand depends on the particular system. Furnace The combustion chamben/farnace releases the heat and becomes the heat transfer system. There ste thice T's cequired for combustion to take place in the furnace: sime, ermperaure, and carbu- lence. The contol of the furnace draft is required to maintain a negative pressure in the furnace in a balanced dist boiler This pressure is defined by the boiler manuicturer. Negative 05 inches is 2 common control point. The control set point may be nised during inspection rounds ftom 105 inches to 1.0 inches to minimize the possibilty of flame coming out of inspection doors. Draft presume contol setting is defined by the boiler manuficner and environmental equipment. Under cerain conditions, the furnace pressure may be consoled positive. Fans Figure 1-2 illustrates the basic components of a coal-fired boiler ‘The boiler consists of an ID (duced Draft) fan and an FD (Forced Draf) fin. Large urilry boilers may have two ID fans and two ED [Link] ID fan pulls aic through the boiler producing 2 negative pressure in the farmace, thus creating draft contolThe FID fan pushes air for combustion through the boiler. On utility boilers, FD fans normally supply secondary and ovesfire (eertiary at) with primary sir (2A) flow being supplied by the PA. fans. Industrial boilers often have separate fans for the tertiary aie as well Due to the 1990 Clean Air Act amendments, there is offen emission contol equipment such 4s precipitators, bag houses, and sulfur dioxide scrubbers on the discharge of boilers (See Figure 1-3.) IF envisonmental equipment is added, booster ID fans may be required. The aft pressare contol is defined by both the boiler manficturer and environmental equipment. Windbox The windbox distributes secondary air to the [Link] windbox may have dampee adjust- nents to exeate turbulence to improve combustion. Flue Gas Heat Exchangers ‘To reduce heat loss in the boiler flue gases and to improve boiler efficiency, heat exchangers are added to the boiler to recover heat and to cool che flue gases. ; 8 SPRAY WATER FROM FEEDINATER PUMP. STEAM STEAM DESUPERHEATER| STEAM ORUM SUPERHEATER, FEEDWATER STEAM HEADER FLUE GASES —> Boller Fundamentals 1 NOMIZER| le Wy FROM OTHER PULVERIZERS COLD AIR oa ‘AawaNooas JER, a DAMPER le-P.a, CONTROL b l cop AR, DAMPER Horan DAMPER Feeaen if PULVERIZER] FD. Fan INLET VANES Lo. FAN INLET DAMPER 3 3 : i E 8 Figure 1-2 Boil4 Boiler Control Systems Engineering Boller Fundamentals 5 Combustion Air Preheater 7 ‘The combustion air preheater is one type of heat exchanger. (See Figure 1-4.) As the flue gas ge leaves the boiler, it passes through the combustion air preheater. The combustion air passes a &s through the air preheater heat exchanger before being mixed with the fuel toss — # aE z WATER reas s Bee] 222 — Seg 2 8 Beg ate ue 8985 eg] 8°3 | ~ } BOILER ep a & So om 3 BG & + 5g AR . 5 BB» 5 : ne preticaren ( FLUE GAS: Pe 2 gas i Be 3 dae € AI PREHEATER PURPOSE - PREHEAT COMBUSTION AIR 55 z g3ca § "AND ABSORB ADDITIONAL HEAT FROM FLUE GAS. g 5 BEe2 & g z Figure 1-4 Simple boiler plus combustion air heater. 3 = Since the flue gas temperature is higher than the air temperature, heat is transferred from the 2 z flue gas to the combustion air via the convection heat transfer surface of the combustion air E 2g g preheater. This transfer of heat cools the flue gas and thus reduces its heat loss and reduces th g 2° 26 = f the air to the stack. The added heat in the combustion air entering the furnace - 2 8 $5 2] enhances the combustion process. This reduces the fuel requirement in an amount equal in he: gig Se $B | Shetcen smoweartce mr tm tem mnternd th contunan se phere eS: 38 32 . improving efficiency jp 8 BE ge a z 6 g By the use of an air prehenter, approximately one percent of fuel is saved for each 40°F rise in 3 the combustion air remperature z e 8 g Economizer 8 a Another flue gas heat recovery method is through the use of an economizer. The economizer eae heats the feedwater to improve boiler efficiency and reduce heat loss to the stack. The increased 133 hea in the feecvater reduces the boiler’ requirement for fel and combustion air. Inthe econ omizer arrangement shown in Figure 1-5, che due gas leaves the boiler and enters the economizer where it makes contact with the heat transfer surface, in the form of water tubes, through which the boiler feedwater flows. Since the flue gas is ata higher cemperacure than the water, che flue gas is cooled and the water temperature is increased. Cooling the due gas reduces its heat Joss in an amount equsl to the increased heat in the feedwater to the boiler. Both types of heat exchangers are offen used in large boilers.6 Boller Control Systems Engineering ‘When both an air preheater and an economizer ate used, the normal practice consists of passing the fe gases fist through the economizer and then through the combustion air preheater (See Figure 1-5.) Uslity boilers normally bave economizers and sir heater While economizers are used to recover heat ftom the flue gas, the use of Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) requires flue gas temperatures above a specified minimum temperature to [Link] extend the range of operation of the SCR, che economizer surface may be bypassed to raise fue gas temperatures at lower loads winn20x Lar Lan BOILER Fuc_—>| FLUE Gas wer ECONOWIZEA wuer VANE re CONTROL CONTROL Le} Ain PREHEATER FLUE GAS )ACED inoyceo DRAFT FAN DRAFT FAN Figure 1-5 Economizer. Superheater ‘The superheater provides additional heat to the steam to remove any moisture from the steam, theeeby improving the quality ofthe steam. The dryness ofthe steam (in percent) is the deter ining factor of is quali’ When there is no moisture in the steam, the quality is 100 percent. Boiler Drums The boiler in Figure 1-2 does not have a lower drum. High pressure udlity boilers used for power generation have only an upper drum, Boilers may consist of an upper drum, or steam or water drum, and a lower dram, or mad drum. The mud drum terminology comes from the function of the lower deum. Although the ‘water is treated to eliminate dissolved solids, some solids always remain in the water. These solids collect in che lower d icum blowdown is required co remove the solids that collece in the lower drum. The blowdown may be manual or abromatie Boller Fundamentals 7 Figure 1-6 has an upper and lower drum. Industrial plants commonly have both upper and lower drums. The heating of the tubes initiates a narural circulation of the water. In some large utility boilers, chis circulation is not sufficient and a pump is installed to produce the required circulation. The circulation of the water creates a cooling effect to keep the tubes from overheating steam FLUE GAS CIRCULATION WATER GAS BAFFLES CIRGULATES CLOCKWISE Figur Piping and Instrument Diagrams (P&IDs) ‘The purpose of P&IDs is to provide an initial design basis for the boiler The P&ID provides the engineering requirements to identify the measurements and fimetions that aze to be con~ twolled. It may be used to define the number of inputs and outputs and may also consist of 2 design basis check lise (DBCL).The DBCL bss all che instruments and functions. Utley plants genenilly define the control systems on Scientific Apparatus Makers Association (SAMA) dea ings and do not have a PéID. By identifying the requited measurements and control fonctions, an I/O count can be defined. ‘By defining the contol functions, the memory requirements can be established. Memory and VO capabilities can be important in selecting a basic process control system and/or logic system. Utility plants commonly use the term process control system (PCS)8 Boller Control Systems Engineering The controls system may consist of panel mounted instruments, a distributive control system. (DCS), logic system, or a combination, This ako includes the smount of redundancy of both measurement and final control elements, The numbering system will be bused on the standard for che plant. The ISA and SAMA leer identification is used by most companies, ISA and SAMA identification leters are the same. (See ISA and SAMA identification tables in the Reference section for more information.) The Jeter configuration identifies che enter definition. For example, when T isthe fist letter it rep= sesoats temperature, T as a succeeding leter is a transmitter, The numbering will consist of the ‘identification letters, such as a PT,and the mg number’The tg n consi ofa system fr loop number. An example would be: PT 115 1001, The PT represents the pressase teans= miter, the 115 the system number, and 1001 the instrument aumbes, umber In the examples on the design basis check lise, the PT isa pressure ransmittar. Note P is used for both pressure and vicuum, PY isthe pressure valve. is used for valves, vanes, or dampers. PIC is the abbreviation used fora pressure indicating controller Design Basis Check List ‘The purpose of the design basis check list (DBCL) is to track the instrumentation, Example of a design basis check list Type | Tog # | Servico | Mode! | Calibration mr | toot | an Gade | Aveo [aaa wv | 1001 [ont ve | Lo The DBCL may have numerous columns including items such as SAMA drawings, logic draw= ings serial numbers, or any other items determined by the engineering and plant team. ‘The DCL may he used as relational data base providing che abiley to sort by categories such, as delivery tans, hardware co determine missing items, hardware to devermine spare require- tent, or any soct categories required. CHAPTER 2 Control of Boilers Control Strategies “There are basically five fundamental contol strategies that are used in process conteol. They are: simple feedback control, feedforward plus edback contra, eascade contra, ratio control, and edforward contol. la the contol of boilers, ll ve of che fundamental control srategies are used. Many companies show all contsollers on drawings as PID controllers, This is becaus vendor algorithms/function blocks for control are defined as PID contollers. Most control loops are PI only, cherefore that format is used in chis book, Bumpless Transfer ‘The NFPA 85 Code requires bumpless transfer fiom manual to automatic, Before che devel- ‘opment of the DCS (distributive control systems) and electronic systems, it was the responsibilty of the operator to line up the set point and the process variable before transfer ring to automatic control. These systems have the capability of the set point tracking the process variable so they are aligned when control is transferred to automatic control Simple Feedback Control ‘With simple feedback control, changes in the primary variable fed back to a control function, as shown in Figure 2-1. The process variable is compared to the set point ofthe conwoller. The differential berween the set point and process variable generates an output signal to the manip uted variable and adjusts the variable to bring i back to set point."The firnetion can be proportional-plus-integral (as shown), proportion-only, proportional-plus-derivative, integral- oly, oF proportional-plus-integeal-phus-derivative In all chose cases, che controller includes an error detector function, which measures the error between the primary variable and the set point, Other terms are used such as process variable ‘or measured variable. The controller output is determined by a combination or summation of the effecrs of the different control action capabilities that are built into the concroller. This can be gain, eset, derivative, or any combination of the three. These are the proportional co gain multiplication of the error magnitude, the difference between the measured amount and the set point, the integral action based om incremental time aviay fom set point multi- plied by error magnitude, and the derivative or rate of change of the measured variable Derivative action is not represented in the SAMA drawing examples, although it may be used. Control of Boilers 910 Boller Control Systems Engineering PRIMARY VARIABLE: a PROCESS: MANIPULATED VARIABLE Figure 2-1 Simple feedback control, Note: See Reference section fer explanation of SAMA symbole Derivative action should only be used when thete is dead time or a dow responding process such as temperature control. A change in the controller output changes the manipnlated variable, which though action of the process, changes the process output selected as the primary variable. The manipulated variable may also be zeférred to as the process vatiable For drum level control, the manipulated variable is the water flow. On draft control, the manip- thited variable is typically the ID fin vane or damper and may be 'D fan speed conmeol or a combination of vane or damper and speed. ‘More denil on how proportional, integral, and derivative action Function is covered in con- troller tuning, Feedforward plus Feedback Control In feedforwand-plus-feedback control, a secondacy variable chat has a predictable relationship ‘with che manipulated variable is connected, (See Figure 2-2) In this case,a change in the sec~ ondary variable causes the manipulated variable to change in anticipation of a change in the primary variable, This reduces the magnitude of the primary variable change due to the more ‘timely control action that originates from the secondary variable. The feedback portion of the Joop contains the set point and ean contiin any of the controller functions af the basic feed~ back loop The Sedforwand gain is adjustable Basically, the feedforward portion of the control loop minimizes upsets and keeps at the desired set point. Control of Boilers 14 PRIMARY VARIABLE =) é SECONDARY VARIABLE A Fla Lely | i | MANIPULATED VARIABLE PROCESS Figure 2-2 Feedforward plus feedback control. Cascade Control Cascade contol consists essentially of two feedback conte! loops connected together with the output of the primary loop acting as set point for the secondary loop. (See Figure 2-3.) Cas- cade contol is applied to stabilize the manipulated variable so that a predictable relationship between the manipulated variable and the primary variable can be maintained To avoid control instability due co interaction berween the two feedback control loops, its necessary that the response time constants be substantially different. Process response of the sec- PRIMARY VARIABLE | | SECONDARY VARIABLE, Process, a OD 9) Ld MANIPULATED VARIABLE Figure 2.3 Cascade control.12 Boller Control Systems Engineering ondary control loop should be the faster ofthe two.A. general rule is that the time constant of the primary loop process response should be a minimum of 510 10 times that of the secondary loop. The longer time constant of the primary loop indicates a much slower response. Because of this, a normal application wonld be temperature control (a normally slow loop) cascading conto Bow contol (3 normally fast loop). Other suitable candidates for cascade control ae tem- perature cascading onto pressure control and level conteol cascading onto flow contol Ratio Control Ratio contol consiss of a feedback controller whose set point isin direct proportion to an uncontrolled variable, (Gee Figure 2-4) The operator of the process can set the propoztional relationship, or another controller, or a feedfiward signal can automatically adjust it, When rent fies may vary: Ratio conteol is boilers burn mulkiple fuels, air requirements for the ‘used to ratio the quantity of air zequited for different fuels UNCONTROLLED VARIABLE CONTROLLED VARIABLE sp : A ie “xX Lr MANIPULATED VARIABLE PROCESS Figure 2-4 Ratio control. ‘As shown, the mathematical function i a multiplier. I'he rato is set, the ser point of the con= trolled variable changes in direct proportion to changes in the uncontrolled variable. Ifthe multiplication is changed, the direct proportional relationship, or ratio becween the controlled and the unconmolled variable, changed Most boiler contol applications will consist of an overall control sytem in an interconnected rmx of the five types of contol Feedforward Control Feedforward contol is used in a number of configuntions to improve proces: control, Ia feed forward control a measured variable is used to detect a proces change in the system. The Control of Boilers. 13 measured variable sends this information to a feedforward controller: The feedforward controller determines che required change in the manipulated variable,so that when the effect of the change is combined with the change in the manipulated variable, no change occurs in che conrolled variable. This perfect correction’ is dificult to accomplish. Feeciorwand control has some signif cant problems. The configuration of feedforward control assumes that the changes are known in advance, that che changes will have transmitters asociated with them, and that no important ‘undetected changes will occur Steam flow is used 2s a feedforward signal for the set point of an Op analyzes, or the signal fom a fil flow can be wsed to set a fl air mati. (See Figure 5-3 in (Chapter 5.) Feedforword can be used to add derivative to increase pulverizer coal feed. Controller Tuning There are a number of procedures for tuning contiless There is Defuule Tuning, SWAG. tuning, Ziegler Nichols, Lambda, and self runing. Some startup engineers stil use the trial and error or SWAG. method. Self runing consller algorithms are now availabe for insertion into control systems. Such con trollers automatically compensite the controller tuning as processor boiler conditions change. Adaptive taning can also be implemented from load or some other vaviable ofthe process “Lambda tuning was originated in the synthesis design method whereby the controller must cance] out the process dynamics. In more technical words, given the tansfér functions of the components of a feedback loop, synthesize the controller required (0 produce a specific closed- loop response (Loop in automatic). The simplest achievaisle closed-loop response isa first-order lag. This response was originally proposed by Dablin (1968), who defined the ning param- eter with Greek letter LAMBDA, to signify the time constant of the control loop in automatic, hence the name Lambda Tuning. Lambda Tuning produces a fst order, non-oscillatory response to a set point change. This is done by selecting the desired time constant on automatic. Loops tuned using Lambda Tuning will minimize (or eliminate) over-shoot, have great flexi- bility, and present repeatable results. This method is becoming: tnore popular as more uniform products aze required, minimnm varabilicy is demanded, and stable processes are needed"! ‘To demonstrate the various tuning modes the Ziegler Nichols method is used. In 1942, Ziegler and Nichols were the frst to propose a standard method for tuning feedback controllers. After studying numerous processes, they arrived at a series of equations that can be used for caleu~ Iting the gain, reset, and derivative values for feedback control loops. They developed ewo methods. One is referred to as the ultimate method because it requires the determination of the ultimate gain Gensitiviry) and the ultimate period for the conerol loop. The ulsimace guin 4s the maximum allowable value of gain for a controller with only a proportional mode in ‘operation for which the closed loop system shows a stable sine wave response to a disturbance, ‘The second method developed by Ziegler and Nichols for tuning contol loops was based on data from the process reaction curve for the system under control. The process reaction curve is simply the reaction of the process to a step change in the input signal. This process curve is the reaction of all components in the contro system (excluding the controlles) to a step change to che process. * tm Done, Limb Ting As Alive to Zigler Nich Decmber 1997: Fine Cont14 Boiler Control Systems Engineering The ultimate method is ako referred to as the quarter decay tuning, (See Figure 2-5 and Table 2-1 for the equations.) This method requires defining the Su and the Pu. (See Figure 2-6.) Su is ultimate sensitivity and is the gain or proportional band that creates a continuous sine wave, steady sate output as indicated on the center grapl in Figure 2-6, his is determined with the resct/integral turned off. Pu is the ultimate period or time between the peaks of the steady stare sine wave in Figure 2-6 Process response curve 1/4 decay oureur THe Figure 2-5 Ziegler Nichols tuning. ‘The ulkimate method is used in che examples because itis easy to understand and demonstrates the difference between proportional/gain, rset/integmal, and derivative control by using PC- ControL AB 3,a sofware taining program developed by Harold Wade Associates and sold by ISA. ‘The top diagram in Figure 2-6 demonstrates an unstable response. in this diagram the output variations become larger and larger. The bottom diagram demonstrates dampened response, In this diagram the ourputs become smaller and smaller. With this method there is overshoot. In some cses it s important to tune the system so that there is no overshoot, The center diagram demonstates a stable cesponse, From this diagram we can determine the Suand the Pu. In these equations, gain is used and che integral isin minutes/repeat. Some ven dors use repeats/minute instead of minutes/repeat, or proportional band, instead of gain. For any feedback control system, ifthe loop is closed (and the controller is on automatic), one can increase the controller gain, during which time the loop will tend to oscillate more and ‘more. If the gain is further increased, continuous cycling, or oscillation in the controller vari- able, wil be observable. This is the maxirmurn gain at which the system can be operated before it becomes unstable; therefore, this is the ultimate gain. The period of these sustained oscilla- tions is called the ultimate period. Ifthe gain is increased further stl, the system will become unstable ‘These three simations are illustrated in Figure 2-6, Control of Boilers 15 [Table 2-1 Tuning termaTequations —— _ | Terms are: cnn p= tense penod | t= integral reset cio itograd ‘Su= ubirata senstiviy | 4 donate cine) [Tascenetve tine) ‘ [equations aro: Reece | Ke = 0.5 Su Proportional oniy Figure 26 4 ko=05Su 05x9=45 gain | Proportions! Plus Reset Kou 0.45 Su UT Pus 2 mindipt Proporionstzlue-reset Figure 246 & Ko=045Su 0.5 x9 = 4.05 gain Te Pwl2minfmpt 75/12 46.28 reset | Proportional Plus Derhetive |ke=08Su us Ke Proportional-Phus-Fasel-Pus-Derivative Figure 260 08 Su SPumivipt T= Pus 08x9=84 gain 05x75 = 3.75 reset 75/8 = 0.94 derivative PlusDenveave 0.5 Pu min/rpt Te = Fue Determining Gain, Reset, and Derivative ‘To determine the ultimate gain and the ultimate period, remove the reset and derivative action ffom the controller by setting the derivative time to zero and the reset time to infinity, or turn. the reset off, PC ConcraLAB 3 provides the ability to turn off the reset by going to tune options and turning off rest. ‘With the conttoller in the aucomatic mode, che loop closed, and the gain set at 12, an upset is imposed on che conmol loop and the vesponse cbserved. The easiest way to impose an upsec is, to change the set point by a small amount. If the response curve produced does not dampen out and is unstable (top of Figure 2-6 ~ unstable response), the gain i ¢00 high With che gain set co 3,an upset is ereated. IEthe response curve dampens out (bottom of Figure 2-6 - dampened response), the gain is too love The gain was increased and upsets repeated ita stable response was obtained16 Boller Controi Systems Engineering ouTpuT UNsTASLE RESPONSE Be ite Fig 26a STABL RESPONSE woe LALA peer Figure 2-6 Typical control system responses. When a stable sponse is obsained, che values ofthe ultimate gain (So) and dhe ukimate period @a) of the associated response curve should be noted. The ultimate period is determined by the time period between successive peaks on the stable esponse curve. The ultimate gain (also called the ultimate sensitivity or Su) is the gain setting of the controller when a sable response is eached (center of Figure 2-6 ~ stable response} PC-ContoLAB 3, the sable response is achieved with a gain of 9, and the time wo peak is approximately 7.5 minutes. The 7.5 minutes isthe peak to peak time on Figuse 2-7. The eye is genered with a guin of @ and no reser (ese curned of) Control of Boilers 17 Gain vs. Proportional Band (PB) Gain and proportional band are used as tuning terms. Gain is the reciprocal of proportional band, Proportional band (PB) is in percent. Prop Band = 100 / Gain Gain = 100 / Prop Band 50% PB or 100% / 2 = 50% 1% PB or 100% / 0.5 Bsamples: If Gain is 2,23 Ie Gain is 0.5,PB= 1 505X100 X 10/0 036 ‘Repeats per minute vs. minutes per repeat Tntegeal Accion is minutes per repeat or repeats per minute. Repeats per minuce is che reciprocal of minutes per repeat. Example: 0.5 Min/Repeat = 1/0.5 = 2 Repeas/Min Figure 2-7 demonstrates a typical output variable. Figure 2-7 Typical output variable. Note: Only « small output ye required to determine the Su and Pa vais Controller Actions Gain/Proportional Action ‘Whea guin/proportional contol only is used, there is a one ation fiom set point A feedback controller with gain/proportional contol o sabilize the set point. See Figure 2-8,) Note the difference between the process variable (PV) and set point (SP). For gain/proportional only control, the gain is 4.5 (see Table 2-1) ‘ime step change based on devi-18 Boiler Control Systems Engineering Figure 2-8 Deviation between setpoint and process variable. Integral/Reset Action Integral action is time-based change in minute and repeati the gain cha e until che loop smibilizes ar set point. The taming serting is in vepeats per minute or minutes per repeat. Note in Figure 2-9 with gain/proportional and integral/reset action, the measurement lines out at point in approximately 30 minutes, Also note the recovery on the second cycle is one quarter of the frst cycle. For guin/proportional plus reset control, the gain is 4.05 and reset is 6.25 (see Tabl Figure 2.9 Upset in return to recovery with reset. Control of Boilers 19 Derivative Action ‘When there is dead time or a slow reacting process, derivative can be added to"improve contol Derivative time action contributes an immediate valve/output change proportional to the rate of change of he eros As th valve movemeat, Later, rror increases, the proportional action contributes additional control .¢ contribution of the proportional action will have equaled the imial contribution of the rate action. The time i tales for this to happen is called the deri Derivative action is applied to a process that is slow or has dead time. Note in Figure 2-10, with the addition of decivative the meaturement lines out a set point in approximately 10 mimutes foe gain. As vas noted in Figure 2-7, only a small ouput eyele was sequited to devermine the Su and Pu values Figui 2-10 Upset in return to recovery with derivative action and reset. The Ziegler Nichols method can be used on most process control loops; however, no one method can be used on all control loops. ze 2-11 is an example of cont of a process with randomly varying load and with PID conwol and the ming determined by using Ziegler Nichols tuning parameters Figure 2-11 Steady process variable with randomly varying load.20 Boller Control Systems Engineering Controller Actions Setup ‘There axe many different functions requited in design and configuration and/or programming 4 control system. Controller functions need to be determined. Controller functions can be diet of reverse acting. A direc acting controller ouput increases as che PV (Process Variable) increases, and a reverse acting conmoller output decreases as the PV jacseascs. If the control system is programmable, the systems engineer must make the selection. The failure mode of the control valve or damper determines whether the controller isa disece or reverse acting con~ roller. Units of measurement are in percent or engineering unis. When we think ofthe various control signals such as the process variable or set points, we can define them as a percentage or assign engineering units The Effects on Tuning ‘There are avmerous things that affact the runing of contol loops. Some examples sre: eaction time of process, process noise (furnace pressure, air fow), calibration of transmitter (@pan of the ‘ransmitter) linearity of proces (pH loop), ineariey of final element, speed of response of final clement (valves, dampers), valve sizing and valve hysteresis. The addition of a valve positioner can improve contrcl by providing valve position repeatability fr a specific inpue. Tempeeamre contol would be an example of a slow responding proces. Flow control would be an examaple of a fist responding proces. n Effect on Gain an of transmitter 0-200 psi 4-20 ma = 125 psi/ma 1000 to 2000 psi 4-20 ma = 62.5 psi/ma Note, the span is one number and calibration sange is vo numbers Using engineering unit in this example, che span of 0-2000 is two times that of che span, 1000 2000. Therefore, the gain would be ewo times greater than when calibrated with a span of {0-2000 psi This isa common problem particulary on high pressute boilers. Wich a wide span, a control output may eyele and yer the process appears to be steady ‘There sno one method of conto! tuning that is best for all process Toops. Different eypes of processes, control valves or dampers, vendor contol algorichms or fantion blocks can make this impractical Transmitters Each control loop should be teviewed by a risk analysis to determine ifa redundant transmitter or switch is requised. Field aansmitier or switch device redundancy should be provided to che extent necessary £0 achieve desired system reliability, When two tansmisers or switches are employed, excessive deviation between the devices inust be alarmed and the associated control Control of Boilers 21 Joop transferred to manual When three transmitters are employed, excessive deviation beeween the transmictess mmust be alarmed. A median select signal is nequited by the NEPA 83 Code for farnace pressure measurement and is commonly used when there are multiple transmitters. ‘When writing specifications for transmitters or switches, i is important to include calibration range and span, Also include materials of construction, especially the wetted parts. For trans- initters consider the effect on tuning control loops. I the span is significant, the gain on the controller may be difficult to set. Redundancy ‘When two transmitters or switches ate employed, it may be configured a8 1-0-0-2 — one out of ewo. This is called redundancy. Two protective circuits are operating essentially in parallel A Sig point fulure will disable one of the evo citeuts while the redundant circuit continues to provide the needed protection. A failure detection mode such as no output must be defined. ‘When two transmitters or switches are employed, it may be a 2-0-0-2 — two out of two, This is not redundancy, because a single point failure in either cicuit will cause an output tripping action, This allows no fault volesance, yet has two circuits required 0 hold. Where 1-0-0-2 might be a parallel circuit (normal operation energized with de-energize to tip), 2-o-0-2 would be a series cizcuit. Ifewo flame detectors are tequired to see flame, or the boiler will tip, this is 2-0-0-2. This demonstrates that it is possible to have 2 1-o-o-I citcuit with a 2-0-0-2 portion, 4 1--0-2 circuit with a 2-0-0-2 portion, or a 2-0-0-3 ciexit in which 2 critical portion is 2-0-0-2. ‘When three tansmtiters ot switches are employed, it could be configured as 2-0-0-3 voting, ‘This could be called triple redundancy. In this type of interlock system, the output of two ott of three individual interlock circuits must agree to hold in a circuit in monitoriag normal oper ation, Ifewo out of three agree ro trp, tripping action will trip the process equipment device. Any single point failure involving the interlock devices will not crip the operating equipment. A maxinuim of two such failures will trip, just as a minimum of ewo good cizcuits will alow continued operation ‘Three transmitters or switches 2-0-0-3 could be configured voting with fault tolerance. While {his type of ester requires two out of three voting to keep process equipment operating, more ‘haa wo single point failures in separace cixcuits can be tolerated. For example, if the total cit- cuit is made triple redundant and each circuit broken into three sequential parts, 27 separate potential pathways in 9 circuit segments exist. Interlock Circuitry One, two, or three mnsmitters may be required, When only one tsansmiter is employed, i is referred 10 as 1-0-0-1 —ene out of one. In this configuration, a single circu with a single point failure in the system: will cause an output accion. The circuit itself should be designed so that any cutput acti down the equipment). ASME recommends median select. The NFPA 85 Cove requites median select for furnace pressure measurement s safe (e.g, shu22 Boiler Control Systems Engineering Final Control Elements {All final control elements are to be designed to failsafe on loss of demand signal or motive power ic., open, close, o lock in place. The fail safe position must be determined by the user and based upon the specific application. CHAPTER 3 Furnace Draft Pressure Fired B. A pressure fied boiler does noc have an induced draft fan and may operate under a positive pressure over some portion or all ofthe load range. In this type of boiler, the furnace pressure ‘aries as the load is changed due to the variation in drat loses with respect to boiler load. As the fring rate increases, more air is supplied by the forced draft (FD) fin increasing the pros- suce in the boiler face. Figure 3-1 represents the physical arrangement of « pressure fied boiler system. A key point swith these boilers is shat the furnace must be airtight and the ue gastight This is necessary so thar the very hot flue gas of the furnace cannot leak to the atmosphere. A. small leak under such, cigcumstances will deteriorate the material around it, eventually destroying the furnace walls and creating an operational hazard. Furnaces for pressure fired boilers are made pressure-tighe with a welded inner casing or seal between the furnace wall steam-generating tubes and have a sealed window to observe the flame and fernace conditions. ne. aT nooo re = @ Figure 3-1 Prossure firod boiler. Furnace Dratt 2324 Boller Control Systems Engineering Balanced Draft Boiler Fans The fireplace in our homes is an example of a natural draft system. As heat rises, the draft is created by the natural eat rise to the outside air. There is no fan forcing air into or out of the ficeplace. Utlty and industrial boils require some form of mechanical draft, which is pro- duced by the combustion air fans. Balanced draft boilers consist of an FD and an induced draft (ID) fan(). An FD fan, or aic blower takes suction fiom the atmosphere and forces combus- tion air through the system. The ID fan is located at the end of the boiler flow system path and takes its suction from the boiler flue gas stream, discharging the fiue gas to the stack. Large ttlty boilers may have two FD fans and two ID fans. For an addional definition of fans, sce the section on boiler components Furnace Pressure Control Contwl systems are divided into firmace, drum level feedwater, fuel air, and temperature control (ce Figure 3-2). The dst system is furnace contol, inputs oureur (DAUMLEVEL FEEDWATER Te | Fam in on IR DEMAND l STEAM TenapensTune *| CouTROL Figure 3-2 Block diagram of boiler control ~ furnace control. ‘The purpose of pressure control isto maintain a constant pressure in the boiler fiznace. Ia most boilers, negative furnace pressure prevents flame excursions and helps avoid an external fre to the boiler or injury to personnel. The span of the transmitter may have an effect on the tuning, as well as maintaining good draft control, If the calibration range is ~10 to +10 inches we, the span is 20 inches we. Referring to a 4-20 ma signal 4-20 equals 1.25 inches we per ma. If the calibration range is minus 2 to plus 2 inches we the span is 4 inches. Referring to a 4-20 ma signal, 4-20 equals 0.25 inches we per ms. The nartow span will provide beter contol however, span varies with the type and size of the boiler. The control set point may range from. minus 0.5 inches in industrial plants to several inches negative in a utility plant Note: Some utility plants may have 2 set poine for positive pressure The furnace pressure control can be achieved by simple feedforward contol. See Figure 3-3) The ID fan) pulls air through the boiler, maintaining a negative pressure from the furnace to the Furnace Drat 25 outlet of the ID fan, The typical boiler with draft contol has inspection doors to observe the boiler flame. Monitoring boiler fimetions may improve operation or derect a problem. Pet sonnel must wear proper face protection when opening inspection doors, FURNACE PRESSURE (ORAFT) TRANSMITTERS A & © (SENSOR LocaTIONS) SELECTION CIRCUTRY FURNACE: EReesune SETFONT A Plt LN INCLUDE DRAFT FAN FINAL CONTROL DEVICE(S) Figure 3.3 Furnace pressure transmitter. The fia combinations available to the boiler system designer are ED plus stack; FD and ID plus seick; and ID plus stack Tall stacks can produce furnace diaf conditions that adversely affect ame stability and could require special draft control provisions on some small industrial boilers. The static pressure and flow characteristics of a conerifagal versus axial fn res ftom the specific design of the particular fan, One way to reduce auxiliary power requirements is © install variable pitch axial low fans in fossil power generating systems. At 100% unit load, aux- liary power savings using a variable pitch axial flow fan will be 4000 KW, or about 79% of the total auxiliary power consumption. (Babcock & Wileox. Steam. 40th Edition. The Babcock & Wilcox Company, 1992. Ch. 23-22) Furnace pressure control is required on balanced draft boilers, While either the ED fan()) or the ID fang) may be used to contwol the furnace pressure, che NEPA 85 Code requires that the ID fan() be used. The FD fins) controls the air for combustion control. The NFPA 85 Code requires the furnace and flue gas removal system to be designed so that the maximum head capability of the induced deaf fan system with ambient air does aot exceed the design pres- sure of furnace, ducts, and associated equipment. Ifthe upper and lower limit of the furnace pressure is miss 20 to plus 20 inches or gzeater, a separate transmitter may be requiced to ieasure the range limits of the boiler furnace for high and low trip. The design pressure must be defined the same as the wind and sefsmic stresses of SEI/ASCE 7-02, Minimum Design Loads Lor Buildings and Other Smuaes.26 Boiler Control Systems Engineering ‘A cransmitter auctionvered median select scheme is to be used for control purposes. Furnace pressure is to be measured with three furnace presture wansmites, ech on a separate meas- urement ap. ‘Three frnace pressure transmitters in an auctioneered median select system with separate pres sue sensing taps and suitable monitoring are required 10 minimize the possibility of operating ‘with a faulty farnace presture measurement. ce Figure 3-4, It unlzes a feed-forward signal characterized to represent the position of the forced draft control device(9). In a properly designed and calibrated system, che output of the furnace pressure controller will remain near its midrange forall air Bows FURNAQE PRESSURE (DRAFT) ‘TRANSMITTERS age — | = 7 > Ha INQUGES DRAET FAN PAAESONT AOL Bevices) aH BLOCK DECREASE [ INCREASE: Figure 3-4 Furnace pressure transmitters. Figure 3-5 isa representation of an approach to the entire furnace draft control logic, including jnaplosion protection. The dela takes the difference between the set point and PV, and bi/lo selectors limit the difference set by the K values Fumace Dat 27 TW0-OUT-OF-THAEE VOTING WIDE RANGE NORMAL CONTROL FURNACE PRESSURE: TRANSMITTER ° °° s Sea) Cae, Sto. 14 roe ood ee ‘OVERRIDE CONTROL INDUCED Ti) \, DRAFT + FAN INTERLOGK NOT SHOWN, Figure 3-5 SAMA logic for furnace draft. wmnace draft is controlled by modu vanc(s) or ) on the induced draft (1D) fan or by adjusting the speed of the ID fan. There may ako be a combination of both speed and damper or vane control. Large utility boilers often have multiple ID and FD fans with vari- able speed drives on the ID fan. Although the ID fan and FD fan are rwvo separate loops, they must be set up and tuned as a system. In the draft control drawing fee Figure 3-3), che draft is controlled by single element feedback: control, As the firing rate demand is changed, the furnace pressure increases cr decreases a8 the FD fan() changes air low to the furnace for fuel air control In Figure 3-6 the furnace pres sure changes a the demand changes. If feedforward is added fiom the FD control output the control can be improved as seen ia Figure 3-7. By controlling both damper and speed, the operating range of the damper is optimized. In Figure 3-8, speed concro is required for the damper to remain near its midrange A satsfictory non-interacting method of combining damper and speed contol is dep Figure 3-9, This is called split range or gap control. The positioners on the actuators are adjusted to split the control signal range with overlap in the center of the range. The damper control drive is adjusted to open the damper completely as the contro signal changes from 0 percent to approximately 60 percent. The damper provides the best control in the overlap area between 40 and 60 percent. The damper becomes les responsive as it nears the 100 percent open position. By combining the two in this portion of the range there is @ some- what uniform flow response over the entire range.28 Boiler Cont | Systems Engineering Fumaca Draft 29 ‘lone ] ~19 pamper SET POINT conto. si NTHOL FURNACE DRAFT OrENso oh | STEAM FLOW 0 Figure 3-8 Damper and fan speed control. = 3 7% 700 CONTROL SIGNAL LOAD Me [both speed and damper are controlled, Figure 3-9 depicts a method of controlling speed and damper contol Figure 3-6 Furnace draft control. (Single-element feedback control of induced draft fan) CONTROLSIGNAL SET POINT a OOO é 0 FURNACE DRAFT K+ Plt & Figure 3-9 Damper and fan speed control-non-interacting method. Tine Figure 3-7 Furnace draft control. (Feedforwerd-plus-feedback control of an induced draft fan.)| Systems Engineering CHAPTER 4 30 Boiler Cont ‘Another significant advantage is the reduction in horsepower as indicated in Figure 3-10. Feedwater Ps , ‘conn e ® a “2 , per i seed. (6 age 1 5 se | [pe edits is che next section ofa contol system that will be dscuned. See Figuce 4-1) | Powen os © — i [aR = ET BOILER, OUTPUT. Pa © es = Figure 3-10 Variable speed fan characterlaties - reduction In horsepower. ERE Figure 4-1 Block diagram of boiler control - drum level feedwater. Once-Through Boilers A once-through boiler can be thought of in terms of a long mbe, Feedwater fs pumped into cone end of the tube, heated along its length, and superheated steam emerges out of the other end. Most once-through boilers operate at super critical prestres with a chrowe pressure 3500 psig to as high as 5500 psig, ype boilers, he saturated steam leaves the drum and all supecheat is added in the supetheaters, which bave fixed heat transfer areas. Deum-type boilers have separate systems for controlling combustion, feedwater, and steam temperature, Once-through boilers have only one coupled, water-saturated, steam-superheated steam cir The total boiler heat transfor sufice is divided ea boiler and superheater heat transfer surfaces. During operation, there is 2 constant shifting in heating surface area. Con- 1 temperature contol and other boiler control functions must be Feedwater 31 Ee errr j fs32_ Boiler Control Systems Engineering Allsuch unis have some form of flash cank for startup and low load operation. Bypass valving systems isolate the carbine from the boiler during the initial part of the startup process; other- wise cold water instead of steam could flow to the turbine, Boiler manufacturers have proprietary arrangements for such dash tank and bypass systems. In once-through boilers, the feedwater flow control is an integral part of turbine throttle steam. pressure and supetheat temperature control. The pumping and firing rate syseem is a carefully calibrated panilel fring rate and feedwater flow control system that has both flow contols operating in the cascade mode. ‘This ype of bolle can function in a very stable mianner, with the fing rate detnand on manual and the turbine maintaining the steam pressure with operation in the turbine folowing mode If the electrical Joad is correct, pumping is held constant and the fing rate is adjusted to the poinc of stable set point steam temperature. Duc to the extteme interactions of onee-through boilers while om automatic operation, the system performance can be improved by using a contsol coosinaror approach. In this syst configuration, combinations of inputs trim the firing rate and ako wim the fedwater flow pumping rate, Drum Level Feedwater Control Drum Level ‘The drum level must be controlled to the limits specified by the boiler manufacturer. Ifthe dlnum level does not stay within dhese limi, chere may be water carsyover. HE the level exezeds the limits, boiler water carryover into the supesheater or the curbine may cause damage resulting in extensive maintenance costs or outages of cither the turbine or the boiler. If the level is low, overheating of the water wall tubes may cause tube ruptures and serious accidents, resulting in expensive repaiss, down time, and injury or death to personnel. rupture or ctack ‘most commonly occurs where the tubes connect to the drum. When the drum level gets too low the boiler will eip to prevent damage to the tubes and cracks ia the tubes where they con= nect to the boiler drum, Because of the critical nature of this measurement, a variety of devices are usually applied to ‘monitor the dram water level. A drum may have sight glass, electrode columns, and differen- tial pressure-based inclcators and emnsmitter. (See Figure 4-2.) Recommendations for the locaton of instrument and control equipment connections can be foun inthe American Boiler Mannfactuer Associations (ABMA) Retentions for Location of Frstrament anal Conta! Cormectons fr te Opeetion id Cont! of Wénersbe Bote: The diferential prossuce-based level devices (and even most sight glasses) experience inacourn~ cies in measurement when boiler stezm deum pressure is nota its design. value. These changes pressure can be overlooked on boiler operating at lower pressures but, for mos boilers, cor~ rections must be made for the changes in accuracy. Figure 4-3 i a graph showing reading deviations Feedvater 33 STEAM DRUM A WATER TUBES MUD DRUN Figure 4.2 Boller drums/lovel measurement. IR i | Cn a ) DRUM PRESSURE FSIG 3 Figure 4-3 Indicated levels vs. drum pressure.34 Boiler Control Systems Engineering CONSTANT HEAD CHAMBER CORRECT REFERENCE TRANSMITTER ‘TRANSMITTER NOTE: Cir dum fovel mentanng nsvumentation may’ be applicable igure 4-4 Typical drum level differential pressure transmitter connections. On high presure boilers, a condensate pot is necessary for the top connceted water leg 0 stay {ull of condensate. Ifthe condensate level varies in che top connectad leg the drum level meas "urement will not be accurate. On low pressure boilers, a condensate pot may not be requited. Figure 4-4 isan example of the correct method of installing a differential pressure transmitter. The correct installation allows the sediment to remain in the blowdowa line without getting ingo the transmitter. ‘The basic indication of the dram water evel is that shown in a sight gage glass connected to the boiler dram, The American Society of Mechanical Engincets (ASME) requires a direct reading of the drum level. Due to the configuration of the boiler, and the distance the boiler drum is fiom the operator, a line-of-sight indication may aot be practicable. The gage glass ianage can be projected with a periscope arrangement of mirrois. Gee Figure 4-5, IF the decection of the water level image is mechanically complex, or practially impossible, other methods of sighting may be necessary. One method is to use closed circuit television: another method incorporates the use of a remote level indicator based on a fiber optics signal. The indication it provides is usually in error to some degree and is not as correct as a properly calibrated level measuring instrument. Condensite from cooling boiler steam circulates through che gage glass. This cooling of the steam and its condensate resuls in cooler water in che gage glas than inthe boiler drum. The greater density of the cooler water in che gage gass indicates a lower level than is in the boiler dram Feedwater 35 GAGE GLass. ‘STEAM it) fre waren (1) < hl) BECAUSE tt) < 42) WATER TEMPERATURE ha HEIGHT OF WATER COLUMN mmncNc———>_ OPERATOR Figure 4.5 Gage glass drum lovol indication. CONDENSATE RESERVOIR hen @hia~ 170" WATER COLUWN EQUIVALENT NET TRANSMITTER PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL - OH = (3) [b+ A] ‘TRANSMITTER igure 4-6 Drum level transmitter. Figure 4-6 is a typical arrangement ofa differential drum level measuring transmitter. The dif- ferential transmitter output signal increases as the differential pressure decreases. (Note the diferential pressure connections) The differential pressure range will vary between 15 and 3036 Boiler Control Systems Engineering inches, depending on the size of the boiler drum, with a zero suppression of several inches. (On the high pressure side of the measuring device, the effective pressure equals boiler deum pressure plus the weight of a water column at ambient temperature having @ length equal to the distance berween the two drum pressure connections. On the low pressure side, the efféec- tive pressure equal oiler drum pressure plus the weight ofa column of saturated seeam having, a length fiom the upper drum prestare connection to the water level, and the weight of a column of water at saturation temperature having a length fiom the water level to the lower eum pressure connection, ‘Typically, for redundancy, there ate three different methods used to measure drum level. See Figure 4-2.) In this exarnple, the bulls eye technology isa direct reading level measurement. The diferentil pressuse transmitter represents che Ievel control measorement, and the probe type sensor is a common method for level alarms and low and high level shutdown, Feedwater Control Some boilers utilize reasonably steady lords so chat only drum fevel control fiom single element drum level measurement is posible. Single elernent contol is used on boilers during startup oF low load reguiless of capacity or rapid load swings. Single element control has offen been unsat- isfactory because some of the newer boiler designs hive minimum water storage compared t0 the steaming rate of the boiles. A majority of the larger sized units and those subject to zapidly fluccuating loads require different methods of control. two element system conttolling the eed- -water contol vale from che steam flow signal and resetting the drum level signal sable to handle some of the less dificult systems. Langer units with sonal storage capacity related eo throughput, snd units experiencing severe, rapid load swings, vsually quite three element contra, whereby ‘water flow is matched with steam flow and reser ffom the dram. level signal Single element crum level contol measures deur level only. This is simple feedback contzol loop. (See Figure 47) DRUM LEVEL, sP Plt OO co ure 4-7 Simple feedback control loop. Feedwater 37 SWELL non] Naum suri LeveL roo} steam row —4 \ FEEDWATER FLOW ce STEAIM FLOW T ask ° 7 TNE Figure 4.8 Single element control action. Mechanical single clement control is proportional control only: While this may work satisfac torily in a toilet, it may not be satisfactory for a boiler. Adding a control sysem will provide more efficient control but a single element control may not be sufficient. In Figure 4-8, che increase in steam demand results in a boiler drum swell, causing a decrease in water flow when an increase in dow is required To reduce the upset, the reset action must be slow. Transmitters A differential pressure transmitter is used to measure deum Jevel, IF the instruments used are seasitve to density variation, then density compensition techniques must be employed. A mass steam flow and waver flow signal is required for both ewo and three element contol systems. (Gor more information refer to ANSL/ISA-77.42,01-1999 (R.2005) ~ Fossil Fuel Power Plant Peedater Control System ~ Drun-Type.) Observe the ewor due to density. (See Figure 4-3,) The drum level control indicator scale fora 30 inch span would be -15 to +15 inches we with 22r0 as the contwller set point. On higher pressure boilers eypicaly above 1000 psi, a consid rable cevor in level measurement at other than the operating presures exist when a differential presure is used due to water density changes in the boiler drum. ‘The top boiler connection to the tcansmnitter will be filed with condensate. As the dram level increases, the two signals become equal, thus reading zero level when the drum level s at 100) percent, (See Figure 4-6) By reversing the connections at the seansmitter, the signal co the ddrurn level controller may be reversed. The reading may also be corvected by calibrating the transmitter. [tis also critical thatthe sensing line o che trans inch per foot, This isto eliminate air pockets in the sensing lines which would cause improper level readings be sloped typically a hale38 Boller Control Systems Engineering “The mass of the water flow and the steam flow must be regulated so that mass water Zow equals the mass steam flow s9 maintain drum level. The feedwater control regulates the miass waver low to the boiler. The effects of the input control actions interac, since fring rate also affects steam temperature and feedwater flow affects the steam pressure, which is the final arbiter of ing rate demand. The overall system must be applied and coordinated in a manaer to mial- aize the effects of these interactions. The interactions can be greatly affected by the control system design. Ifthe oiler operates under varying steam pressure, the calibration of rhe Hquid level ansminer wall ako vary with steam density. tug Shrink and Swel Shinke and swell must be considered in desermining the contol seratexy of a boiler, During a rapid increase in load, a severe increase in Tevel may occur. Shrink and swell is a result of pees- sure changes in the drum changing water density. The water in the drum contains steam bbubbles similar to when water is boiled, During a rapid increase in load, a severe cise ia level may occur because of an increase in volume of the bubbles. Tis increaved voluine isthe rev of both a drop in steam pressure from the load increase and the inerease in sveam generation from the greater fring rate to match the load increase (Le, bubbles expand). (See Figure 4-9.) ‘SATURATED FEEDWATER LL WATER RON a “My, warea 7 \ t WATER WIXED STEAM BUBBLES Figure 4-9 Shrink and swell. When there is a decrease in demand, the drum pressure is thi ein ds otf ae bbs, Dobe ge snl) bea ken now ond result in drum shrinkage severe enovgh to crip the boiler on low level Foodweter 39 ‘The firing rate change hasan effect on drum level, ba the mos significant cause of shrink and swell is rapid changes in dram presure expanding or shriniing the steam bublles due to loud changes. ‘The three clement control scheme utilizes the steam flow and water flow to effectively main- tain feedwater equal to steam flow: As load increases and decreases, the water flow will increase co decrease. The drum leval contro is 2 slow responding loop, ‘When a single element control system is implemented, the level transmitter (LT) sends a signal to the level controller. See Figures 4-10 and 4-11.) The process variable (input signal) r0 the controller is compared to the set point (SP) DRUM LEVEL, Figure 4-10 Single element control ~ drum level. DFU LEVEL ORUM PRESSURE a @) 2 pressure Coieeiros oT WA CONTROL STATION [700 \ #18 cont#OL oFVICE Typical single element control system. For simplicty, redundant transmitters have not been shown on this typical control craving. Figure 4-13 Two element feedwater control.42. Boiler Control Systems Engineering x SWELL FEEDWATER PRESSURE RUM LEVEL now] = sHeink—/ ZB toh 2 5 STEAM h 2 Flow ls FEEDWATER FLOW — i TA Figure 4.14 Performance two element tideai conditions). WATER PRESSURE Non soo mh STEAK Flow —+| 0 p= ‘oy STEAM FLOW Figure 4.15 Performance two element (effect of feedw THe Feedwater 43 [The presentation of the diagram for a P&UID for pwo element control using ISA symbols is DRUM PRESSURE fix) in Figure 416, DRUM STEAM LEVEL PRESSURE STEAM FLOW TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION iy) TEMPERATURE z ()—__ FINAL, CONTROL DEVICE (VALVE) Figure 4-16 Two element feedwater control. (SPEED CONTROL)44 Boiler Control Systems Engineer j Feedwater 45 Three Element Level Control Three clement consrol utilizes steam and water flow in addition to eum level. See Figure 4-17) ‘This is a simple feedback, feedforward, and cascade control loop. The steam flow adjusts the feedwater control valve based on the steam flow signal and the drum level controller signal. As Zz the steam flow increases or decreases, the steam flow adjusts the ouput of the summer and | uo 2S a dlcecly sot the feedwater contoller sot poine. By adding feedwater low, che measured variable z 2 9 is the feedback to the contwller, therefore measuring what is being controlled, Control is x & ee Be oy improved by adding mas: flow compensation to dram level, steam flow, and water flow foe iL Be gs 388 i =n 36 ge 368 ation of the diagram for a P&ID for three element contol using ISA symbols is Be Fo. 35 toa igure 4-18, (oF feedwater adds the feedwater flow measurement to the control loop. The sig suring what is being controlled. By measuring th cor low and contol flow set point, che féedwater equals steam flow to maintain drum level over the boiler control range. The controlled vaciable water low is measured The desived feedwater is maintained and overrides shrink and swell and variations in feedwater header pressure Tihaee cleme nificant advantage is mes FLOW a A SETPOINT L its Figure 4-17 Three element feedwater control. Control System Configuration The dream level controller is configured to be either a reverse or direct acting controller. This depends on the configuration of the final control device and the fail safe mode of the control valve. If the control valve fiils dosed, the controller is configured to be a reverse acting con- ler. Ifthe control vale fils open, the controller is configured to be a directacting contol The final control element may be 2 control valve, speed control, or a combination of both. [i~ terebsune CORPENSATION DRUM PRESSURE FLOW | } @) + x Summer A summer occurs when wo oF more valves come into an equation and the output equals the sum of the inputs in percent based on the K [Link] fimotions are reftrred to as function blocks or algorithms, In Figures 4-17 and 4-18 the summer equation is used, Some companies ‘use multiplication or division equations. The summer can be configured using a basic summer equation, The equations used will vary with the control systems specified, including the number of inputs. In the equation below, a,b, and c represent inputs. Only two inputs are used in Figure 4-18. This i 2 common cype of equation that may have two or more inputs STEAM FLOW TEMPERATURE [0 | x Oo PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION depending on the vendor algorithm/finetion block. K@ +KQ) + K © + Bias = ouput ; throe olomant control system. For simplicity, eedundant ‘ofS have not baen shown on this typical control drawing, A base equation performing che seme fonction should be available with most control systems PRESSURE cr) Cc] Considering owo inputs to the suramer, st both K values to 1, See the bias to -50 percent. With, the dram level controller in manol mode and the drum level at the desired ser point, set she controller ouput t0 50 pe46 Boiler Control Systems Engineering Feedweter 47 50 percent output is offie by the -50 percent bias in the summer equation. Therefore, the jam flow signal input to che summer will equal the summer ouput, Considering a pound of st Js 2 pound of water, the doum level would be maintained during all load changes Even though swell and shrink may occur on load swing, the steam flow modifies the feedwater rte. The drum level controller becomes a trim controller adjusting the summer to bring the level back to set point. ag gs # wy 56 z & = ge ” abs ee & abe E s So go c 3 s He @! a i a g 3 B Ss g « #8 Ss ¢ gee gi Bee a eg > Ht a 3B 3s w 3 a] 2 ew 3 w S zB5 - f = E : 260 £ | 53, aS a roa 5 $ Eo 2 < 8 ¢ au a 6 = 7 2 z 8 ze | E 3 g po i zd a = $s ¢ 25 ° 5G (3) : y . 5 Ses & g eS 8 Heo 3 Gi bie z go 2 a gee : EB aaa ¢ = gE zs e | Bo 2 t Be Po STEAM PRESSURE 00)i CHAPTER Coal Fired Boilers Coal dred boilets ase the most common boilers in power generating plants primarily because of the overall cost of opetation and the location of power plants relative to sources of energy: Coal can be transported to sites where gas supplies are not available. However, new environ rental requirements are making the overall cost of burning coal higher due to the cost and maintenance of monitoring and pollution control equipment. Fara brief tutorial on fossil fe! power plant combustion contol, see Appendix A, Boiler Combustion Controls, based on information taken from ANSL/ISA-77.41.01-2005, Fossil Fuel Power Plant Boiler Combustion Contos) addition al fred boilers have specific problems that gas nd oil fred boilers do not have. to the common hazards involved in the combustion of solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels, other ynzunds related to the physical characteristics of pulverized coal, including Bew vals, must be acdressed in the design of the fring systems. Coal bunkers and other enclosed spaces must be designed to prevent accumulation of methane g:s,a comumon cate of explosions and the pos- sibility of spontaneous combustion resulting in fires in the coal pile Table 5-1 Fuel Btu Values per Pound by State Table 5-1 Coal [Beit Variations of Bau values fr coal ae sgifcane depending [= ——13 seg] con the state where the coal comes ftom, The vatations in Bru values hive a significant effect on combustion control. {lees [11.2007 Refer co Table 5-1 and Figure 6-14. Taine 71300) . | Kenses 10880 Pulverized Coal Fired Boilers enna 12300 Pulverized coal fined boilers are one of the most common [ORG TESS Seles sed in wsity pnts and ow cosines @ 88 Genin SE inprovemsnt ote stoke fied bole. The ding ete OS response due to demand change is faster than stoker fied or fiuid bed boilers. More mechanical equipment is [NowDekota | 6940 required to pulverize che coal that is noc required in stoke fired boilers. Figure 5-1 is an example of a direct fred pulverized coal sysuem. Because explo sions and fires are most likely co occur during start up, shut down, or affer an emergency tr a pulvesized system and its components should be designed for continuous operation. The con figuration of the boiler does not have coal shut off valves. The NEPA 85 Code now requires Coal Fired Boilers 49Coal Fred Boilers 51 wieyshs joo pazyanind posy yoeup ps eer 4 POW Z-S eanby ih ne 4 Senos 2 BLyaH aaa uy HUSK ayy ome aL soem Sviamh anna -Meunus ushans ————_ N09 aAW BOHN “Ian OUR [pu vansnarvoo oe eat | roll ie uve Le 401088 or pulverizer and feeder, sto be automaticaly t fame is detected, an audible alarm is required on each burner invol requited to visually inspect fame conditions to determine whether burner or puiverizer operation should be continued vevizes, chat feeds ‘When alos of fame is detected on a predetermined number or aangement of burners served bya pul ved, and an operator is aE -ye09 pozpionind 405 worshs Bully yeuG 1-g ound iy Bae HOO iva uy I ee ANSWASVa AdWINIEd I £ 5 ee IS l aye wana _ “Mauanina ce OHINOD i ae i J ee = aeg Bae X onidid , eid wry Nv an waaaa4 Fee a3ZiuaNINd tt 8 oe Sy eed ZF » 98% —“ suaNune avo 7 P g3 SS) and Nia 8 a3 3S gaziu3AInd 5 Foe 2 ogg wanna 2 8S XOANIM UBNUNa aN 2 $86 nite s bag wsauva *. S ae “Tem NOUS uly LO} ed 2 £88 uatiog a 5 4ee & 328 a Yee uadNvO B eg HIV ONAL iad ge68 Sie Nv Lavo GIOUOS WOU a8 8 8B Hates oly eae, uly (ONIWSdWAL) 0109 WOW [Link]52_ Boiler Control Systems Engineering Coal Fired Boilers. 53 ‘The number and arrangement of burners for each pulverizer trip, showing the necessary loss ‘of fame to automaticaly initiate a feeder, or pulverizer and feeder, isto be determined by the boiler manufacturer, 2s a function of the spacial arrangement of burners and the unit load. Under circumstances of operation where support between the operating burners does not exis, either fom proven igniters or adjacent burness los of €ame on an individual burner must automatically initiate a trip of the feeder, or the pulverizer and feeder. ‘To prevent setting of pulverized coal in burner pipes, and ignition of the coal, the transport air velocity in ll burner pipes must be maintained at or above a minimum value daring oper- ation, and while purging the pipes during shutdown. This predetermined value is established by the manufacturer and verified by tests. The exception is during an emergency trip condi- tion when transport air must not be maintained and a control system is required to contol temperature. (See Figure 5-2.) The coal-air mixture temperature leaving the pulverizer must be maintained within the limits specified by the pulverizer and burner manufacturers) for the ype of coal being burned. The heating of the coal removes the moisture from he coal and | improves boiler efficiency. i a f(x) ii f(x) Figure 5-3 is an example of a control system for a pulverized coal boiler. The system has the cross limiting/lead lag control to maintain the proper fel air ratio. Pulverized coal welry boilers are more complex than this diagram indicates due to the number of burners and capacity, bt the contro strategy is offen similar. There is derivative control on the output of the boiler drum presure. This feedforward control signal will improve the response time for the coal feed, which is a result of the dead time between a load demand change and a change | in coal feed rate response. Steam flow is ako a feedforward signal to the output of drum pressure that will improve control. There is speed control and damper control on the FD fi ‘By controling the speed and damper postion, the damper can operate in the most efficient ‘opening range for better control. The O, analyzer output isa feedforward control signal to air flow. Some contol systems include combustibles as edforward control. There are risks in combustible concol due to the narrow band of potential control and the slow response time of combustible analyzers, (See Figure 5-4.) Figure 5-3 Control system for a pulverized coal boiler. | i OWvERTER Raw Coal and Feed ‘The raw storage bin supplies the coal to the feeder. The coal feeder provides the coal supply to the pulverizer which grinds the coal into a fine powder. The changes in the rate ofthe feeder and the pulverizer contrl the coal eed to the boiler, in turn, controlling the boiler fring rate The coal primary air fan blows the coal into the boiler. Hot primary airs used to remove some Of the moisture fiom the coal and transport the coal to the burner. It also contributes to the combustion air being provided co the furnace al L. : FES “To minimize explosions in the pulverizer or burner pipes, provisions must be made for cooling down and emptying the pulverizers as part of the process of shutting down the associated | Lo bumer, Pulverizad coal dust must be prevented fiom accumulating in pulverizer air duc. j = Methods must be provided to prevent the reverse flow of furnace gases into idle burners or pulverizers, Pulverizers and pulverized fuel storage systems are required to be equipped with z an inerting system that is capable of maintaining an inert atmosphere. Ifa pulverizer i tipped 4 - :54 Boller Control Systems Engineering 1000 = 1% ose ¢ E i z 10 . 5 | LEGEND 4 00: © 26% STEAM FLOW yy s0 H 1D 55% STEAM FLOW g 4 A 96% STEAM FLOW 2 40 a 1 5 1 % x0 3 3 AAT | | 3 200 T ~ 100 A Ma ps | ° Se 005 1 18 2 25 3 35 4 45 5 OXYGEN CONCENTRATION, % Figure 5-4 Excess oxygen and carbon monoxide relationship at various loads for a gas-fired boiler. ‘Note: ‘The curve for coal fring i similar to the one for ges under Toad, the systema must be inerted and maintained under an iaest atmosphere ttil con- firmation that no burning or smoldering fel exists in the pulverizer, or until the fiel is removed, When an inerting system is activated, proof of flow of the inert media is required. Stoker Boilers Stoker fired boilers were the frst coal fired boilers and their control firing demand rate was adjusted manually, Figuce 5-5 is chain grate stoker. The firing tate is controlled by adding and decreasing fzel to the grate and also by adjusting the air entry under the grate, igure 5-6 is a control scheme for a stoker boiler. The control in this diagram is a fuel How air low control system and the boiler fring rate demand is a gain and derivative control that will improve the changes in firing rate demand, Cyclone Boiler The cyclone boiler was developed to burn a large variety of fixes including wood, bark, coal char, refuse, and petroleum coke, As a means of disposing of old tires, for example, cyclone boiless have some of the same advantages as pulverized coal fired boilers, as well as some addi- tonal advantages. With cyclone boilers, there is a reduction in fly ash content in the flue gases Coal does not need to be pulverized bur is crushed to approximately one-quarter inch. The Se The Cnt ef Bae, A Drs 1994 Coal Fired Boilers enonme ci 3. eps cum Sncoat Ss see 6 coun src =| SLL | ISD flan Figure 5.5 Chain grate stoker, lassreganas Go) c co Oe evs | 7 1 HDD Laie} > | Reams | [we ee i| ruswace| i By I | | | Fa, Lo OVERFIRE A FORCED DRAFT STOKER SPEED WwOUGEO DRAFT “Foodtorward to furnace draft canto (requires) Figure 5.6 Control scheme for a stoker boiler. FUELAR PATO 55BG Boller Control Systems Engineerin 1G Boiler Control Systems Engineering i Coe! Fired Bolles 57 cyclone furnace is a smaller ancillary famace that typically attaches horizontally near the | botcom of the main boiler furnace. Diameters of the main barrel range fiom five to ten feet Cant of Uns ISA Pes 1991 tg i g Gravimetric feeders are used to control coal feed based on weight providing mass coal flow. EF & 3 © Sec Figure 5-7. Alchough geavimetric feeders are more common today, volumetric feeders are ene te ee Z also used for d flow measurement. Ait is controlled to each cyclone by a venture throat. a i e Centrfeal force Uhrows the coal against dhe eyclone wall. The temperature in the cydone exceeds 3000°R which melts the coal chat forms a fluid slag on the eyclome wall, Heat is released at extremely high rates and combustion is completed within the combustion space of lone, with approximately 15% excess air. The heat fiom the cyclone burners, in turn, heat to the main boiler furnace, Sometimes, depencting on the to 3: hecatioe eo ral boiler capacity, wo + oe more cyclone furnaces are used. i | i | | © Toate fata Sets eas be ‘Sender a ary on : 3 % 3 3 3 z 8 J a a — 5 $ 3 & 3 : oycanaemard readers o— ta Ce # A-ComacoCHAPTER 6 Fuel and Air Control The thin system of a contol sytem is fuel air conto —a pour ‘DAUM LEVEL FEEDWATER ourpur Tame | TARIDENAND | “DEMAND | ‘STEAM TEMPERATURE Cont Figure 6-1 Block diagram of boiler contro! - fuel air contrat. One of the key components ofthe control i the ability ofthe fuel air control system to main tain sufficient air proportional to fuel to eliminate the possibility of a fiel-rich condition and the posibility of an explosion. Consideration should be given to the effects of fuel, ar density, and temperature fluctuations as related to the air flow and the performance of the fuel flow~ ‘meter in regulating the fuel air ratio, Many insallations, particularly smaller units or units firing an unmeasurable fuel, utilize what is called a jackshaft positioning contol system in which fiel and air are not measured, (See Figure 6-2.) Figure 6-3 is a SAMA representative of jackshaft positioning control system. ‘The controller firing rate demand signal positions both the fuel and air. Their relationship is maintained by holding the postions of the final operators in corsespondence with each other. Figure 6-3 isa parallel positioning system with no fuel or air measurement. Every position of the fie! valve is assumed to represent a repeatable value of fel flow, and a | corresponding position of the air low to represent a repeatable value of air [Link] air char- acterization must be provided in the air damper drive, and sometimes on the fuel valve, so the ‘vo final operators can track in proper sequence. A limited trim adjustment is provided in the fuel air ratio station to allow some modification of the initially calibrated fuel ar ratio. This may be accomplished automatically, bat a manual sation is the most common method. Fuel and Air Controt 59.GO Boller Control Systems Engineering Aye FuELyaive ‘2nd FUEL VALVE ‘OPTIONAL. STEAM PRESSURE sia REGULATOR RC STATION Figure 6-2 Mechanical positioning system. HEADER PRESSURE s°, Om on x > FuEUAIR RATIO ABST Fue. CONTROL VALVE ATOAMPER Figure 6-3 Parallel positioning with no fuel air measureme! ‘There are advantages and disadvantages to a paralle/jackshaft positioning system. Advantages include its simplicity, reliability, esponsiveness, and cost effectiveness. On a preumatic system ‘with long transmission distances, for instance, parallel jackshaft positioning systems have been successfully applied in some cases where metered flow loops are undesirably slow. In addition, the rangeability of the system is high, limited only by the final operators. neni emittance einem Fuel and Air Control 61 Since it is not based on a measurement, fuel air ratio control is not precise. It depends on other parameters and is affected by varying fuel characteristics, fuel temperature, and/or pressure variations, atmospheric conditions, ete. If these conditions are not held constane, the fuel air ratio will be significanty affected. Als, this system cannot be applied to multiple burner instal- Ibtions. On out of service burners, air register postion, system flow resistance, and consequently, fae flow rate are alla fimction of the number of burners in service. ‘To overcome the inherent disadvantages, so-called metering systems are generally applied to farnace control. Fuel and air are measured, and flow control loops are closed on these variables. Mass airflow measurement must be a repeatable signal chat is representative of the air entering the furnace. When volumetric measurement techniques are employed and the air temperature a the flow-measuring element varies 50° F (28° C) or more, the measured (indicated) flow must be compensated for flowing air density to determine the true mass airflow rate. Control systems must have the air characterized to fuel to prevent the addition of excess fuel. Automatic tracking must be provided for bumpless control mode transfer. The combustion control, which responds to the boiler energy demand, must be accomplished by controlling furnace pressure (balanced draft systems), air demand, and fuel. Ie is a prerequisite for air control to be in automatic whenever fel control is in automatic. Provisions must be made to ensure that the automatic regulation of fuel will result in a ficl-to- air ratio that provides safe boiler operation. This includes limiting fuel low or ar low under all conditions to ensure fuel flow never exceeds the safe combustion limit the air flow will support. _Exces ar is required at all loads to ensure proper combustion of the fuel entering the furnace. The furnace should not operate at an oxygen level in the flue gas below the boiler or burner manufacturer’ requirements. The exception is on low NO, cont. Sub-soichiometric fring, for NO, control has no excess air in the burners. ‘Two basic approaches to metering systems are series metering and parallel metering. Figure 6-4 illustrates a series metering system referred to as fuel follow air. All differential pressure ‘wansmnitter signals must be converted to a linear signal as depicted in Figure 6-4. The diagrams ‘with a differential pressure transmitter depicting flow in the following control schemes will require square root extraction, which can be achieved in the transmitter or in the BPCS. In this system, the firing rate demand establishes the set point for the air flow contoller, and the air flow measurement establishes the set point of the fitel flow controller. Therefore, the maintenance of fuel air rato is provided on a measured metered bass. With this configuration the foel demand is never greater than the actual measured air flow. This is an important safety consideration. Fuel follows air on load increase. There is no possibility of unburned fel accu- mulation. Since the air flow loop is usually somewhat slower responding than the fuel flow Joop, parallel tracking of the two occurs on load decrease. Figure 6-5 illustrates another series metering system referred to as an air follow fuel scheme Scructured identically to the fuel follow ai system — except the fxel and air loops are reversed — this series metering system has one advantage. [ss response is optimum because of the faster response of the fue! loop.62 Boiler Control Systems Engineering HEADER PRESSURE. AIR ELOW FUEL FLOW © © Pi ‘0 fe Pv. sP pv Ak et] amcontac. [| 1] rust conrace DO OO Lo Lo AIR DAMPER, FUEL VALVE Figure 6-4 Fuel follow air series metering system. HEADER PRESSURE FuELLow AB ELOW © © =, OLA t + Pit fo x) ©, Py ov A} IA PL | rvetconmmo, = fe] 1] amcontroe oO 0 FUELVALVE ‘AF OANPER Figure 6-5 Air follow fuel series metering system. Fuel and Air Control 63 From 2 saféty standpoint, this configuration is [Link] the load increases, te! will lead air, Also, fuel demand still has more fzel than air. The better configuration for combustion control is developed in Figure 6-6. In this parallel ictering system, the firing-rate demand signal is applied in parallel as the set point to cwo slave ow control loops. One flow control loop monitors ftel and the other monitors air. PuEL ROW HEADER PRESSURE ag now sp tx) OA FUELIAIR, va Fn BR RS ai fms af ee no A < A puerto < oA aanow Ae LL catlcron PLUS OS Om uEL VALE Anca Figure 8-6 Basic parallel metering. This system provides for stable, accurate control of energy input and fuel air ratio during ‘normal steady-state operation, but does not guarantee combustion safery during transient con- ditions or during certain predictable operating irregularities. A parallel system incorporating a fuel flow interlock is lustrated in Figure [Link] interlock js accomplished by inserting a low signal selector in the set point signal to the fuel flow con- [Link] second input to the selector is controled air flow: Thus, the demand signal for fe! is either the fring-rate demand signal or the measured air flow, whichever is lower. With this system, ftel demand can never exceed measured air flow and, on a load increase, fuel demand must follow air demand, Fuel cannot be increased until ar flow increase is proven through the air flow measurement loop. Figure 68 is a panllel metering system with air flow intedlock. This is accomplished by inserting a high signal selector in the set point signal to the air low controller The second input to the selector is measured fel flow. Therefore, the demand signal for air is either the Bring rite demand signal or the measured fuel low, whichever is higher. With this system, air demand can never be less than measured fitel flow. On a load decrease, ait demand must follow fel. Air cannot be decreased until fuel flow decrease is proven through the fuel flow measurement loop.64 Boiler Control Systems Engineering renown veaoen nessun annow =) 7 © a Zl s a ment ai Bee iaioey C8 ee ee Thy = ‘FUEL FLOW 5 - FLOW a oS ala Seon" TFT) EE on eB ra niecvave stoner Figure 6-7 Parallel meter fuel flow interlock. rueerow veaben pressure © e = * FUEUAIR, nom fue. A Plt pang [2 _jAitrario a wp oo —————— ee ArT] FELROW ATT] AReiow conn. LT grt bo OD eleLvave aioanPen Figure 6-8 Parallel meter air flow interlock. Fuel and Air Control Gas Oil Figure 6-9 isa panilel metering system incorporating both the fuel flow and air dow inter- locks previously described. This scheme is referred to as a cross limiting or lead-lag paralle-series metering system or flow interlocked system. Gas and oil control is depicted in this control scheme; however, the cross limiting control concept is commonly used for al fuels and has been the standard for utility boilers since the 19603. Fuel and Air Control 65 sre easriow veaneh batssune ARROW, OA 0) ak a0 P [| stem oo) SS 3 ° Low 4 A /—sht——_2 A ai]. er easconrao. ‘am conTROL OO casvaive AmDanen Figure 6-9 Firing single fuel/cross limiting. Fact, the steady-state condition of ths system is considered with all values in percent, The fuel and air controllers, which provide proportional-plus-integral action, act to continuously hold measurement equal to set point. Therefore, load demand, air fow set point, air low measure- ment, fuel flow set point, and fuel low measurement are all equal. The two flow loops are set in panlll On a load inczease, the low selector rejects the load demand signal and accepts the air flow ‘measurement signal. Fuel flow demand (set point) becomes equal to air flow measurement, At the same time, the high selector rejects fel low measurement and accepts the inczeasing load demand signal. Air flow demand (set point) becomes equal to load cemand. The system act asa series metering system with fuel following air. Ona load decrease, the low selector accepts the load demand signal, and fuel demand (set point) becomes equal to load demand. Air demand becomes equal to fixe! ow. Agzin the system is acting a a series metering system, this ime with air following fuel. ‘The advantage of this sytem is on 2 load increase. Fuel demand cannot be increased until an actual increase in air ow measurement is sensed. On a load decrease, air demand cannot be