S‘O’A ITER

Computer Network
(CSE 3034)

Text book: Computer Networks by Andrew S. Tanenbaum

 Introduction to the course S‘O’A ITER

Syllabus :
 Introduction(Chapter 1)
 The Physical Layer(Chapter 2)
 The Data Link Layer(Chapter 3)
 The Medium Access Control Sublayer(Chapter 4)
 The Network Layer(Chapter 5)
 The Transport layer(Chapter 6)
 The Application layer(Chapter 7)
 Network security(Chapter 8)
 S‘O’A ITER

Introduction
 What is Computer Network? S‘O’A ITER
Computer Network :
 Formed by merging of computers and communication technology.

Computation/processing of data Exchange of information

• Copper wire
 Collection of autonomous computers interconnected by a single technology • Fibre optics
to carry out computation/processing of data and exchange of information. • Microwave
 Wired (or cabled), Wireless
 Internet (Network of networks)
 Though looks same computer network is different from a distributed
system.
Distributed System :
–High degree of cohesiveness and transparency
–A software system built on top of a network
WWW a distributed systems run on the top of Internet.
 S‘O’A ITER
Uses of Computer Network

• Business Applications
• Home Applications
• Mobile Users
• Social Issues
 S‘O’A ITER
Uses of Computer Network (cont.)
Business Applications
Goals of Networks in this application :
 Resource sharing : Programs, equipment, and especially data available to anyone on the network
without regard to the physical location of the resource and the user

Ex: (i) Sharing of physical equipment like printer, CD burner, etc.

(ii) Sharing of customer records, inventories, accounts, financial statements, etc.

 Establish a computer-assisted communication between individuals.
Ex : (i) Electronic mail (i.e. e-mail).
(ii)VoIP (i.e. Voice over internet Protocol) /Videoconferencing.
 Doing business electronically.
Ex : E-commerce
• Individual - company
• Company - company
 S‘O’A ITER
Uses of Computer Network (cont.)
Business Applications
Structure :
 The establishment varies from a single office in a single building to dozens of
offices scattered over more than one place.
 Configured in the form of client-server model.
Server :
 Powerful computer where most of the data
associated with an organization/company are
stored.
 Physical equipment that is shared is also
connected to the server system.
 Maintained by a system administrator.

Client :
 Simpler computer systems used by employees
of an organization/company/individual being
A network with two clients and one server connected to the same network.
 S‘O’A ITER
Uses of Computer Network (cont.)
Business Applications
Communication in client – server model :

Client process : Sending message over the network to server & waits reply from server
Server process : Performs the requested work or looks up the requested data and sends back a reply to client.
 S‘O’A ITER
Uses of Computer Network (cont.)
Home Applications

In 1977 Ken Olsen, President,

Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), Second Largest Computer Company
(after IBM) said
“There is no reason for any individual to have a computer in his home”
(Initially for word processing)

Now : Why do people buy computers for home use?

Biggest Reason is Internet access.

 S‘O’A ITER
Uses of Computer Network (cont.)
Home Applications
Popular uses of the internet access for home users :

 Access to remote information

 Person to person communication
 Interactive entertainment
 Electronic commerce
 S‘O’A ITER
Uses of Computer Network (cont.)
Home Applications

Internet access for home users : Access to remote information

• Surfing the web is done for variety of reasons:

• Arts, Business, Cooking, Government, Health, History, Hobbies,
Recreation, Science, Sports, Travel, …
• E-Newspaper
• Online Digital Libraries (magazines/journal)
(e.g. [Link])
 S‘O’A ITER
Uses of Computer Network (cont.)
Home Applications

Internet access for home users : Person – to – person communication

• Video conferencing/chating
• Instant Messaging (Whats app,Twitter)
• Telelearning
• Social Networking:
• Facebook

Person - to – person communication often goes by the name of peer - to - peer communication
 S‘O’A ITER
Uses of Computer Network (cont.)
Home Applications

Peer – to – peer communication (different from client –server model)

Example :
 BitTorrent
 Sharing Music and Videos (Napster)
 Email, etc.

In a peer-to-peer system there are no fixed clients and servers.

 S‘O’A ITER
Uses of Computer Network (cont.)
Home Applications

Internet access for home users : Interactive entertainment

 MP3 and DVD-quality movies

 TV shows – IPTV (IP TeleVision)
 Interactive Live TV
 Multiperson real-time simulation games
 Smart Home Monitoring
 S‘O’A ITER
Uses of Computer Network (cont.)
Home Applications
Internet access for home users : Electronic commerce
 Online shopping from home
 Online consultation about product with support team
 Payment of bills
 Managing bank accounts and financial investments
 Online auction of second hand goods – in the form of peer to peer system

Some forms of e-commerce

 Uses of Computer Network (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Mobile Users
• Mobile computers (handheld and laptops)
• Fastest growing segments in computer history.
• Individuals are able to use their mobile devices to:
• Read and send email,
• Tweet,
• Watch Movies,
• Download Music,
• Play Games,
• Serf the Web
• Internet connectivity allows for those applications to be easily built
• Wireless Networks (Cars, Boats, and Airplanes can not have wired Connections)
• Cellular Networks
• Wireless hotspots (802.11 Standard).
• Wireless Networking vs. Mobile Wireless Networks
 Uses of Computer Network (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Mobile Users

Combinations of wireless networks and mobile computing

 Uses of Computer Network (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Mobile Users

• Smart Phones – Integration of Internet with Telephony

• Driving the wireless-mobile applications
• 3G & 4G cellular networks provides fast data services
• GPS is a standard feature
• m-commerce (mobile commerce)
• Sensor Networks
• Notes that Sense/gather data about state of the physical world.
• It is revolutionizing science
• Wearable Computers
• Implantable Devices
• Pacemakers, Insulin pumps, …
• Controllable wirelessly
 S‘O’A ITER
Network Hardware

There is no generally accepted taxonomy into which all computer networks fit, but
two dimensions stand out as important: transmission technology and scale.

Transmission technology : Two types of transmission technology are in widespread

use.
1. Broadcast links.
2. Point to point links.
 Network Hardware(cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Broadcast network

 Single communication channel that is shared by all the

machines connected to the network.
 Messages (in the form of packets) sent by one machine are
received by all other machines belonging to the network.
Broadcast transmission
 Upon receiving a packet, a machine checks the address field.
 If the packet is intended for the receiving machine, that machine
processes the packet;
 If the packet is intended for some other machine, it is just
ignored.
 Multicast : Transmission to a subset of machines

Multicast transmission
 Network Hardware (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Point to point network

 Multiple individual pairs of machine communicate with each other.

 Single hop : Directly, One route
 Multi hop : Through one/more intermediate machines, Multiple routes possible
(Finding good one is important)
 Intermediate machines only forward the data packets from source to destination.
 Unicast transmission

Unicast transmission
 Network Hardware (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Classification of network based on size of the network:
 Computer networks are also
classified based on the size, no. of
machines and distance among
machines of a network.

•Personal Area Network (PAN)

•Local Area Network (LAN)
•Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
•Wide Area Networks (WAN)
•The internet

Classification of interconnected processors by scale

 Network Hardware (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Local Area Networks (LANs):
 Privately owned
 Established within a single building or campus
 Widely used to connect personal computers and workstations in company offices and factories for
share resources (e.g., printers) and exchange information.
Characteristics based on which different from other networks

(1) Size : Restricted and small

(2) Transmission technology :
Medium of communication : Mostly use co-axial cable
Speed : 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps
Delay : low (microseconds/nanoseconds)
Transmission error : Less
(3) Topology : BUS , RING, STAR, MESH.
 Network Hardware (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Local Area Networks (LANs):

• At any instant at most one machine is the master and

is allowed to transmit.
• Conflicts may occur when two more machines try to
transmit simultaneously.
BUS
(Requires proper arbitration mechanism)
• Ex : Ethernet (or IEEE 802.3)

• Each bit propagates around on its own, not waiting

for the rest of the packet to which it belongs.
• Each bit circumnavigates the entire ring.
• Conflict due to simultaneous accesses to the ring can
be avoided by arbitration mechanism.
Ex : IEEE 802.5 and FDDI
RING
 Network Hardware (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Local Area Networks (LANs):

Categorized as static or dynamic based on the channel allocation strategy among the users wants to
transmit their data.

Static :
 Uses a round-robin algorithm (i.e. each machine is allowed to broadcast only when its time slot comes up)
 Wastage of channel capacity (a drawback)

Dynamic :
 Centralized (a bus arbitration unit used to determine who goes next)
 Decentralized (each machine must decide for itself whether to transmit)
 Network Hardware (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

 Covers a city
 Ex : Cable television network
( Initially for TV signal transmission,
currently for internet along with TV
transmission)
 Concept : A large antenna was placed
on top of a nearby hill or big building
and then signal is piped to the
subscribers' houses.
A metropolitan area network based on cable TV
 Network Hardware (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Wide Area Network (WAN)
 Spans a large geographical area, often a country or continent.
 Establish communication link between two machines (say host computers) belonging to two
different networks.
 Major constituents of such a network
 Host : Owned by customers
 Communication subnet : Owned by the network service providers

Relation between hosts on LANs and the subnet

 Network Hardware (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Wide Area Network (WAN)
Subnet :
Comprises of two components.
• Transmission lines :
 Used to move data packets
between two machines
(Copper wire, optical fiber)
• Switching elements :
 Popularly known as routers.
 Connect more than two
transmission lines.
 Store -and-forward.

WAN that connects three branch offices in Australia

 Network Hardware (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Wide Area Network (WAN)
The WAN often also referred as packet switched network, since the packets in the network are
moved from one transmission line to other through the switching element (or router).
An example :

 Routing decisions are made locally.

 How A makes that decision is called the routing algorithm.
(Instead of ABDE it is ACE)
 Network Hardware (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Wireless network

 Transmission line : Wireless (or radio channel)

 Wireless networks can be divided into three main categories:
1. System interconnection.
2. Wireless LANs.
3. Wireless WANs.
 Network Hardware (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Wireless network
System interconnection :
Example:
 Uses short range radio communication
A computer CPU and its subordinates like mouse,
technology (e.g. Bluetooth) to make keyboard and monitor can be connected through a blue-
tooth based network system.
interconnection between different
digital machines in a room.
 Can be referred as a PAN.

A Bluetooth configured network

 Network Hardware (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Wireless network
Wireless LANS :
 Every computer/computing machines should have a radio modem and antenna.
 Requires a base station.
 Follows the standard IEEE 802.11
Example : Offices, Hostels, Conference rooms etc.

An example of Wireless LAN

 Network Hardware (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Wireless network
Wireless WANS :
 Structure is same as WLAN except to geographical area of coverage (quite a more than that in
WLANs)
 Lesser speed than WLANs.
 Distance between base station and computing device is more than that in WLANs.
Example : Cellular networks (3G & 4G) meant for both voice and data.

High bandwidth wireless MANs are also being available in certain cities. A standard for it, called IEEE
802.16, has also been developed.

Note : Almost all wireless networks hook up to the wired network at some point to provide the
internet service.
 Network Hardware (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Home network
 Properly not categorized as a form of computer network.
 Smart home and IoT (a possibility).
 Requires smart devices that are capable to communicate with each other and (or) access internet.

Examples of smart devices in home :

1. Computers (desktop PC, notebook PC, PDA, shared peripherals).

2. Entertainment (TV, DVD, VCR, camcorder, camera, stereo, MP3).

3. Telecommunications (telephone, mobile telephone, intercom, fax).
4. Appliances (microwave, refrigerator, clock, furnace, airco, lights).
5. Telemetry (utility meter, smoke/burglar alarm, thermostat, babycam).
 Network Hardware (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Home network

Home networking has some fundamentally different properties than other network types.

 The network and devices have to be easy to install.

 The network and devices have to be fool proof in operation.
 Low price is essential for success.
 The main application is likely to involve multimedia, so the network needs sufficient
capacity.
 It must be possible to start out with one or two devices and expand the reach of the
network gradually.
 Security and reliability will be very important.
 Network Software S‘O’A ITER

The network software structure plays an important role in the operation of the
network.

• Protocol hierarchies
• Design issues for the layers
• Connection-oriented versus connectionless service
• Service primitives
• Relationship of services to protocols
 Network Software S‘O’A ITER
Protocol Hierarchies

 A stack of layers or levels, each one built upon the one below it.
 Number of layers, the name of each layer, the contents of each layer, and the
function of each layer differ from network to network.
 Lower layer provides service to higher layers.
 interaction/conversation between n layer of a machine with n layer of another
machine carried following a set of rules and convention (normally known as
protocol).
 Network Software (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Protocol Hierarchies
 Protocol – An agreement between the communicating parties on how communication is to
proceed.

 Peers – Entities comprising corresponding layers on different machines (e.g. hardware devices).

• Peers use the protocol to communicated with each other.

 No data is directly transferred from layer n on one machine to layer n on another machine.

• Each Layer passed data and control information to the layer immediately below it until the
lowest layer is reached.

• Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which actual communication occurs.

• Between each pair of adjacent layers is an interface

Interface - It defines which primitive operations and services the lower layer makes available to
the upper one.
 Network Software (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Protocol Hierarchies

 Peer

Virtual Communication

Physical Communication

Layers, protocols, and interfaces in a network

 Network Software (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Protocol Hierarchies
Layering
➭ To make things simple: modularization container
➭ Different layer has different functions
➭ Create layer boundary such that
● description of services can be small
● number of interactions across boundary are minimized
● potential for interface standardized
➭ Different level of abstraction in the handling of data (e.g., syntax, semantics)
➭ Provide appropriate services to upper layer
➭ Use service primitives of lower layer
 Network Software (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Protocol Hierarchies

Network Architecture:
• A set of layers and protocols.
• The specification of the network architecture must contain enough information to
allow an implementation of the program or the hardware for each layer so that it will
obey appropriately the protocol.
Protocol Stack:
• The list of protocols used by a certain system – one protocol per layer.
 Network Software (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
An analogy example: Protocol Hierarchies

Layer3 :
Two philosophers having no common language want to
communicate with each other.
Layer2:
Each philosophers engages a translator.
Layer1:
Each translator takes the help of a secretary to transmit
the message using the medium (e.g. Fax ).

Note : Each protocol is completely independent of each

other as long as interfaces are not changed.
(e.g. in layer1 the medium can be a telephone call or e-
mail without the notice of translator)

The philosopher-translator-secretary architecture

 Network Software (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Protocol Hierarchies
A technical example:

Example information flow supporting virtual communication in layer 5.

 Network Software (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Protocol Hierarchies
Illustration of technical example:
Let a message ‘M’ produced in layer 5 in source machine is to be transmitted to layer 5 in destination
machine.
Step 1 : Message ‘M’ from layer 5 given to layer 4.
Step 2 : In layer 4 a header (i.e. control information like sequence number) is added in front of the message
and then given to layer 3. No restriction in size of message.
Step 3 : In layer 3 (if required) the message gets broken into small packets along with the prepend of layer 3
header to each packet following which the packets passed to layer 2. Restriction in size of message.
( In the picture the message ‘M’ is divided into ‘M1’ and ‘M2’ .)
Step 4 : Layer 2 adds not only a header to each piece, but also a trailer, and gives the resulting unit to layer 1
for physical transmission.
At the receiving machine the message ‘M’ moves upward from layer to layer, with headers being stripped off
as it progresses.
The peer process abstraction is crucial to all network design.
Level 4 protocol conceptually think of their communication as being “horizontal”:
SendToOtherSide or GetFromOtherSide even though though these procedures actually communicate with lower layers across
the 3/4 interface, not with the other side.
 Network Software (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Key design Issues for the Layers
Addressing : Multiple computers and processes: addressing
 Identify senders and receivers (Ex : telephone number, e-mail address, IP address,…)
Error Control : Physical communication medium is not ideal : possibility of error at the receiving end
 error detection
 error correction
Flow control : A fast sender can communicate with slow receiver : proper handshaking before data transmission.
 feedback/acknowledgement from the receiver
 agreed upon transmission rate
Multiplexing and Demultiplexing : Scarcity of separate channels for each source destination pair in the network.
 Multiplexing at one(i.e. transmitting) end
 De-multiplexing at other(i.e. receiving) end
Routing : Possibility of multiple paths between source and destination: appropriate route using suitable routing
algorithm
 High level: London -> France or Germany -> Rome
 Low level: many available circuits
 Network Software (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Other design Issues for the Layers
Reliability:
 Network must operate correctly although it is made up of a collection of components that are themselves
unreliable.
Protocol Layering:
 Networks grow larger over time and new designs emerge that need to connected to the existing networks.
Scalable:
 Designs that continue to work well when the network gets large.
Congestion:
 The problem may occur when the network is oversubscribed because to many computers want to send too much
traffic and the network will not be able to deliver them all.
 Overloading problem of the network.
 One strategy is for each computer to reduce its demand.
Quality of Service:
 Additional Resources (other then Bandwidth),
 Real-time delivery (for applications that require high throughput),
 Live Video,
Network Security:
 How good is the network against different kinds of threats
 Network Software (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Services

Layers can offer two different types of service to the layers above them.
• Connection-oriented

• Connectionless

 Importance : Quality of service in terms of reliability.

 Reliability :
• Accompanies an acknowledgement from the receiver to the sender after reception ensuring
the information transmitted has not been lost.

• In certain cases the unreliable service is also acceptable since acknowledgment introduces
overhead and delays.
 Network Software (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Connection-Oriented Service
 Modeled after telephone system: Pickup-the-phone, Dial the number, Talk, Hang-up
 In connection oriented service
• Establishes a connection,
• Uses a connection (sender pushes objects in at one end and the receiver takes them out at the
other end).
• Releases the connection
• In some cases when connection is established, the sender, receiver, and a subnet conduct a
negotiation about the parameters to be used:
 Maximum message size,

 Quality of service required

 Can be used in both reliable and unreliable form depending on requirement.

 Network Software (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Connection-Oriented Service
 Reliable connection-oriented service: Two forms
1. Message Sequences
2. Byte Streams
• Message Sequences:
• Message boundaries are preserved.
• Example: Two 1024 byte messages are sent, they arrive as two distinct 1024-byte messages; Never as
one 2048-byte message.
• Byte Streams:
• Message is send as a stream of bytes with no concepts of message boundaries.
• Example: When a 2048-byte message arrives at the receiver there is no way to tell if they were sent as
• One 2048-byte message,
• Two 1024-byte message, or 2048 1-byte messages.
 Unreliable connection-oriented service:
• It is preferable for telephone users to hear a bit of noise on the line from time to time than to
experience a delay waiting for acknowledgements.
• Example : Digital voice transmission
 Network Software (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Connectionless Service

 Modeled after a postal system.

• Each message carries the full destination address

• Each one is routed through the intermediate nodes inside the system independent of all the
subsequent messages.

• Possibility of arrival of second message prior to first message at the receiving end.

 Mostly used in unreliable form.

 Popularly known as datagram service.

• Analogous to telegram service

• Common example : E-mail

 Certain scenario appreciate acknowledgement from the receiver.

 Network Software (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Connectionless Service
 Unreliable connectionless service :
 The sender of such kind of messages does not worry for acknowledgement from the
receiver.
 Example : Junk e-mail

 Acknowledgement based connectionless service :

 The sender in this service can be acknowledged by the receiver.
 Example : Registered mail

 Request-reply connectionless service :

 The sender transmits a single datagram containing a request; the reply contains the
answer.
 Example : Answering to queries through mail
 Network Software (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Summary of connection oriented and connectionless service

Six different types of services offered by network layers

 Network Software (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Service primitives
 Set of primitives (operations) available to a user process to access the service.
 Primitives for connection-oriented service are different from those of connectionless
service.

Example : Minimum service primitives required to implement a reliable byte stream in a

client-server environment
 Network Software (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Service primitives

 First, the server executes LISTEN to indicate that it is prepared to accept incoming
connections. After executing the primitive, the server process is blocked until a request for
connection appears.
 Next, the client process executes CONNECT to establish a connection with the server. The
client process is suspended until there is a response.
 The next step is for the server to execute RECEIVE to prepare to accept the first request.
 Then the client executes SEND to transmit its request followed by the execution of RECEIVE
to get the reply.
 After receiving the reply from server, If the client has additional requests, it can make them
now. If it is done, it can use DISCONNECT to terminate the connection.
 Network Software (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Service primitives
If the protocol stack is located in the operating system, the primitives are normally system calls.

Packets sent in a simple client-server interaction on a connection-oriented network

 Network Software (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Service primitives

1. Server executes LISTEN to indicate that it is prepared to accept incoming connections.

• Blocking system call.
• The server process is blocked until a request for connection appears.
2. Client process executes CONNECT to establish a connection (1) with the server.
• Specifies who to connect to (parameter giving the server’s address).
• OS sends a packet to the peer asking it to connect.
• Client process is suspended until there is a response.
3. The packet is processed at the server.
• OS sees that the packet is requesting a connection upon reception of the packet.
• OS checks to see if there is a listener and if so it unblocks it.
• Sends an acknowledgement (2) back to the client process to accept the connection.
• The arrival of this response then releases the client.
• At this point both client and server are running and they have connection established.
 Network Software (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Service primitives

4. The server will execute RECEIVE to prepare to accept the first request.
• Server does this immediately upon being released from the LISTEN, before
acknowledgment can get back to the client.
• The RECEIVE is a blocking call.

5. The client will execute SEND to transmit its request (3) followed by RECEIVE to
get the reply.
• The arrival of the request packet at the Server unblocks it so it can handle the
request.
• After the server has done the work it will issue a SEND to return the answer to the
client (4).
• The arrival of the this packet unblocks the client which can now inspect the answer.
• If further request are required it can make them now.
 Network Software (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Service primitives

6. When the client is done it executed DISCONNECT to terminate the connection (5).
• Initial DICONNECT is a blocking call, suspending the client and sending a packet to the server
saying that the connection is no longer needed.
• When the server gets the packet it also issues a DISCONNECT of its own, acknowledging the
client and releasing the connection (6).
• When the server’s packet gets back to the client machine, the client process is released and
the connection is broken.
 Network Software (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Service primitives

Many things can go wrong:

• Timing (e.g., CONNECT is done before LISTEN)
• Packets can get lost, …
Why not using connectionless service:
• Only two (2) packets would be needed (i.e. request and reply) vs. six (6).
• If large messages then chances of transmission errors, lost packets, etc.
Example:
• If the reply consisted of hundreds of packets, some of which could be lost during
transmission, how would the client know if some pieces were missing?
• How would the client know whether the last packet actually received was really the last
packet sent?

Note : However, in the case where the number of information packets to be communicated are very
less and/or the loss of information is acceptable the system can make use of service primitives
associated to a connectionless service.
 Network Software (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Relationship of Services to Protocols
A service is a set of primitives (operations) that a layer provides to the layer above it.
• Services relate to interfaces between layers

• The service defines what operations the layer is prepared to perform on behalf of its users, but it
does not say anything at all about how these operation are implemented.

A protocol is a set of rules governing the format and meaning of the packets, or messages
that are exchanged by the peer entities within a layer.
• Protocols relate to the packets send between peer entities on different machines.

• Entities use protocols to implement their service definitions.

• They are free to change their protocols at will, provided they do not change the service visible to
their users.
 Network Software (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Relationship of Services to Protocols

The relationship between a service and a protocol.

 Reference Models S‘O’A ITER

OSI reference model :

 Although the protocols associated with the OSI model are rarely used
any more, the model itself is actually quite general and still valid.

TCP/IP reference model :

 The model itself is not of much use but the protocols are widely used.
 Reference Models(cont.) S‘O’A ITER
The OSI Reference Model

 Designed in 1983 based on a proposal developed by the International Standards Organization

(ISO).
 Revised in 1995, then after, the model is called the ISO OSI (Open Systems Interconnection).
 Deals with connecting open systems (systems that are open for communication with other
systems).
 Based on seven layers.
 Reference Models(cont.) S‘O’A ITER
The OSI Reference Model
Principles : Layers :
 Layers created where different 1. Physical Layer
abstraction needed. 2. Data Link Layer
 Each layer performs well-defined 3. Network Layer
function. 4. Transport Layer
 Function of layer chosen with definition 5. Session Layer
of international standard protocols in 6. Presentation Layer
mind. 7. Application Layer
 Minimize information flow across
interfaces between boundaries.
 Number of layers optimum.
 Reference Models(cont.) S‘O’A ITER
The OSI Reference Model

Structure of
OSI reference model.
 Reference Models(cont.) S‘O’A ITER
The OSI Reference Model
Physical Layer:
 Concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication channel.
 Converts data from the upper layers into ‘1’s and ‘0’s for transmission over media.
 Defines how data is encoded onto the media to transmit the data.
 Defined on this layer: Cable standards, wireless standards, and fiber optic standards.
 Copper wiring, fiber optic cable, radio frequencies, anything that can be used to
transmit data is defined on the Physical layer of the OSI Model.
Design issues :
• Ensuring that when one side sends a 1 – bit of information it is received as 1-bit (not as 0-bit or 2-or
more- bits).
• What type of signal should be used to represent “1” and “0”?
• How many nano seconds a bit lasts?
• Whether transmission can occur simultaneously in both direction?
• How many pins the network connector has?
• What each pin is used for?
 Reference Models(cont.) S‘O’A ITER
The OSI Reference Model
Data Link Layer:
 Transforms the raw data bits to a data frame (few hundred/thousand bits)
 Responsible for sequential transmission of frames from node to node or computer to
computer
 In reliable service the receiver confirms correct receipt of each frame by sending back an
acknowledgment frame.
 Protocols defined include Ethernet Protocol and Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
 Two sub layers: Logical Link Control (LLC) and the Media Access Control (MAC)
o Logical Link Control (LLC)
–Flow control, Error control
o Media Access Control (MAC)
–Determines which computer has access to the network media at any given time
–Determines where one frame ends and the next one starts, called frame
synchronization
 Reference Models(cont.) S‘O’A ITER
The OSI Reference Model
Network Layer:
• Controls the operation of the subnet.
• Responsible for moving (or routing) packets (data) from one end of the network to the
other, called end-to-end communications.
• Determines how packets to be routed from source (in one network) to destination (in
another network).
o Static table (rarely changed)
o Dynamic table (Often changed to avoid failed components) : Route can be determined at
the start of each conversion (or) new route for each packet depending on network load.
• Responsible for congestion handling : If too many packets are present in the subnet at
the same time, they will get in each other’s way forming bottlenecks.
• Deals with quality of service (i.e. jitter, transit time, delay etc.)
• Handles the issues raised due to different physical addresses of machines belonging to
different networks.
 Reference Models(cont.) S‘O’A ITER
The OSI Reference Model
Network Layer types :
In datagram networks
 Provides both routing and data forwarding
In connection-oriented network
 Separate data plane and control plane
 Data plane only forwards and schedules data (touches every byte)
 Control plane responsible for routing, call establishment, call-teardown (doesn’t touch data bytes)

In Internet
 Network layer is provided by Internet Protocol
 Found in all end-systems and intermediate systems
 Packet-forwarding, routing, scheduling
 Unique IP addresses
 Reference Models(cont.) S‘O’A ITER
The OSI Reference Model
Transport Layer:
 Accepts data from higher levels and splits it into smaller segments that can be sent to network layer.
 Also, reassembles data segments into data for the use of higher layers.
 Puts segments in correct order (called sequencing ), so they can be reassembled in correct order at
destination.
 Concerned with the reliability of the transport of sent data.
 May use a connection-oriented protocol such as TCP to ensure destination has received segments.
 May use a connectionless protocol such as UDP to send segments without assurance of delivery.
 It is a true end-to-end layer; it carries data all the way form the source to the destination.
o In the lower layers (i.e. 1 to 3), the protocols are between each machine and its immediate
neighbours (may be routers), and not between the ultimate source and destination machines.
 Reference Models(cont.) S‘O’A ITER
The OSI Reference Model
Session Layer:
 Allows users on different machines to establish sessions between them.
 Services:
Dialog control - Keeping track of whose turn is it to transmit
Token management – Preventing two parties from attempting the same critical operation
simultaneously
Synchronization – Check pointing long transmissions to allow them to pick up form where
they left off in the event of a crash and subsequent recovery.
 Establishes, manages, and terminates connections
 Provides duplex, half-duplex, or simplex communications between devices
 Internet – doesn’t have a standard session layer
 Reference Models(cont.) S‘O’A ITER
The OSI Reference Model
Presentation Layer:
 Concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information transmitted.
 Since different computer may deal with different data representations a standard encoding is
done, thus handles three primary tasks:
–Translation , –Compression , –Encryption
Ex : ASCII
 Internet
–no standard presentation layer
Application Layer:
 Contains all services or protocols needed by application software or operating system to
communicate on the network
Example : HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol), which is the basis for the World Wide Web.
 Reference Models(cont.) S‘O’A ITER
The TCP/IP Reference Model
 Proposed earlier to OSI model.
 Used in ARPANET(grandparent of all wide area computer) and it’s successor the internet
(Also used in private networks)
 Designed to support/interconnect different types of network (e.g. interconnection of radio
network and computer network).
 Four protocol layers :
• Host-to-network/link
• Internet
• Transport
• Application
 Design criteria:
• Network be able to survive loss of subnet hardware without existing conversations being
broken off.
• Applications with divergent requirements were supported ranging from file transfer to
real-time speech transmission.
 Reference Models(cont.) S‘O’A ITER
The TCP/IP Reference Model

(or)

(old) (new)
Note :
When TCP/IP is compared to OSI it can be seen that the host-to-network layer is equivalent to the
combination of physical and data link layer. Also, the internet layer is equivalent to the network layer, and
the application layer is roughly doing the job of the session, presentation, and application layers
 Reference Models(cont.) S‘O’A ITER
The TCP/IP Reference Model
Link Layer :
• Describes what links such as serial lines and classic Ethernet must do to meet the needs of this
connectionless internet layer.
• It is not actual layer in the classical sense of the term rather is an interface between hosts and
transmission links.
Internet Layer :
• Permit hosts to inject packets into any network and have them travel independently to the destination
(potentially on a different network).
• The packets may arrive in a completely random order from the original and the higher layer must
rearrange them – if in-order of delivery is desired.
(An analogy example : Letters dropped in the post box in sequence may not reach in the same sequence)

• Defines an official packet format and protocol called IP (Internet Protocol).

• Packet routing is a major issue and IP has not proven effective at avoiding congestion.
 Reference Models(cont.) S‘O’A ITER
The TCP/IP Reference Model
Transport Layer :
• Allow peer entities on the source and destination hosts to carry on a conversation.
• Uses either of the two types of transport protocol (i.e. TCP and UDP).
TCP(Transmission Control Protocol) :
 A reliable connection-oriented protocol.
 Allows a byte stream originating on one machine to be delivered without error on any other machine in the
internet.
 It fragments the incoming byte stream into discrete messages and passes each one on to the internet layer.
 At the destination, the receiving TCP process reassembles the received messages into the output stream.
 TCP also handles flow control to make sure a fast sender cannot swamp a slow receiver with more messages
than it can handle.
UDP(User Datagram Protocol):
 An unreliable, connectionless protocol for applications that do not want sequencing or flow control and wish
to provide their own.
 Also widely used for one-shot, client-server-type request-reply queries and applications in which prompt
delivery is more important than accurate delivery, such as transmitting speech or video.
 Reference Models(cont.) S‘O’A ITER
The TCP/IP Reference Model

Application Layer :
 Define the rules when implementing specific network applications.
 Applications simply include any session and presentation functions that they require.
 Rely on the underlying layers to provide accurate and efficient data delivery.
 Typical protocols:
o FTP – File Transfer Protocol (For file transfer)
o Telnet – Remote terminal protocol (For remote login on any other computer on the network )
o SMTP – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (For mail transfer )
o HTTP – Hypertext Transfer Protocol (For Web browsing)
 Reference Models(cont.) S‘O’A ITER
The TCP/IP Reference Model

Protocols and networks in the TCP/IP model initially

 Reference Models(cont.) S‘O’A ITER
A Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models
Similarities :
1. Both lie on the concept of a stack of independent protocols.
2. Functionality of the layers is roughly similar (for example in both models, the layers above transport are
application-oriented users of the transport service).
Differences :
OSI reference model TCP/IP reference model
Uses 7 different layers. Uses 4 different layers.
Supports both connectionless & connection oriented service in Supports only connectionless service in the network layer but
the network layer but only connection oriented service in both connectionless & connection oriented service in
transport layer. transport layer.
Clearly distincts service, interface & protocol. Doesn’t clearly distinguish service, interface & protocol.

Protocols are better hidden and can be replaced relatively Protocols are not hidden and can not be replaced easily as the
easily as the technology changes. technology changes (e.g. Replacing IP with a different protocol
is virtually impossible).
The reference model was devised before the corresponding The protocols came first, and the model was really just a
protocols were invented. description of the existing protocols since the protocols fit
perfectly.
 Example networks S‘O’A ITER

The computer networks that are functioning in the current scenario are associated
with so many attributes like size, technology, goals etc.

 Internet
• ARPANET
• NSFNET
 Connection oriented network : ATM
 Ethernet
 Wireless LANs: 802.11
 Example networks (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
The Internet
 Never be considered as a single network rather than a vast collection of different
networks that use certain common protocols and provide certain common services.
 Not planned by anyone and not controlled by anyone.
 Revolutionized many aspects of our daily lives.
 People use internet for various reasons.
 History :
• ARPANET
• NSFNET
 Example networks (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
ARPANET

 Started with the want from DoD in late 1950 to

develop a command-and-control network.
 In the beginning uses the base of existing public
telephone network.
 Issue : Structure is vulnerable (i.e. destroy of toll
offices fragments the system into isolated islands).
Structure of the telephone system

 Around 1960 the DoD awarded a contract to the

RAND Corporation.
 Paul Baran, proposed the incorporation of digital
packet switching technology in a highly distributed
and fault tolerant system.
(Idea was dismissed)

Baran's proposed distributed switching system

 Example networks (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
ARPANET

 Following several years, ARPA (Advanced Research Projects Agency) is created to find the solution
related to design of the command and control network.
 In 1967, Lary Roberts (director of ARPA) presented an idea (Wesley clark) in the form of paper
related to building of a packet switched subnet, where each host has it’s own router.
 Following to this, the practical implementation of a network is determined by Roberts with a name
ARPANET.
 A consulting firm named BBN had contracted to make practical implementation of ARPANET.
o Built subnet
o Wrote the subnet software
o Transmission line leased from telephone companies.
 Example networks (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
ARPANET
Concept :
 Subnet consists of minicomputers called IMPs (Interface Message Processors).
 56-kbps transmission lines.
 Each IMP connected to at least two other IMPs.
 Datagram subnet (if some lines and IMPs were destroyed, messages could be automatically rerouted
along alternative paths).
 Each node consists of an IMP and a host, in the same room, connected by a short wire.
 A host can send messages of up to 8063 bits to its IMP.
 IMPs break these up into packets of at most 1008 bits and forward them independently toward the
destination.
 Each packet was received in its entirety before being forwarded.
 Store-and-forward packet-switching network.
 Example networks (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
ARPANET
Software :
 Subnet software : required at the IMP end of the host-IMP connection
• IMP-IMP protocol
• Source IMP to destination IMP protocol
 Host software : Required at the host end of the host-IMP connection
• Host-host protocol
• Application software

The original ARPANET design

 Example networks (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
ARPANET
Growth :
 An experimental network
implemented in December
1969 with four nodes: at
UCLA, UCSB, SRI, and the
University of Utah. (a)
 Installation of more IMPs
make the ARPANET to grew
rapidly. (b), (c), (d), (e)

Growth of the ARPANET.

(a) December 1969.
(b) July 1970. (c) March 1971.
(d) April 1972.
(e) September 1972.
 Example networks (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
ARPANET
Use of TCP/IP :
 ARPANET protocols were not suitable for running over multiple networks.
 Leads to invention and implementation of TCP/IP.
 In 1980s, many additional networks, especially LANs, were connected to the ARPANET.

Use of DNS :
 Increase in scale of network Difficulty in identifying hosts
 Development of DNS (Domain Name system).
 Host names mapped to IP addresses.
 DNS is still used in internet.
 Example networks (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
NSFNET
 Late 1970’s : NSF (the U.S. National Science Foundation) had taken a response to design a
successor to the ARPANET.
 Open to all university research groups.
 Initial step to built a backbone network to connect its six supercomputer centres.
 Each supercomputer was attached with a microcomputer called a fuzzball.
 Fuzzballs were connected with 56-kbps leased lines and formed the subnet.
 TCP/IP was used from the beginning.
 Regional networks also connected to the backbone getting the financial support from NSF.
• Allow users at thousands of universities, research labs, libraries, and museums to access any of the
supercomputers and to communicate with one another.
 Combined structure of backbone and regional networks named as NSFNET.
 NSFNET was also connected with ARPANET through link between fuzzball and IMP.
Example networks (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
NSFNET

The NSFNET backbone in 1988

 Example networks (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
NSFNET
NSFNET to ANSNET:
 By 1990s version 2 backbone designed and implemented with the use of fiber channel to
provide a speed of 1.5 Mbps.
 NSF with non government organizations forms ANS (Advanced Networks and Services).
 In 1990s, ANS took over the NSFNET and renamed it ANSNET with a speed 45 Mbps.
NAP (Network Access Point):
 Four different network operators get contract from NSF to set up NAPs for providing
communication service between regional networks.
 Network operators also provide backbone service to regional networks.
 A packet originating on any regional network had a choice of backbone carriers to get
from its NAP to the destination's NAP.
 More than one backbone like competitive structure came into action.
 Example networks (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Architecture of the Internet
• Client machine gets connected to Regional ISP
through POP centre.
• Dial up service (for telecom company as ISP).
• Direct cable (ISP other than telecom company).
• ISP's regional network consists of interconnected
routers in cities.
• If destination host served by same ISP, then
packet delivered to destination host, else
forwarded to ISP’s backbone operator.
• If destination host directly connected to
backbone, then Packet delivered to host, else
forwarded to other ISP regional network/ other
backbone (through NAP).
Overview of the Internet
• Packet delivered to host.
 Example networks (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Internet usage
Definition :
A machine is on the Internet if it runs the TCP/IP protocol stack, has an IP address, and can send IP packets to
all the other machines on the Internet.
1970 – early 1990 : The Internet and its predecessors had four main applications.
 E-mail.
 News.
 Remote login.
 File transfer.
 Until the early 1990s, the Internet was largely populated by academic, government, and industrial
researchers.
 WWW (World Wide Web) changed all that and brought millions of new, non-academic users to the net.
 Together with the browser, the WWW made it possible for a site to set up a number of pages of
information with embedded links between pages.
• For example, many companies have a home page with entries pointing to other pages for product information,
price lists, customer support and more.
 With the facility available in home, the network character has taken the shape of public utility.
 Example networks (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Connection-Oriented Network: ATM
 Telephone companies were supporting the connection-oriented network because of two
reasons:
1) Quality of service
2) Billing

 X.25 ( 1970s) and frame delay (1980s) : works on synchronous transmission characteristics.
 In early 1990s, ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) network designed to work with asynchronous
transmission system.
 Merging of voice, data, cable television and many more signals into a single integrated system that
could do everything for everyone.
 Initially not happened due to bad timing, technology and implementation, however later on, found to
be successful.
 Example networks (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Connection-Oriented Network: ATM
ATM Virtual Circuits:
 Set up packet transmission prior to sending of data from source host to destination host.
 Routers in the path followed by set up packet make an entry to their routing table indicating path
information till the end of the data transmission.
 Connection between two hosts through subnet/routers van be temporary/permanent and is
referred as ATM virtual circuit.

A virtual circuit in
ATM network
 Example networks (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Connection-Oriented Network: ATM
Connection identifier, ATM cell, Information flow
 Each connection, temporary or permanent, has a unique connection identifier.
 The information in ATM is transmitted in the form of small, fixed-size packets called cells.
 The cells are 53 bytes long, of which 5 bytes are header and 48 bytes are payload.

An ATM cell
 Part of the header is the connection identifier to identify the source and destination host for a
packet.
 Helps the router to know how to route each incoming cell.
 Cells transmitted in a sequence order.
 Most common speeds for ATM networks are 155 Mbps and 622 Mbps.
 Example networks (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
The ATM Reference Model
 ATM has its own reference model, different from the OSI model and also different from the TCP/IP
model.
 Three layers, the physical, ATM, and ATM adaptation layers with a flexibility for an user defined upper
layer(s) above that.

The ATM reference model

 Example networks (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
The ATM Reference Model
Physical layer :
 Deals with the physical medium: voltages, bit timing, and various other issues.
 No specific rules for the cells regarding the chose of transmission medium.
 ATM cells can be sent on a wire or fibre by themselves.
 ATM cells can also be packaged inside the payload of other carrier systems.
 Two sub layers.
- PMD (Physical Medium Dependent) sub layer:
o Make the bits on and off to move through transmission medium (say cable)/carrier.
o Handles the bit timing.
o For different carriers and cables, this layer will be different.
- TC (Transmission Convergence) sub layer:
o Converts the cells into bit stream in transmitting end and the reverse in receiving end.
o Handles all the issues related to telling where cells begin and end in the bit stream.
 Example networks (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
The ATM Reference Model
ATM layer :
 Deals with cells and cell transport.
 Defines the layout of a cell and tells what the header files mean.
 Deals with establishment and release of virtual circuits.
 Handles congestion control issues.
ATM adaption layer :
 Allow users to send packets larger than a cell.
 The ATM interface segments these packets, transmits to lower layer.
 Reassembles the segments (if any) at the other end.
 Two sub layers.
- SAR (Segmentation And Reassembly) sub layer:
o Breaks up packets into cells on the transmission side and puts them back together again
at the destination.
- CS (Convergence Sub layer):
o Handles different kinds of services to different applications (e.g., file transfer and video
on demand have different requirements concerning error handling, timing, etc.).
 Example networks (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
The ATM Reference Model
User defined upper layer :
 User plane deals with data transport, flow control, error correction, and other user functions.
 Control plane is concerned with connection management.
 Layer and plane management functions relate to resource management and interlayer
coordination.
 Example networks (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
The ATM Reference Model

The ATM layers and sub layers, and their functions

 Example networks (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Ethernet
 Most popular local area network.
 Implemented in Xerox PARC (Palo alto Research centre) in 1976.
 Named after the luminiferous ether, through which electromagnetic radiation was once thought to
propagate. • Prior to Ethernet (in 1970s)
 Considered as a suceeder to ALOHANET. • Uses short range radio devices.
• Communication between user terminals through central computer.
 Uses thick coaxial cable (the ether) as
• Uses two frequencies.
transmission medium. 1. Upstream (user terminal to central computer)
2. Downstream (Central computer to user terminal).
 Cable length : 2.5 km
• Worked fine with low traffic.
(Repeaters at every 500m) • Poor performance with heavy traffic in upstream.
 256 machines can be connected.
 Speed : 2.94 Mbps.
Example networks (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Ethernet

Architecture of the original Ethernet

 Example networks (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Ethernet
Advantage of Ethernet over ALOHANET :

 Before transmitting, a computer first listened to the cable to see if someone else
was already transmitting.
 If so, the computer held back and wait until the current transmission finished.
 Avoids interfering with existing transmissions, giving a much higher efficiency.
 (ALOHANET : Not possible to sense the transmission line.)
 Still a possibility of simultaneous transmission ?
 Can be resolved with random wait time which can be doubled if still collision chance
is there.
 Example networks (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Ethernet
Ethernet as IEEE standard :
 Following to success in implementation of Ethernet the speed enhanced to 10 Mbps in 1978.
 In 1983, considered as IEEE 802.3 standard.
 In the due course of time with the improvement in technology it provides higher speed (100 Mbps).
Other IEEE standards for LAN : IEEE 802.4, IEEE 802.5
 802.4 : Token bus introduced by General motors, BUS topology
 802.5 : Token ring introduced by IBM, RING topology
 Token : A short packet and is used to make a turn for a computer being allowable for transmission of
its data.
 A computer could only send if it possessed the token, thus avoiding collisions.
 In due course of time 802.4 has vanished from sight .
 802.5 had its existence and still in use at some IBM site (popular in the name IBM token ring).
In the war of LAN, Ethernet has taken the highest utility in compare to others like token bus and token ring.
 Example networks (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Wireless LANs: 802.11

 To equip both the office and the notebook computers with short-range radio transmitters
and receivers and to allow them to communicate.
 Issue in the beginning : Some systems faces problem because of technical incompatibility
between devices.
Example: A computer equipped with a brand X radio could not work in a room equipped with a
brand Y base station.
 Issue solved through standardisation of Wireless LAN (IEEE 802.11).
 Popular in the term WIFI.
 Example networks (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Wireless LANs: 802.11

The proposed standard had to work in two modes:

(a) In the presence of a base station.
• All communication was to go through the base
station, called an access point.
(b) In the absence of a base station.
• The computers would just send to one another
directly.
• This mode is now sometimes called ad hoc
networking.
 Example networks (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Problems encountered during implementation of Wireless LANs: 802.11

Carrier sense before transmission :

 Though works in Ethernet to avoid simultaneous transmission may not work always in 802.11.
Example :
Let’s assume that computer A is transmitting to computer
B, but the radio range of A's transmitter is too short to reach
computer C. If C wants to transmit to B it can listen to the ether
before starting, but the fact that it does not hear anything does
not mean that its transmission will succeed.

The range of a single radio may not cover the entire system
 Example networks (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Problems encountered during implementation of Wireless LANs: 802.11

Multipath fading:
 A radio signal can be reflected off solid objects.
 Same signal may be received multiple times (along multiple paths).
 May lead to interference what is called multipath fading.
 Example networks (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Problems encountered during implementation of Wireless LANs: 802.11
Compatibility with software :
 Software is not aware of mobility of computer system compatible with other device.
Example :
Many word processors have a list of printers that users can choose from to print a file. When the computer on
which the word processor runs is taken into a new environment, the built-in list of printers becomes invalid.
Hand off:
 A notebook computer moving from the
range of one ceiling-mounted base station
into the range of a different base station,
requires hand off.

A multi-cell 802.11 network

 Example networks (cont.) S‘O’A ITER
Versions of 802.11
Though the problem cited earlier were solved in the due course of time dissatisfaction lies among users with speed.

 The initial standard (i.e. 802.11 in 1997) ran at either 1 Mbps or 2 Mbps.
(Frequency hopping and signal spreading technology)
 802.11a and 802.11b (1999)

802.11a : Speed up to 54 Mbps (wider frequency band )

802.11b : 11 Mbps (same frequency band as 802.11 but different modulation technique)

Besides these 802.11g (2003) is also used currently in some networks that employs OFDM transmission.
 Computer Network
(CSE 3034)

Text book: Computer Networks by Andrew S. Tanenbaum

 Introduction to the course
Syllabus :
➢ Introduction(Chapter 1)
➢ The Physical Layer(Chapter 2)
➢ The Data Link Layer(Chapter 3)
➢ The Medium Access Control Sublayer(Chapter 4)
➢ The Network Layer(Chapter 5)
➢ The Transport layer(Chapter 6)
➢ The Application layer(Chapter 7)
➢ Network security(Chapter 8)
The Physical Layer
 The Physical Layer
▪ Theoretical analysis of data transmission
▪ Transmission media.
o Guided (copper wire and fiber optics)
o wireless (terrestrial radio)
o Satellite
▪ Examples of communication systems used in practice for wide area
computer networks
 Theoretical Basis for Data Communication
Pre -requisite
➢ Involvement of two signals : Digital and Analog
Analog signal Digital signal
• Continuous waveform • Discrete
• Can have a infinite number of values in a range • Can have only a limited number of values
E.g., 0 and 1, i.e., two levels, for binary signal
• Ex : Human voice • Ex : Computer data

▪ Computer to modem : Digital

▪ Modem to modem : Analog
 Theoretical Basis for Data Communication(cont.)
Pre -requisite
Time Vs. Frequency Domain:
➢ A signal can be represented in either the time domain or the frequency domain.
➢ An analog signal is best analyzed in the frequency domain.
 Theoretical Basis for Data Communication(cont.)
Pre -requisite
Composite signal:

➢ Single-frequency sine wave is not useful for data communication.

• If a single sine wave was used to convey conversation over the phone, we would always hear just a buzz.
• If we sent one sine wave to transfer data, we would always be sending alternating 0’s and 1’s, which does
not have any communication value.
➢ If we want to use sine wave for communication, we need to change one or more of its characteristics.
For e.g., to send 1 bit, we send a maximum amplitude, and to send 0, the minimum amplitude.
➢ When we change one or more characteristics of a single-frequency signal, it becomes a composite
signal made up of many frequencies (or harmonics).
➢ A composite signal is well analyzed in frequency domain.
Composite signal:
 Theoretical Basis for Data Communication(cont.)
Pre -requisite
Frequency spectrum:
➢ The description of a signal using the frequency domain and containing all its components is called
the frequency spectrum of the signal.

➢ Fourier analysis : Used to analyze the composite signal in frequency domain.

• Fourier series : For periodic signal
• Fourier transform : For aperiodic signal
 • Definition: A signal is periodic signal when it is repeated
over cycle of time or regular interval of time. This means
Periodic Signal periodic signal repeats its pattern over a period. The
function f(x) can be periodic if it satisfies following equation.
f(x + p) = f(x)
Aperiodic Signal
or Non-periodic
Signal
• Definition: A signal is non-
periodic or aperiodic signal
when it does not repeat its
pattern over a period (i.e.,
interval of time).
 Theoretical Basis for Data Communication(cont.)

➢ Information can be transmitted on wires in the form of variation in voltage or current with
time (say f(t)).
➢ Signal behaviour can be modelled and analysed mathematically.

Fourier Analysis:
➢ A time-varying periodic signal can be represented as a series of frequency components
(harmonics): Normally termed as Fourier series

f = 1/T – fundamental frequency.

an , bn – are the sine and cosine amplitudes of the n’th harmonic.
c – is a constant.
 Theoretical Basis for Data Communication (cont.)

The function can be reconstructed; that is, if the period, T, is known and the amplitudes are
given.

Note :
A data signal that has a finite duration thus can be
handled by just imagining that it repeats the entire
pattern over and over forever (i.e., the interval from T to
2T is the same as from 0 to T, etc.).
 Theoretical Basis for Data Communication (cont.)
Bandwidth limited signal
➢ The range of frequencies that a medium can pass
without loosing one-half of the power contained
in that signal is called its bandwidth.
➢ At the signal level, bandwidth is also considered as
cut-off frequency (HZ).
➢ For data transmission it is bits/sec.

Ex: 8-bit (01100010) data transmission

A binary signal and its root-mean-square Fourier amplitudes.

 Theoretical Basis for Data Communication (cont.)
Bandwidth limited signal
➢ Having less bandwidth (harmonics) degrades the signal.

Lost!

2 harmonics
Lost!

4 harmonics
Lost!

8 harmonics
Lost!
Bandwidth
Having less
bandwidth
(harmonics) degrades
the signal
Theoretical Basis for Data Communication (cont.)
Bandwidth limited signal
Let a bit rate is 𝑏 bits/sec.
Time to send 8 bits is 8/𝑏 sec.
The frequency of the first harmonics
is 𝑏/8 Hz.
The voice-grade line, has cut off
frequency just above 3000 Hz. This
restriction means that the number of
the highest harmonic passed through
is roughly 3000/(𝑏/8) or 24000/𝑏,
(the cut-off is not sharp).
 Theoretical Basis for Data Communication (cont.)
Maximum Data Rate of a Channel

➢ Two theorems.
• Nyquist
• Shannon
➢ Nyquist theorem : For noiseless channel
➢ Shannon’s theorem : For noisy channel
Theoretical Basis for Data Communication (cont.)
Maximum Data Rate of a Channel
Nyquist theorem
• If an arbitrary signal passes through a low-pass filter of bandwidth H, the
filtered signal can be completely reconstructed by making only 2H (exact)
samples per second.
• Relates the data rate to the bandwidth (H) and number of signal levels (V)
on a noiseless channel.
Max. data rate = 2H log2V bits/sec
• Ex : A noiseless 3-kHz channel cannot transmit binary (i.e., two-level)
signals at a rate exceeding 6000 bps.

𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 2 × 3000 × 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 2 = 6000 × 1 = 6000bps

Theoretical Basis for Data Communication (cont.)
Maximum Data Rate of a Channel
Shannon’s theorem
• Assumes the presence of thermal noise in the channel due to movement of
molecules always.
• The strength of the signal is expressed in the form of 10 log10 (signal
power/noise power)(i.e. in dB)
• Relates the data rate to the bandwidth (H) and signal strength (S) relative to the
noise (N).
Max. data rate = H log2(1 + S/N) bits/sec

• A channel of 3000-Hz bandwidth with a signal to thermal noise ratio (S/N) of 30

dB can never transmit much more than 30,000 bps.
10log10 𝑆/𝑁 = 30 → log10 𝑆/𝑁 = 3 → 𝑆/𝑁 = 103 → 1000
𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
= 3000 × log 2 1 + 1000 = 3000 × log 2 1001 = 3000 × 9.967 < 30000
Example
We have a channel with a 1 MHz bandwidth. The SNR for
this channel is 63; what is the appropriate bit rate and
signal level?

Solution

First, we use the Shannon formula to find our upper

limit. Max. data rate = H log2(1 + S/N) bits/sec
C = H log2 (1 + S/N) = 106 log2 (1 + 63) = 106 log2 (64) = 6 Mbps

Then we use the Nyquist formula to find the

number of signal levels. Max. data rate = 2H log2V bits/sec
6 Mbps = 2  1 MHz  log2 V ➔ L = 8
 Theoretical Basis for Data Communication (cont.)
Maximum Data Rate of a Channel
Q1. A noiseless 8-kHz channel is sampled every 1 sec. What is the maximum data rate if the 2 level
digital signal are used?
Answer :
Number of samples/sec = 2 X 8KHz = 16,000 samples/sec
Assuming each sample is represented by 2 bits, the data rate = 16,000 X 2 = 32 Kbps

Q2. Television channels are 6 MHz wide. How many bits/sec can be sent if four-level digital
signals are used? Assume a noiseless channel.
Answer :

Max. data rate = 2H log2V bits/sec

Given H = 6 MHz, V = 4
Data rate = 2 X 6 X 106 X (log24) = 24 Mbps
 Theoretical Basis for Data Communication (cont.)
Maximum Data Rate of a Channel

Q3. If a binary signal is sent over a 3-kHz channel whose signal-to-noise ratio is 20 dB, what is the
maximum achievable data rate?

Answer :
Max. data rate = H log2(1 + S/N) bits/sec

Given S/N = 20 dB = 100, H = 3 KHz

Data rate = 3 X 103 X (log2 101) = 19.975 Kbps

However according to Nyquist theorem with this data rate the signal can’t be reconstructed at the
receiving end.

So, the maximum data rate = 2 X 3 KHz = 6 Kbps (assuming 1 bit/sample)

 Guided transmission media

• Magnetic media

• Twisted pairs

• Coaxial cable

• Fiber optics
 Guided transmission media (cont.)
Magnetic media

➢ Exactly not satisfying the criteria of a computer network.

➢ Can be used when the transmission rate is slow and a higher amount of data is to
be transferred in a stipulated time.
➢ Uses magnetic tape or removable media.
➢ Physically transported to the destination machine.

Example :
For a bank with many gigabytes of data to be backed up daily on a second machine (so the bank
can continue to function even in the face of a major flood or earthquake), it is likely that no other
transmission technology can even begin to approach magnetic tape for performance.
 Guided transmission media (cont.)
Twisted Pair
➢ One of the oldest and still most common transmission media.
➢ Consists of two insulated copper wires(typically about 1 mm thick) twisted together in a
helical form, just like a DNA molecule.
➢ Effectively less radiation from each wire.
(Two wires in parallel can act as antenna, when twisted waves from different twists cancel out)
➢ Low cost.
➢ Adequate performance.
➢ Most common application of the twisted pair is the telephone system.
➢ Can run several kilometres without amplification, but for longer distances, repeaters are
needed.
➢ More than one twisted pairs can run in parallel for a substantial distance being bundled
together and encased in a protective sheath.
➢ Can be used for transmitting either analog or digital signals.
➢ Bandwidth depends on the thickness of the wire and the distance travelled.
(several megabits/sec can be achieved for a few kilometres)
 Guided transmission media (cont.)
Types :
Twisted Pair
➢UTP (unshielded twisted pair)
•Category 3 :
o Two insulated wires gently twisted together and four such pairs grouped in a
plastic sheath
o 16 MHz
•Category 5 :
o Similar to category 3, but more twists per centimeter.
o Less crosstalk.
o Better-quality signal over longer distances
o More suitable for high-speed computer communication.
(a) Category 3 UTP. (b) Category 5 UTP.
o 100 MHz.
➢STP (shielded twisted pair) : Not popularly used, bulky than UTP

Category 5 UTP cable with four twisted pairs

 Guided transmission media (cont.)
Co-axial Cable

➢ Better shielding than twisted pairs.

➢ Span longer distances at higher speeds.
➢ Two kinds :
• 50 ohm : Intended for digital transmission.
• 75 ohm : Mostly analog (Initially for cable TV and now also for internet).
➢ High bandwidth (close to 1 GHz).
➢ Excellent noise immunity.
 Guided transmission media (cont.)
Coaxial Cable
Construction :
➢ Two conductors : Inner and outer
➢ Inner conductor : Consists of a stiff copper wire as the core, surrounded by an insulating
material.
➢ The insulator is encased by a cylindrical conductor (outer conductor), often as a closely-woven
braided mesh.
➢ The outer conductor is covered in a protective plastic sheath.

Cutaway view of a coaxial cable

 Guided transmission media (cont.)
Fiber Optics
➢ Widely accepted high speed data communication technology.
➢ Most common is 1Gbps (but also possible up to 10 Gbps).
➢ Common for high rates and long distances.
➢ Popular in the term FTTH (fiber to the home) for internet access.
Optical transmission system:
Three key components :
(1) Light source : Generates a pulse of light (bit ‘1’) and absence of light (bit ‘0’).
(2) Transmission medium : Ultra-thin fiber of glass.
(3) Photo detector : Generates an electrical pulse when light falls on it.

By attaching a light source to one end of an optical fiber and a

detector to the other, we have a unidirectional data
transmission system that accepts an electrical signal, converts
and transmits it by light pulses, and then reconverts the output Light source Fiber Photodetector
to an electrical signal at the receiving end. (LED, laser)
 Guided transmission media (cont.)
Fiber Optics
Physics behind transmission of light :
➢ Aim : To avoid loss of light in transmission medium.
➢ When a light ray passes from one medium to another (e.g. fused silica to air), the ray is refracted
(bent) at the silica/air boundary.
➢ For angles of incidence above a certain critical value, the light is reflected back into the silica; none
of it escapes into the air.
➢ Thus, a light ray incident at or above the critical angle is trapped inside the fiber, and can propagate
for many kilometers with virtually no loss.

(a) Three examples of a light ray from inside a silica fiber impinging on the air/silica boundary at different angles.
(b) Light trapped by total internal reflection.
 Guided transmission media (cont.)
Fiber Optics
Multi mode Vs Single mode:
➢ Multiple light ray can incident at different angles (but above critical angle), to transmit from one
end of the transmission medium to other through reflection.
➢ Fiber used with this property is called a multimode fiber.

➢ If the fiber's diameter is reduced to a few wavelengths of light, the light can propagate only in a
straight line, without bouncing.
➢ Fiber used with this property is called a singlemode fiber.
➢ Single-mode fibers are more expensive but are widely used for longer distances.
 Guided transmission media (cont.)
Fiber Optics
Fiber Cables:
Core : Thin glass fiber at the center through which the light propagates that carries the information.
• 50 microns in diameter for multimode.
• 8 to 10 microns in diameter for singlemode.
Cladding : The core is surrounded by a glass cladding with a lower index of refraction than the core, to
keep all the light in the core.
Jacket : Thin plastic jacket to protect the cladding.
Sheath : Fibers are typically grouped in bundles, protected by an outer sheath.

(a) Side view of a single fiber. (b) End view of a sheath with three fibers.
Optical fiber
 Guided transmission media (cont.)
Fiber Optics
Connection between fibers:
Three different ways.
▪ They can terminate in connectors and be plugged into fiber sockets.
▪ Mechanical splices just lay the two carefully-cut ends next to each other in a special sleeve and
clamp them in place.
▪ Two pieces of fiber can be fused (melted) to form a solid connection.

For all three kinds of splices, reflections can occur at the point of the splice (i.e. attenuation/loss).
 Guided transmission media (cont.)
Fiber Optics
Light source and comparison:
1. Light emitting diode (LED).
2. Semiconductor LASER.

A comparison of semiconductor laser and LEDs as light sources

 Guided transmission media (cont.)
Fiber Optics
Fiber Optic Networks:
➢ Used for LANs as well as for long-haul transmission, although tapping into it is more
complex than connecting to an Ethernet.
➢ Two types of interface :
• Passive : At the transmitting and receiving end.
• Active : In between two fiber cable for increasing the strength of the signal (if falls down)

A fiber optic ring with active repeaters

 Guided transmission media (cont.)
Fiber Optics Vs Copper Wire: A comparison

Property Wires Fiber

Distance Short (100s of m) Long (tens of km)
Bandwidth Moderate Very High
Cost Inexpensive Less cheap
Convenience Easy to use Less easy
Security Easy to tap Hard to tap
 Wireless Transmission
➢ Fulfils the need of mobile users to get connected with network for accessing
data in their laptops, notebooks etc.
➢ Use radio waves or infrared light to transmit data.

• The Electromagnetic Spectrum

• Radio Transmission

• Microwave Transmission

• Infrared and Millimeter Waves

• Light wave Transmission

 Wireless Transmission(cont.)
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
➢ When electrons move, they create electromagnetic waves that can propagate through
space (even in a vacuum).
➢ Electromagnetic waves are characterized with two variables:
1. Frequency (f )
2. Wavelength (λ)
➢ In vacuum, all electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed (speed of light (c), no
matter what their frequency.
➢ The fundamental relation between f, λ, and c (in vacuum) is
𝑐 = 𝑓𝜆
➢ When an antenna of the appropriate size is attached to an electrical circuit, the
electromagnetic waves can be broadcast efficiently and received by a receiver some
distance away.(Basic principle behind wireless communication)
 Wireless Transmission(cont.)
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Different bands have different uses:
• Radio: wide-area broadcast; Infrared/Light: line-of-sight
• Microwave: LANs and 3G/4G; Networking focus

• The radio, microwave, infrared, and

visible light portions of the Microwave
spectrum can be used for
transmitting information through
modulation.

• UV light, X-rays, and gamma rays

would be even better, due to their
higher frequencies.
• They are hard to produce and
modulate, do not propagate well
through buildings, and are
dangerous to living things.
 Wireless Transmission(cont.)
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
➢ The amount of information that an electromagnetic wave can carry is related to its
bandwidth.
➢ At low frequencies it is possible to encode a few bits per Hertz.
➢ At high frequencies it is possible to encode as many as 8 bits per Hertz.
(e.g. a coaxial cable with a 750 MHz bandwidth can carry several gigabits/sec.)
➢ Bandwidth depends on width of the wavelength of the EM wave.
𝑐 ∆𝜆
∆𝑓 =
𝜆2
➢ wider the band, the higher the data rate.
(e.g. a 1.3 micron band with ∆𝜆 = 0.17 x 10-6 supports 30 THz bandwidth or data rate of 240 Tbps)
 Wireless Transmission(cont.)
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Types of transmissions with respect to bandwidth :
➢ Narrowband transmission
• Efficient use of spectrum
• Good quality transmission
➢ Wideband transmission
• FHSS (Frequency hopping spread spectrum)
▪ The transmitter hops from frequency to frequency hundreds of
times per second.
▪ Popular in military communications.
▪ Makes transmissions hard to detect.
▪ Impossible to jam.
▪ Offers good resistance to multipath fading (avoids interference).
• DSSS (Direct sequence spread spectrum)
▪ Uses a code sequence to spread the signal over a wide
frequency band (e.g. CDMA).
▪ Spectrally efficient for multiple signal transmission sharing same
channel.
 Wireless Transmission(cont.)
Radio Transmission

➢ Data transmits in the form of radio signals(or waves).

➢ Air/free space - medium of transmission
➢ RF waves are:
• Easy to generate
• Can travel a long distance
• Penetrate buildings easily
• Mostly omnidirectional (so, transmitter and receiver do not have to be carefully aligned physically)
 Wireless Transmission(cont.)
Radio Transmission
Transmission property is frequency dependent.
▪ At low frequencies, radio waves pass through obstacles well, but the power falls off sharply
with distance from the source, roughly as 1/r2 in air.
▪ At high frequencies, radio waves tend to travel in straight lines and bounce off obstacles.

(a) In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio waves follow the curvature of the earth.
(b) In the HF band, they bounce off the ionosphere.
 Wireless Transmission(cont.)
Microwave Transmission

• The signals (or waves)above 100 MHz that travels in nearly straight line.
• Mostly uses parabolic antenna to achieve higher S/N ratio.
• Requires carefully alignment between transmission and Reception antennas.
• Before fiber optics, for decades these microwaves formed the heart of the long-
distance telephone transmission system.
• Since the microwaves travel in a straight line, if the towers are too far apart, the earth
will get in the way and thus requires repeater in between.
• Suffers from low penetration capability through buildings.
• Possibility of multipath fading due to reflected wave(delayed version of transmitted
wave).
 Wireless Transmission(cont.)
Infrared and Millimetre Waves

➢ Widely used for short-range communication(e.g. The remote controls used on

televisions, VCRs, and stereos all use infrared communication.)
➢ Relatively directional, cheap and easy to build.
➢ Major drawback: they do not pass through solid objects, but can be treated as
advantage ( e.g. infrared transmission in one room never interferes to infrared
transmission in other room.)
➢ No government license is needed to operate an infrared system.
➢ Mostly for indoor use.
 Wireless vs. Wires/Fiber

Wireless:
+ Easy and inexpensive to deploy
+ Naturally supports mobility
+ Naturally supports broadcast
− Transmissions interfere and must be managed
− Signal strengths hence data rates vary greatly

Wires/Fiber:
+ Easy to engineer a fixed data rate over point-to-point links
− Can be expensive to deploy, esp. over distances
− Doesn’t readily support mobility or broadcast
 Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)
When the distances between computers are large or there are many computers to
communicate with each other, the cables may have to pass through a public road or other
public right of way.
Issues :
▪ Costs of running private cables are usually prohibitive.
▪ Stringing private transmission lines across (or underneath) public property is also illegal.
Solution to the issues :
▪ Rely on the existing telecommunication facilities (i.e. PSTN).
PSTN :
➢ Initially designed to provide voice communication service.
➢ Acceptable for data communication with lower magnitude of performance.
(e.g. A cable running between two computers can transfer data at 109 bps, In contrast, a dial-up
line has a maximum data rate of 56 kbps)
➢ Trade off between speed and data communication services.
Note : In the due course of time with the use of advanced technology the performance w.r.t data communication
through dial up service has also been enhanced.
 Public Switched Telephone Network (cont.)
Structure of the Telephone System

➢ Soon after the commercialization of telephone instrument (in 1876), there was a high
demand of interconnection between a pair of telephones in different houses in cities.
➢ Within a year, the cities were covered with wires (for making connections between a
pair of phones) passing over houses and trees in a wild jumble.

Fully-interconnected network.
➢ It became immediately obvious that the model of connecting every telephone to
every other telephone, as shown in above figure, was not going to work.
 Public Switched Telephone Network (cont.)
Structure of the Telephone System

➢ Formation of Bell Telephone Company, which opened its first switching office in 1878.
➢ The company ran a wire to each customer's house or office.
➢ Establishment of call between two customers takes place through the switching office.
(i.e. an operator makes the connection between caller and callee manually using a jumper wire.)

Centralized switch.

➢ A requirement of switching office in every city.

 Public Switched Telephone Network (cont.)
Structure of the Telephone System
➢ People wanted to make long distance calls between cities, so the Bell system began to
connect the switching offices.
➢ To connect every switching office to every other switching office by means of a wire
between them quickly became unmanageable as happened in the beginning for
connecting two telephones.
➢ Second-level switching offices were installed, and grew in number to fulfil the need.
➢ The system takes a look of hierarchical structure of offices.

Two-level hierarchy.
 Public Switched Telephone Network (cont.)
Structure of the Telephone System
Three major parts of the telephone system to provide connection between two customers.
▪ The switching offices.
▪ The wires between the customers and the switching offices.
▪ The long-distance connections between the switching offices.
This basic Bell System model has remained essentially intact for over 100 years.

Concept of Local loop :

➢ Each telephone has two copper wires coming out of it that go directly to the telephone
company's nearest end office situated at a distance between 1 to 10 km.
➢ The two-wire connections between each subscriber's telephone and the end office are
known in the trade as the local loop.
 Public Switched Telephone Network (cont.)
Structure of the Telephone System
Communication process through telephone system:
Case 1 : Both subscribers attached to same end office.
➢ The switching mechanism within the office sets up a direct electrical connection between the two
local loops.
Case 2 : Both subscribers attached to two different end office.
➢ Each end office has a number of outgoing lines(known as trunks) to one or more nearby
switching centers, called toll offices.
➢ If both end offices are connected to same toll office, connection is limited within same toll office.

Toll office End office

End office
 Public Switched Telephone Network (cont.)
Structure of the Telephone System

Case 3 : The caller and callee do not have a toll office in common.
➢ Communication established with the help of higher level in hierarchy (i.e. high bandwidth
Inter toll trunks)

A typical circuit route for a medium-distance call.

Transmission media :
➢ Local loops consist of category 3 twisted pairs nowadays (early days, uninsulated wires
spaced 25 cm apart on telephone poles).
➢ Between switching offices, coaxial cables, microwaves, and especially fiber optics are
widely used.
 Public Switched Telephone Network (cont.)
Structure of the Telephone System

Components in technical term in telephone system and their importance:

Three major components.
1. Local loops (analog twisted pairs going into houses and businesses).
• Gives access to everyone into the whole system, so important.
2. Trunks (digital fiber optics connecting the switching offices).
• For long haul trunks transmission of multiple calls together through single fiber(i.e. multiplexing) is
an important issue.
3. Switching offices (where calls are moved from one trunk to another).
• Switching can be done in different ways, so important.
 The Local Loop: Modems, ADSL and Wireless

The computer to computer communication through telephone system involves both analog
and digital transmission.

Local loop : Analog

End office – Toll office : Digital
Toll office – Toll office : Digital

Conversion between analog and

digital done by modems and
codecs.

The use of both analog and digital transmission for a computer to computer call.
 The Local Loop: Modems, ADSL and Wireless(cont.)
➢ Though the computer works with digital data comprising of less error, due to the
imperfectness of transmission line the received signal in a telephone system may not be
equal to the transmitted signal.
➢ Transmission lines suffer from three major problems: attenuation, delay distortion, and
noise.
Attenuation:
• Loss of energy due to transmission over a distance (i.e. distance dependent).
• Loss of energy due to transmission of multiple frequency component in a signal (i.e. frequency dependent).
• Usually recovered by the use of amplifiers and equalizers.
Delay distortion:
• Caused due to transmission of multiple frequency component at different speeds.
Noise:
• Unwanted energy from sources other than transmitter (e.g. thermal noise, cross talk and impulse noise).
• Thermal noise : Caused by the random motion of the electrons in a wire and is unavoidable.
• Crosstalk : Caused by inductive coupling between two wires that are closed to each other.
• Impulse noise : Caused by spikes in the power line.
 The Local Loop: Modems, ADSL and Wireless(cont.)
Modems
➢ Short form for Modulator-Demodulator.
➢ Modulation in transmitting end and demodulation in receiving end.

Why modulation ?
▪ Square waves used in digital signals have a wide frequency spectrum and thus are subject to
strong attenuation and delay distortion.
▪ Baseband (DC) signalling found unsuitable except at slow speeds and over short distances.
▪ Solution : AC signalling (e.g. use of sine wave of 1-2 KHz to carry digital signal).
▪ Carrier signal changes its characteristics (i.e. amplitude, frequency or phase) according to
baseband signal – Modulation.
 The Local Loop: Modems, ADSL and Wireless(cont.)
Modems
Amplitude Modulation : ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying )
• Change in amplitude of carrier based on amplitude of
baseband.
• For Binary signal two different amplitudes are used.
Frequency Modulation : FSK (Frequency Shift keying)
• Change in frequency of the carrier based on
amplitude of baseband.
• For binary signal two different frequencies are used.
Phase Modulation : PSK (Phase shift Keying)
• Phase of the carrier changes based on amplitude of
baseband signal.
• For binary signal two (00 and 1800)/four phase angles
(450, 1350, 2250, or 3150) are used depending on no.
of bits transmitted per time interval.
• Ex : BPSK, QPSK (a) A binary signal. (b) Amplitude modulation.
(c) Frequency modulation. (d) Phase modulation.
 The Local Loop: Modems, ADSL and Wireless(cont.)
Modems
Concept of Bandwidth, Baud rate, Symbol rate, bit rate :
The data transmission rate in the channel can be associated with various terminologies such as
bandwidth, baud rate, symbol rate and bit rate.
Bandwidth : Property of transmission medium which represents the range of frequencies that pass
through it with minimum attenuation (measured in Hz).
Baud rate : The number of samples/sec made to be transmitted.
Symbol rate : The amount of information sample(i.e. symbol) transmitted per second.
(If each sample denotes one piece of information is a symbol, then baud rate is same as symbol rate)
Bit rate : Amount of information sent over the channel and is equal to the number of symbols/sec times
the number of bits/symbol.
(Note : The modulation technique decides the no. of bits to be used to represent a symbol(e.g. in QPSK each symbol is
represented by 2 bits))
Example :
If the baud rate is 2400 and each symbol is represented by 1 bit (‘0’ or ‘1’), then bit rate is 2400 bps.
If the baud rate is 2400 and each symbol is represented by 2 bits, then bit rate is 4800 bps.
 The Local Loop: Modems, ADSL and Wireless(cont.)
Modems
➢ All advanced modems use a combination of modulation techniques to transmit multiple
bits per baud.
➢ Often multiple amplitudes and multiple phase shifts are combined to transmit several
bits/symbol.
QPSK (Quadrature PSK):
4 combinations, 2 bits/symbol.
QAM 16 :
16 combinations, 4 bits/symbol.
QAM 64 :
64 combinations, 6 bits/symbol.

➢ This kind of representation is

known as Constellation diagram.
➢ Modems used at both ends must
(a) QPSK. (b) QAM-16. (c) QAM-64.
support same constellation
pattern.
 The Local Loop: Modems, ADSL and Wireless(cont.)
Modems
Questions on data rate and modulation:

Question.
A modem constellation diagram has data points at the following coordinates: (1, 1), (1, -1), (-1, 1), and (-
1, -1). How many bps can a modem with these parameters achieve at 1200 baud?

Answer :
4 combinations – 2 bits/symbol
Baud rate = Symbol rate = 1200
Bit rate = 1200 X 2 = 2400 bps
 The Local Loop: Modems, ADSL and Wireless(cont.)
Modems
Questions on data rate and modulation:

Question 1.
A modem constellation diagram has data points at the following coordinates: (0, 1) and (0, 2).
Does the modem use phase modulation or amplitude modulation?
Solution :
The two points indicates a phase shift of 00 with two different amplitudes. So the modulation used is
only amplitude modulation.

Question 2.
In a constellation diagram, all the points lie on a circle cantered on the origin. What kind of modulation
is being used?
Solution :
All the points lie on the circle, which means all points are at equal distant from origin. However, the
angle of each point with respect to +ve X axis drawn from origin are different, that means the points
differs in phase. Since frequency modulation is not used in constellation diagram, the kind of
modulation specified here is phase modulation.
 The Local Loop: Modems, ADSL and Wireless(cont.)
Modems
Modulation supporting to error correction :
➢ Even a small amount of noise in the detected amplitude or phase can result in an error.
➢ Higher speeds modems do error correction by adding extra bits to each sample.
➢ Modulation process allows the data bits along with correction (say parity)bits : Ex- Trellis Coded
Modulation
Modems using this type modulation :
V.32
• 32 constellation points
• 4 data bits and 1 parity bit per symbol
V.32 bis
• 128 constellation points
• 6 data bits and 1 parity bit per symbol
(a) (b)
(a) V.32 for 9600 bps.
(b) V.32 bis for 14,400 bps.
 The Local Loop: Modems, ADSL and Wireless(cont.)
Modems
Some faster modems :
• V.90 offers 56kbps download and 33.6 kbps upload speeds.
• In uploading, the analog signal must be sampled at the switching stations which means the
data rate for uploading is limited to 33.6 as earlier. But, there is no sampling in the
downloading, hence no noise , hence no Shannon’s limit (theoretically at least).
• Beyond V.90 is V.92 in which the upload speed can be at 48kbps.
 The Local Loop: Modems, ADSL and Wireless(cont.)
Modems

All modern modems allow traffic in both directions at the same time (by using
different frequencies for different directions).

Full duplex : A connection that allows traffic in both directions simultaneously.

Ex : A two lane road
Half duplex : A connection that allows traffic either way, but only one way at a time.
Ex : A single railroad
Simplex : A connection that allows traffic only one way.
Ex : (1) A one-way street
(2) An optical fiber with a laser on one end and a light detector on the other end
 The Local Loop: Modems, ADSL and Wireless(cont.)
Modems
Questions :
Q1. Is an oil pipeline a simplex system, a half-duplex system, a full-duplex system, or none of these?

Ans : Oil can flow in either direction, but not both ways at once. So, half-duplex.

Q2. How many frequencies does a full-duplex QAM-64 modem use?

Ans : Two, one for upstream and one for downstream.

 The Local Loop: Modems, ADSL and Wireless(cont.)
Digital Subscriber Lines (DSL)
➢ Demand for increased internet access speed among users.
➢ Cable TV industry supports a speed up to 10 Mbps.
➢ To compete with telephone industries offered digital services over local loop (i.e. DSL).
➢ Supports more bandwidth than standard telephone services (i.e. broadband)
➢ Most popular is ADSL (Asymmetric DSL).
Technical justification of having more bandwidth :
Telephone systems used for voice
▪ The point where each local loop terminates in the end office, signal passes through a filter that attenuates all
frequencies below 300 Hz and above 3400 Hz (i.e. bandwidth of 3100 Hz).
Telephone systems using DSL
▪ The incoming line coming through DSL is connected to a different switch, where the above said filter is absent,
thus making the entire capacity of the local loop available.
 The Local Loop: Modems, ADSL and Wireless(cont.)
Digital Subscriber Lines (DSL)
The capacity of the local loop depends on several factors, including its length, thickness, and
general quality.

DSL service is designed keeping 4 goals in mind.

• Services must work over the existing
category 3 twisted pair local loops.
• They must not affect customers' existing
telephones and fax machines.
• They must be much faster than 56 kbps.
• They should be always on, with just a
monthly charge but no per-minute
charge.

Bandwidth versus distance over category 3 UTP for DSL

 The Local Loop: Modems, ADSL and Wireless(cont.)
Digital Subscriber Lines (DSL)
Working of ADSL:
➢ Uses a spectrum of 1.1 MHz.
➢ Works through division of the allocated spectrum either of two ways.
1. Divides the spectrum into three bands :
(i) POTS (Plain Old Telephone Service)
(ii) upstream (user to end office)
(iii) downstream (end office to user)
2. Divides the spectrum into 256 channels each of size roughly 4312.5 Hz (Discrete Multi Tone).
• Channel 0 : POTS
• Channels 1-5 ; guard band between voice and data
• Two for control channels, one for downstream and one for upstream
• Remaining are partitioned between upstream and downstream for data : depends on the service provider; usually it is
asymmetric giving 80-90% for download and remaining for upstream – hence the word Asymmetric
The Local Loop: Modems, ADSL and Wireless(cont.)
Digital Subscriber Lines (DSL)

Operation of ADSL using discrete multi tone modulation.

 The Local Loop: Modems, ADSL and Wireless(cont.)
Digital Subscriber Lines (DSL)

➢ Within each channel, modulation scheme similar to V.34 is used

➢ QAM with 15 bits per baud
➢ 4000 baud instead of 2400
➢ Depending on need and line quality the data rate is different for different channel.
➢ With 224 downstream channels, download speed 13.44 Mbps is theoretically possible
➢ In practice, S/N ratio is never good enough to achieve this rate, but 8 Mbps is possible
on short runs over high quality local loops
 The Local Loop: Modems, ADSL and Wireless(cont.)
Digital Subscriber Lines (DSL)
Installation requirement of ADSL
Customer premises :
• NID (Network Interface Device)
• Splitter
• ADSL modem
End office :
• Splitter
• DSLAM
(Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer)

A typical ADSL equipment configuration

 The Local Loop: Modems, ADSL and Wireless(cont.)
Digital Subscriber Lines (DSL)
Question :
An ADSL system using DMT allocates 3/4 of the available data channels to the downstream link. It
uses QAM-64 modulation on each channel. What is the capacity of the downstream link?
Answer :
There are 256 channels in all, minus 6 for POTS and 2 for control, leaving 248 for data.
3/4 of 248 = 186 channels for downstream.
ADSL modulation uses 4000 baud rate.
With QAM-64 (i.e. 6 bits/baud) modulation the bit rate is 24,000 bps in each of the 186 channels. The
capacity of downstream is
24,000 X 186 = 4.464 Mbps
 The Local Loop: Modems, ADSL and Wireless(cont.)
Wireless Local Loop
➢ Started with an interest from private local companies to compete with existing monopolist
telephone company.
➢ Objective : to provide better service at low price than existing monopolist telephone company.
➢ Uses a cheaper alternative to the traditional twisted pair local loop : WLL (Wireless Local Loop)
➢ A fixed telephone using a wireless local loop is a bit like a mobile phone, but there are three
crucial technical differences.
• High-speed Internet connectivity
• Installation of a large directional antenna on customer roof pointed at the Company's end office
• The user does not move, eliminating all the problems with mobility and cell handoff
➢ Popular in the term fixed wireless
➢ Used in two types of services
• MMDS (Multichannel Multipoint Distribution Service)
• LMDS (Local Multipoint Distribution Service)
 The Local Loop: Modems, ADSL and Wireless(cont.)
Wireless Local Loop
MMDS(Multichannel Multipoint Distribution Service)
▪ Uses microwaves in 198 MHz band at 2.1 GHz frequency range
▪ Range of about 50km
▪ Advantage : Technology is well established and equipment readily available
▪ Disadvantage : Bandwidth available is not much and must be shared by several users

LMDS(Local Multipoint Distribution Service)

▪ Uses millimeter waves as an alternative to low bandwidth of MMDS (Operative after arrival of gallium
arsenide ICs because silicon ICs were difficult to operate)
▪ Range of frequencies : 28-31 GHz in U.S & 40 GHz in Europe
▪ Covers 2-5 km range (Thus requires many towers to cover a city)
▪ Uses multiple directional antennas to cover different sectors in geographical area
▪ Uses asymmetric bandwidth like ADSL(say 36 Gbps for downstream and 1 Mbps for upstream)
 The Local Loop: Modems, ADSL and Wireless(cont.)
Wireless Local Loop
Problems with MM waves in LMDS:
• Highly directional : hence there
must be a clear line of sight
between the roof top antennas
and the tower.
• Leaves absorb these waves well, so
From a study :
the tower must be high enough to
A single tower with four
avoid having trees in the line of antennas could serve 100,000
sight. people within a 5-km radius of
the tower.
• A clear line of sight in December
may not be clear in July when the
trees are full of leaves.
• Rain also absorbs these waves.

LMDS works with IEEE 802.16 standard. Architecture of an LMDS system

 Trunks and Multiplexing
➢ Keeping in view of economy, telephone companies have developed elaborate schemes for
multiplexing many conversations over a single physical trunk.
➢ Two basic categories :
▪ FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing) :The frequency spectrum is divided into frequency
bands, with each user having exclusive possession of some band.
(In fiber optics in the form of WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing)
▪ TDM (Time Division Multiplexing) : The users take turns (in a round-robin fashion), each one
periodically getting the entire bandwidth for a little burst of time.
Example :
• AM radio broadcasting : Allocated spectrum is about 1MHz, roughly 500 to 1500 kHz.
• Different frequencies are allocated to different broadcasting stations.
(i.e. FDM )
• Individual stations can have music and advertising transmission alternate in time on the same
frequency.
(i.e. TDM)
 Trunks and Multiplexing (cont.)
Frequency Division Multiplexing
Steps in FDM :
➢ First, the voice channels are raised in
frequency, each by a different amount
in the allocated spectrum.
➢ Second, they can be combined because
no two channels now occupy the same
portion of the spectrum.

Standard form of FDM :

➢ Group : Twelve 4000Hz voice channels
Overall FDM channel
multiplexed into a 48 KHz band (e.g. 12
(a) The original bandwidths. (b) The bandwidths raised in
– 60 KHz band & 60 – 108 KHz band). frequency. (c) The multiplexed channel.
➢ Supergroup : Combination of 5 groups.
➢ Mastergroup : Combination of 5/10
supergroups.
 Trunks and Multiplexing (cont.)
Frequency Division Multiplexing
Question :
Ten signals, each requiring 4000 Hz, are multiplexed on to a single channel using FDM. How much
minimum bandwidth is required for the multiplexed channel? Assume that the guard bands are
400 Hz wide.
Answer :

There are ten 4000 Hz signals to multiplexed.

Spectrum width = 10 X 4000 = 40,000 Hz
Each guard band = 400 Hz
No. of guard bands required to avoid interference in between 10 signals = 9
Spectrum used for guard band = 9 X 400 = 3600 Hz
Minimum bandwidth required for the multiplexed channel = 40,000 + 3,600 = 43,600 Hz
 Trunks and Multiplexing (cont.)
Wavelength Division Multiplexing
➢ Used in fiber optic channel.
➢ Signals with different wavelength coming
through different fibers combined through
optical combiner (here 4).
➢ Transmitted through a shared fiber over
long distance.
➢ At the far end, the beam is split up over as
many fibers as there were on the input
side using specially-constructed core that
filters out all but one wavelength.
➢ Just like FDM at high frequencies.
Wavelength division multiplexing
➢ Requires diffraction grating.
 Trunks and Multiplexing (cont.)
Wavelength Division Multiplexing
Growth of WDM :
▪ 1990: 8 wavelengths X 2.5 Gbps → 20Gbps

▪ 1998: 40 X 2.5 Gbps → 100Gbps

▪ 2001: 96 X 10 Gbps → 960Gbps : enough to transmit 30 full-length movies per second.

▪ As more and more wavelengths are being discovered in a single fiber, WDM is getting denser
and now the name DWDM (dense WDM) is being used.
 Trunks and Multiplexing (cont.)
Time Division Multiplexing

• WDM : applicable only on optical fiber and not on copper, but a lot of copper is there and
also analog.

• FDM : used on copper and microwave but requires analog circuitry and may not be
suitable for computer.

• Solution : TDM : unfortunately, can be used only for digital data.

❖Requires A/D conversion at the end office (since local loops uses analog signaling) before
being multiplexed and transmitted in the trunk.

❖Uses Codecs
 Trunks and Multiplexing (cont.)
Time Division Multiplexing
CODEC : PCM (Pulse Code Modulation) :
➢ Uses 8000 samples/sec or one sample/125 μsec.
(Satisfies Nyquist criteria as telephone channel bandwidth is 4000 Hz)
➢ All the time intervals (a pulse) within the telephone system are multiples of 125 μsec.
➢ Technique is known as PCM.
➢ Each sample is represented in the form of a 8-bit number.

Different schemes incorporating PCM were used for implementing TDM.

Example : T1 carrier
 Trunks and Multiplexing (cont.)
Time Division Multiplexing
T1 Carrier :
• Used for multiplexing 24 voice channels from
local loops.
• Analog signals from these 24 channels are
sampled on a round-robin basis with the
resulting analog stream being fed to the codec
rather than having 24 separate codecs.
• Each of these 24 channel insert 8 bits (7 data + 1
control) for each sample.
• Bits for each channel is (7 X 8000) = 56,000 bps
of data and (1 X 8000) = 8000 bps of signaling
information. The T1 carrier (1.544 Mbps).
• Bits at codec w.r.t each sample from 24 channels
is 24 X 8 = 192 bits along with one extra bit for
synchronization (i.e. 193 bits).
• Data rate/sec is 1.544 Mbps
 Trunks and Multiplexing (cont.)
Time Division Multiplexing
➢ The TDM using the PCM technique has been standardized with 1.544 Mbps with some
variations in T1.
• 8000 bps of signalling information is too much so no. of bits used to represent a data is 8 bit
(instead of 7 bit).
• Implemented with two possible approaches.
1. Common channel signalling :
The extra bit (which is attached onto the rear rather than the front of the 193-bit frame) takes
on the data values in the odd frames and contains signaling information for all the channels in
the even frames.
2. Channel-associated signaling :
▪ Each channel has its own private signaling subchannel
▪ Subchannel allocation : one of the eight user bits in every sixth frame is used for signaling (i.e.
five out of six samples are 8 bits wide, and the other one is only 7 bits wide)
 Trunks and Multiplexing (cont.)
Time Division Multiplexing
E1 Carrier :
➢ Another standard carrier besides T1 carrier used in TDM with PCM technique.
➢ 8000 samples/sec
➢ Accepts 32 channels with 8-bit data samples:
• 30 channels for data + 2 channels for signaling
➢ Each group of four frames provides 64 bits of signaling :
• Half for channel associated signaling + half for frame sync
➢ Capacity : 32 X 8 X 8000 = 2.04 Mbps
 Trunks and Multiplexing (cont.)
Time Division Multiplexing
Differential Pulse Code Modulation and Delta Modulation :
➢ Objective : Reduction in no. of bits needed per channel without loosing information.
➢ Principle: Signal changes relatively slowly compared to the sampling frequency, so that much of the
information in the 7- or 8-bit digital level is redundant.
➢ Appropriate for both speech encoding and digitization of analog signal.
In Differential Pulse Code Modulation :
➢ Instead of digitized amplitude, difference between current value and previous one is digitized
➢ Jumps of magnitude ± 16 and more are rare in 128 levels. So 5 instead of 7 bits are sufficient.
➢ If the signal jumps occasionally widely, the information is lost

In Delta Modulation :
➢ Compare the current sample and previous one with a difference in ± 1.
➢ For difference of +1, transmits 1 & for difference of -1 transmits 0.
➢ If signal changes too fast then information is lost.
Trunks and Multiplexing (cont.)
Time Division Multiplexing

Delta modulation
 Trunks and Multiplexing (cont.)
Time Division Multiplexing
Predictive Encoding :

o Extrapolate the previous few values to predict the next value.

o Encode the difference between actual and the predicted signal
o Transmitter and receiver must have to use same prediction algorithm
 Trunks and Multiplexing (cont.)
Time Division Multiplexing
➢ TDM allows carrier hierarchy.
• Level 1 : Four T1 channels being multiplexed onto one T2 channel.
• Level 2 : Seven T2 streams are combined bitwise to form a T3 stream.
• Level 3 : Six T3 streams are joined to form a T4 stream.
➢ At each step a small amount of overhead is added for framing and recovery in case the synchronization
between sender and receiver is lost.

Multiplexing T1 streams onto higher carriers

 Trunks and Multiplexing (cont.)
Time Division Multiplexing
Q. What signal-to-noise ratio is needed to put a T1 carrier on a 50-kHz line?

Answer :

To send a T1 signal we need H log2(1 + S /N) = 1.544 X 106 with H = 50,000.

This yields S /N = 230 − 1, which is about 93 dB.

 Switching
From PSTN working point of view the structure can be seen as combination of two parts.
➢ Outside the plant (local loops and trunks).
➢ Inside the plant (switching offices).

Two switching technologies used:

➢ Circuit switching
➢ Message switching (mostly obsolete now)
➢ Packet switching
 Switching (cont.)
Circuit Switching
• When a telephone call is placed, the switching equipment within the telephone system seeks out a physical
path all the way from transmitter’s telephone to the receiver's telephone.
• The end office and toll office (here the six rectangles) in the physical path are called as switching offices.
• Each office has more than one (here three) incoming lines and more than one (here three ) outgoing lines.
• When a call passes through a switching office, a
physical connection is established between the line
on which the call came in and one of the output lines,
as shown by the dotted lines.
• In the early days of the telephone, the connection
was made by the operator plugging a jumper cable
into the input and output sockets.
• once a call has been set up, a dedicated path
between both ends exists and will continue to exist
until the call is finished.
Circuit switching.
 Switching (cont.)
Circuit Switching
Process of call progress in circuit switching :
➢ Set up an end-to-end path before any data can be sent (i.e. dialing at transmitting
end and ringing at receiving end).
➢ The elapsed time between the end of dialing and the start of ringing can easily be
10 sec, more on long-distance or international calls.
➢ During the establishment of the direct path from two end users the system will
hunt to find it.
➢ However, once the path is set-up
▪ The only delay for data is the propagation time for the signal to travel to the
destination: 5 msec per 1000 km.
▪ There is no danger of congestion (i.e. once the call has been put through, you
never get busy signals).
▪ The busy signal might be heard before the connection has been established
due to lack of switching or trunk capacity. Timing of events in
circuit switching
 Switching (cont.)
Packet Switching

➢ Alternative to circuit switching.

➢ Individual packets are sent as need be, with no dedicated path being set up in advance.
➢ It is up to each packet to find its way to the destination on its own.
➢ Uses store and forward concept at the routers(i.e. at switching offices).
➢ Limitation in no. of packets through inclusion of fixed size buffer at the routers (i.e. no user can block a
transmission line for longer time).
➢ In case of multi packet message, a packet is forwarded only if has been arrived as entirety before the
arrival of second packet (arrival of packets may not be in order).
➢ Reduced delay and improved throughput in compare to message switching.
 Switching (cont.)
Packet Switching

Packet switching Timing of events in packet switching

 Switching (cont.)
Circuit Vs. Packet Switching

A comparison of circuit-switched and packet-switched networks

 ITER S`O´A

Computer Network
(CSE 3034)

Text book: Computer Networks by Andrew S. Tanenbaum

 ITER S`O´A
Introduction to the course
Syllabus :
➢ Introduction(Chapter 1)
➢ The Physical Layer(Chapter 2)
➢ The Data Link Layer(Chapter 3)
➢ The Medium Access Control Sublayer(Chapter 4)
➢ The Network Layer(Chapter 5)
➢ The Transport layer(Chapter 6)
➢ The Application layer(Chapter 7)
➢ Network security(Chapter 8)
 ITER S`O´A

The Data Link Layer

 ITER S`O´A
The Data Link Layer

▪ Objective : To achieve reliable, efficient communication between two

adjacent machines
▪ Communication circuits make errors during transmission of bits.
o Requires error control
▪ Design issues with data link layer
▪ Protocols
 ITER S`O´A
Data Link Layer Design Issues
Functions of the Data Link Layer :
➢ Provide service interface to the network layer
➢ Dealing with transmission errors
➢ Regulating data flow so that slow receivers not swamped by fast senders

Data Link layer :

➢ Takes the packets from network layer, and encapsulates them into frames for
transmission using physical layer (reverse process in reception).
Data frame :
1. A frame header
2. A payload field for holding the packet
3. A frame trailer

Relationship between packets and frames

 ITER S`O´A
Data Link Layer Design Issues (cont.)
Services Provided to the Network Layer
The job of the data link layer is to transmit the bits obtained from network layer of source
machine to the network layer of the destination machine.

Possible services offered by DLL (Data Link Layer) :

➢ Unacknowledged connectionless service.

➢ Acknowledged connectionless service.
➢ Acknowledged connection-oriented service.

(a) Virtual communication. (b) Actual communication.

 ITER S`O´A
Data Link Layer Design Issues (cont.)
Services Provided to the Network Layer
Unacknowledged connectionless service :

• Consists of having the source machine send independent frames to the destination machine
without having the destination machine acknowledge them.
• No logical connection is established beforehand or released afterward.
• If a frame is lost due to noise on the line, no attempt is made to detect the loss or recover from
it in the data link layer.
• Service is appropriate when the error rate is very low so that recovery is left to higher layers.
• Acceptable for real-time traffic, such as voice, in which late data are worse than bad data
• Example: Ethernet, Voice over IP, etc.
 ITER S`O´A
Data Link Layer Design Issues (cont.)
Services Provided to the Network Layer
Acknowledged Connectionless Service :

• Each frame send by the Data Link layer is acknowledged and the sender knows if a specific
frame has been received or lost.

• Typically the protocol uses a specific time period that if has passed without getting
acknowledgment it will re-send the frame.

• This service is useful for commutation when an unreliable channel is being utilized (e.g., 802.11
WiFi).

• Network layer does not know frame size of the packets and other restriction of the data link
layer. Hence it becomes necessary for data link layer to have some mechanism to optimize the
transmission.
 ITER S`O´A
Data Link Layer Design Issues (cont.)
Services Provided to the Network Layer
Acknowledged Connection Oriented Service :
• Source and Destination establish a connection first.
• Each frame sent is numbered
▪ Data link layer guarantees that each frame sent is indeed received.
▪ It guarantees that each frame is received only once and that all frames are received in the correct order.
• Examples:
▪ Satellite channel communication, Long-distance telephone communication, etc.

• Three distinct phases:

1. Connection is established by having both side initialize variables and counters needed to keep track of which
frames have been received and which ones have not.
2. One or more frames are transmitted.
3. Finally, the connection is released – freeing up the variables, buffers, and other resources used to maintain
the connection.
 ITER S`O´A
Data Link Layer Design Issues (cont.)
Services Provided to the Network Layer
Flow over two routers : An example
▪ When a frame arrives at a router, the
hardware checks it for errors, then
passes the frame to the data link layer
software.
▪ The data link layer software checks to
see if this is the frame expected, and if
so, gives the packet contained in the
payload field to the routing software.
▪ The routing software then chooses the
appropriate outgoing line and passes
the packet back down to the data link Placement of the data link protocol.
layer software, which then transmits it.
 ITER S`O´A
Data Link Layer Design Issues (cont.)
Framing
➢ To provide service to the network layer, the data link layer must use the service provided to it
by the physical layer.

➢ The physical layer deals with transmission of raw bit stream and doesn’t give guarantee of
error free transmission.
➢ Errors could be:
• Number of received bits does not match number of transmitted bits (deletion or insertion)
• Bit Value

➢ Data link layer takes the responsibility to detect errors and if possible, to correct errors.
• It breaks up the bit stream into discrete frames and computes a checksum which it includes with
each frame.

• Braking up the bit stream into frames is more difficult than it seems.
 ITER S`O´A
Data Link Layer Design Issues (cont.)
Framing
Framing Methods :
➢ Character count
➢ Flag bytes with byte stuffing
➢ Starting and ending flags with bit stuffing
➢ Physical layer coding violations
 ITER S`O´A
Data Link Layer Design Issues (cont.)
Framing
Character count :
➢ Uses the first field in the frame's header to indicate the length of the frame, so that the receiver knows
how big the current frame is and can determine where does a frame ends.
➢ Trouble in the algorithm:
• Receiver loses synchronization when
the count become garbled due to
transmission error.
• The receiver will think that the frame
contains fewer (or more) characters
than it actually does.

➢ Although checksum will detect the frames

are incorrect, the receiver will have
difficulty in re-synchronizing to the start
of a new frame. A character stream. (a) Without errors. (b) With one error.
 ITER S`O´A
Data Link Layer Design Issues (cont.)
Framing
Flag bytes with byte stuffing :
➢ Uses frame boundary detection
technique though appending of special
byte just before and after each frame.
➢ Most protocols have used same bytes
Need to escape
normally called as flag bytes. extra ESCAPE
bytes too!
➢ Problem occurs when the flag byte value
matches a data value.
➢ Can be solved using an ESC character
before flag bytes : known as
character/byte stuffing.
(a) A frame delimited by flag bytes.
Limitation : All character codes of 8 bit. (b) Four examples of byte sequences before and after byte stuffing.
 ITER S`O´A
Data Link Layer Design Issues (cont.)
Framing
Starting and ending flags with bit stuffing :
➢ Allows data frames to contain an arbitrary number of bits and allows character codes with an arbitrary
number of bits per character.
➢ This methods achieves the same thing as Byte Stuffing method by using Bits (1) instead of Bytes (8 Bits).
➢ Each frames begins and ends with a special bit pattern (i.e. 011111110 – a flag byte).
➢ On transmit, after five consecutive 1s in the
data, a 0 is added (i.e. bit stuffing).
➢ On receive, a 0 after five 1s is deleted to get
original data.
➢ Flag bytes only occur at frame boundaries,
not within the data (i.e. easy to recognize
the frame if loses the track while receiving).
(a) The original data.
➢ The side effect: the length of a frame (b) The data as they appear on the line.
depends on the contents of the data it (c) The data as they are stored in the receiver's memory after
destuffing.
carries.
 ITER S`O´A
Data Link Layer Design Issues (cont.)
Framing
Physical layer coding violations :
➢ Applicable to networks in which the encoding on the physical medium contains some redundancy.
➢ Example : Some LANs encode 1 bit of data by using 2 physical bits.
• Bit ‘1’: high-low
• Bit ‘0’: low-high
(high-high and low-low are not used for data)

Note : Many data link protocols use a combination of a character count with one of the other methods for
extra safety.
 ITER S`O´A
Data Link Layer Design Issues (cont.)
Framing
Q1. The following character encoding is used in a data link protocol:
A: 01000111; B: 11100011; FLAG:01111110; ESC: 11100000
Show the bit sequence transmitted (in binary) for the four-character in a frame: A B ESC FLAG
when each of the following framing methods are used:
(a) Character count.
(b) Flag bytes with byte stuffing.
(c) Starting and ending flag bytes, with bit stuffing.

A1 : (a) 00000101 01000111 11100011 11100000 01111110

5 A B ESC FLAG

(b) 01111110 01000111 11100011 11100000 11100000 11100000 01111110 01111110

FLAG A B ESC ESC ESC FLAG FLAG

(c) 01111110 01000111 110100011 111000000 011111010 01111110

 ITER S`O´A
Data Link Layer Design Issues (cont.)
Framing

Q2. A bit string, 0111101111101111110, needs to be transmitted at the data link layer. What
is the string actually transmitted after bit stuffing?
A2 : The bit string actually transmitted is 011110111110011111010.
 ITER S`O´A
Data Link Layer Design Issues (cont.)
Framing
Q3. The following data fragment occurs in the middle of a data stream for which the byte-
stuffing algorithm is used: A B ESC C ESC FLAG FLAG D. What is the output after stuffing?
A3 : The output after stuffing is A B ESC ESC C ESC ESC ESC FLAG ESC FLAG D.
 ITER S`O´A
Data Link Layer Design Issues (cont.)
Error control
• After solving the marking of the frame with start and end the data link layer must handle
eventual errors in transmission.
✓Ensuring that all frames are delivered to the network layer at the destination and in proper
order.
• Unacknowledged connectionless service: it is fine for the sender to output frames regardless of
its reception.
• Reliable connection-oriented service: it is not fine.
• Usual way to ensure reliable delivery is to include acknowledgement (i.e. special control frames)
to the sender.
o Positive acknowledgement : frame has arrived safely.
o Negative acknowledgement : something wrong during transmission, so need retransmission
I. A timer is required to be set so that if the data frame or the acknowledgement is lost then the sender
is aware of the problem when the timer runs out.
II. Sequence numbers required to be associated with frames to ensure the passing of frames to the
destination network layer, exactly once in the right order if frames are received more than once.
 ITER S`O´A
Data Link Layer Design Issues (cont.)
Flow control

➢ Important when the sender is running on a fast powerful computer and receiver is
running on a slow low-end machine.

➢ Prevents a fast sender from out-pacing a slow receiver

➢ Two approaches:
1. Feedback-based flow control : Can be taken care at the data link layer
• Receiver gives feedback on the data it can accept and gives permission to send data

2. Rate-based flow control : Mostly taken care at transport layer

• Built in mechanism that limits the rate at which sender may transmit data, without the need for
feedback from the receiver.
 ITER S`O´A
Error Detection and Correction

➢ Transmission errors: common on local loops (because of analog signalling), wireless links.
➢ Two basic strategies for dealing with errors.
• Error correction : Include enough redundant information along with each block of data sent,
to enable the receiver to deduce what the transmitted data must have been.
▪ Applicable to wireless channel , where retransmission can be faulty.
▪ Uses error correction codes.
Ex : Hamming code
• Error detection : Include only enough redundancy to allow the receiver to deduce that an
error occurred, but not which error, and have it request a retransmission.
▪ Applicable to reliable transmission channel such as optical fiber (requires retransmission)
▪ Uses error detection codes.
Ex : Cyclic Redundancy Code
 ITER S`O´A
Error Detection and Correction (cont.)

Handling the error :

A frame consists of m data (i.e., message) bits and r redundant, or check bits.
Total length be n (i.e., n = m+ r) bits (normally known as codeword).

Example :
• Transmitted: 10001001
• Received: 10110001
XOR operation gives number of bits that are different.
• XOR: 00111000
• Number of bit positions in which two codewords differ is called Hamming Distance. It shows that two
codes are d distance apart, and it will require d errors to convert one into the other.

Note :
• All 2m possible data messages are legal.
• All 2n possible codewords are not treated as legal as far as the hamming distance and check bits are
concerned.
 ITER S`O´A
Error Detection and Correction(cont.)
Error correction code
Design of an error correction code requires a significant no. of check bits and has a lower limit defined by
the relation
(m + r + 1) ≤ 2r , where ‘r’ indicates no. of check bits for m message bits.
Example : Hamming code (can be used to correct single error)
➢ Bits of the codeword : b1 b2 b3 b4 ….
➢ Check bits: The bits that are powers of 2 (p1, p2, p4, p8, p16, …).
➢ The rest of bits (m3, m5, m6, m7, m9, …) are filled with m data bits.
➢ Check bits are considered as parity bits for subset(i.e. some collection of bits) of the codeword
(e.g. p1 is the parity bit for all data bits in positions whose binary representation includes a 1 in the
least significant position excluding 1 (3, 5, 7, 9, 11 and so on))
➢ Data bits are checked by adding together parity bits for its position; e.g., 3 = 1 + 2, 5 = 1 + 4, 6 = 2 + 4,
7 = 1 + 2 + 4, 9 = 1 + 8, 10 = 2 + 8, 11 = 1 + 2 + 8, …
 ITER S`O´A
Error Detection and Correction(cont.)
Hamming code
Error correction :
➢ When a codeword arrives the receiver initializes a counter to ‘0’.
➢ After codeword arrives, it examines each check bit k for correct parity value.
• If correct the codeword is accepted.
• If incorrect, it adds k to the counter and after all check gives the no. of incorrect data bit.
(e.g. in a (11, 7) codeword, if check bits 1, 2, and 8 are in error, the inverted data bit is 11)
➢ Recomputing the parity sums (error syndrome) gives the position of the error to flip, or 0 if there is no error.

Example :

An (11, 7) Hamming code correcting a single-bit error

 ITER S`O´A
Error Detection and Correction(cont.)
Hamming code
Question :
An 8-bit byte with binary value 10101111 is to be encoded using an even-parity Hamming
code. What is the binary value after encoding?
Answer :
Since, (m + r + 1) ≤ 2r , r = 4 (i.e. p1, p2, p4, p8)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 12-BIT CODEWORD

1 - 1 - 0 - 0 - 1 - 1 - (EVEN PARITY)

- 0 1 - - 1 0 - - 1 1 - (EVEN PARITY)

- - - 0 0 1 0 - - - - 1 (EVEN PARITY)

- - - - - - - 0 1 1 1 1 (EVEN PARITY)

The binary value after encoding is 101001001111.

 ITER S`O´A
Error Detection and Correction(cont.)
Error detecting code
➢ Prefered to be used where the the error rate associated with the transmission line is much
lower (e.g. optical fiber, copper wire)
➢ Usually require retransmission if error is detected.
Say, it is required to transmit 1 megabit of data in the form of data block each of size 1000 bit.
• Using error correction code each block requires 10 check bits for single bit error.
• Requires 10,000 bits to be transmitted for complete data.
• Using error detection code each block requires an extra bit(i.e. parity bit) for single bit error
• Requires an extra block of 1001 bits to be transmitted for complete data.
The total overhead for the error detection + retransmission method is only 2001 bits per megabit of data,
versus 10,000 bits for a Hamming code.

Example : The polynomial code, also known as a CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check)
 ITER S`O´A
Error Detection and Correction(cont.)
Polynomial (or CRC) code
➢ Bit strings are represented as polynomials with coefficients of 0 and 1(i.e. bit value) only.
➢ A k-bit frame is regarded as the coefficient list for a polynomial with k terms ranging from xk-1 to x0.
Example:
110001: 1x5 + 1x4 + 0x3 + 0x2 + 0x1 + 1x0
➢ Uses modulo 2 arithmetic(i.e. both addition and subtraction are equivalent to exclusive OR)
➢ The sender and receiver must agree upon a generator polynomial, G(x), in advance.
➢ Both high- and low-order bits in the generator polynomial must be 1.
➢ CRC is computed for a frame of length m- bits (i.e. M(x)) using G(x) known as check summed frame,
such that M(x) is longer than the G(x).
➢ The resulting check summed frame must be divisible by G(x).
➢ When the receiver gets a check summed frame it divides it by G(x).
▪ If the result is not equal to zero it means that there has been transmission error.
 ITER S`O´A
Error Detection and Correction(cont.)
Polynomial (or CRC) code
Algorithm for computing the checksum:
1. Let r be the degree of G(x). Append r
zero bits to the low-order end of the
frame so it now contains m+r bits and
corresponds to the polynomial xr M(x)
2. Divide the bit string corresponding to
Example:
G(x) into the bit string corresponding to Frame: 1101011111
xr M(x) using modulo 2 division. Generator: x4+x+1

3. Subtract the remainder (which is

always r or fewer bits) from the bit
string corresponding to xr M(x) using
module 2 subtraction. The result is the
checksummed frame, T(x), to be
transmitted.
Calculation of the polynomial code checksum
 ITER S`O´A
Elementary data link protocols
Assumptions:
1). DLL and Network layer are independent processes that communicate by passing
messages back and forth trough the physical layer.
2). Machine A wants to send a long stream of data to machine B, using a reliable,
connection-oriented service.
3). Machines do not crash.

Channel: Noiseless
No frames are lost, duplicated, or corrupted.

Protocols :
▪ An Unrestricted Simplex Protocol
▪ A Simplex Stop-and-Wait Protocol
 ITER S`O´A
Elementary data link protocols (cont.)
Library procedures:

Group Library Function Description

from_network_layer(&packet) Take a packet from network layer to send
Network to_network_layer(&packet) Deliver a received packet to network layer
layer enable_network_layer() Let network cause “ready” events
disable_network_layer() Prevent network “ready” events
Physical from_physical_layer(&frame) Get an incoming frame from physical layer
layer to_physical_layer(&frame) Pass an outgoing frame to physical layer
wait_for_event(&event) Wait for a packet / frame / timer event
start_timer(seq_nr) Start a countdown timer running
Events &
stop_timer(seq_nr) Stop a countdown timer from running
timers
start_ack_timer() Start the ACK countdown timer
stop_ack_timer() Stop the ACK countdown timer

Note : Defined in a header file protocol.h

 ITER S`O´A
Elementary data link protocols (cont.)
Protocol definitions:
▪ Five data structures are defined : boolean, seq_nr, packet, frame_kind, and frame.
▪ Defined in protocol.h

Continued →
 ITER S`O´A
Elementary data link protocols (cont.)

Protocol Definitions
(ctd.)
 ITER S`O´A
Elementary data link protocols (cont.)

packet

network layer buffer

frame (4 fields)

data link layer kind seq ack info

Control information
(Frame header)
 ITER S`O´A
Elementary data link protocols (cont.)
An Unrestricted Simplex Protocol
▪ Simplest Protocol (called as utopia) Communication using (Flow Diagram)
▪ Unidirectional in which data frames are traveling in only Simplest Protocol
one direction-from the sender to receiver.
▪ Both transmitting and receiving network layers are always
ready.
▪ The receiver can immediately handle any frame it receives
with a processing time that is small enough to be
negligible.
▪ The data link layer of the receiver immediately removes
the header from the frame and hands the data packet to
network layer.
0
▪ In other words, the receiver can never be fill out with 0
incoming frames.
▪ Unrealistic and resembles to connectionless
▪ Relies on higher layer for error handling
 ITER S`O´A
Elementary data link protocols (cont.)
An Unrestricted Simplex Protocol

Design of the utopia protocol with no flow or error control

 ITER S`O´A
Elementary data link protocols (cont.)
An Unrestricted Simplex Protocol

Runs at sender
machine

Runs at receiver
machine
 Elementary data link protocols (cont.) ITER S`O´A

A Simplex Stop-and-wait Protocol

Communication (Flow Diagram) using
▪ If data frames arrive at the receiver site faster than
Stop-and-Wait Protocol
they can be processed, the frames must be stored until
their use.
▪ Normally, the receiver does not have enough storage
space, especially if it is receiving data from many
sources.
▪ Required to tell the sender to slow down.
▪ There must be feedback from the receiver to the
sender.
▪ The sender sends one frame, stops until it receives
agreement the receiver (okay to go ahead), and then
sends the next frame.
▪ Still have unidirectional communication for data
frames, but auxiliary ACK frames (simple tokens of
acknowledgment) travel from the other direction.
▪ Includes flow control
Elementary data link protocols (cont.) ITER S`O´A

A Simplex Stop-and-wait Protocol

Design of Stop-and-Wait Protocol

 Elementary data link protocols (cont.) ITER S`O´A

A Simplex Stop-and-wait Protocol

Runs at sender
machine

Runs at receiver
machine
Sliding Window Protocols
• In most practical situations, there is a need for transmitting data in both
directions.
• One way of achieving full-duplex data transmission is to have two separate
communication channels and use each one for simplex data traffic (in
different directions).
• If this is done, we have two separate physical circuits, each with a
''forward'' channel (for data) and a ''reverse'' channel (for
acknowledgements).
• In both cases the bandwidth of the reverse channel is almost entirely
wasted. In effect, the user is paying for two circuits but using only the
capacity of one.
Sliding Window Protocols
Improvement…
• A better idea is to use the same circuit for data in both directions.
• In this model the data frames from A to B are intermixed with the
acknowledgement frames from A to B.
• By looking at the kind field in the header of an incoming frame, the
receiver can tell whether the frame is data or acknowledgement.
Sliding Window Protocols
Piggybacking
• When a data frame arrives, instead of immediately sending a separate
control frame, the receiver restrains itself and waits until the network
layer passes it the next packet.
• The acknowledgement is attached to the outgoing data frame (using
the ack field in the frame header).
• In effect, the acknowledgement gets a free ride on the next outgoing
data frame.
• The technique of temporarily delaying outgoing acknowledgements
so that they can be hooked onto the next outgoing data frame is
known as piggybacking.
Sliding Window Protocols
Piggybacking
• The principal advantage of using piggybacking over having distinct
acknowledgement frames is a better use of the available channel
bandwidth.
• The ack field in the frame header costs only a few bits, whereas a separate
frame would need a header, the acknowledgement, and a checksum.
• However, piggybacking introduces a complication not present with
separate acknowledgements. How long should the data link layer wait for
a packet onto which to piggyback the acknowledgement?
• If a new packet arrives quickly, the acknowledgement is piggybacked
onto it; otherwise, if no new packet has arrived by the end of this time
period, the data link layer just sends a separate acknowledgement frame.
Sliding Window Protocols

• All sliding window protocols, each outbound frame contains a

sequence number, ranging from 0 up to some maximum.
• The maximum is usually 2n - 1 so the sequence number fits exactly in
an n-bit field.
• The stop-and-wait sliding window protocol uses n = 1, restricting the
sequence numbers to 0 and 1, but more sophisticated versions can
use arbitrary n.
Sliding Window Protocols

• The essence of all sliding window protocols is that at any instant of

time, the sender maintains a set of sequence numbers corresponding
to frames it is permitted to send. These frames are said to fall within
the sending window.
• Similarly, the receiver also maintains a receiving window
corresponding to the set of frames it is permitted to accept.
• The sender's window and the receiver's window need not have the
same lower and upper limits or even have the same size.
• In some protocols they are fixed in size, but in others they can grow
or shrink over the course of time as frames are sent and received.
Sliding Window Protocols
A One-Bit Sliding Window Protocol
Sliding Window Protocols
A One-Bit Sliding Window Protocol
Sliding Window Protocols
A One-Bit Sliding Window Protocol
Sliding Window Protocols
A Protocol Using Go Back N
Sliding Window Protocols
• Until now we have made the tacit assumption that the transmission
time required for a frame to arrive at the receiver plus the
transmission time for the acknowledgement to come back is
negligible.
• Sometimes this assumption is clearly false.
• In these situations, the long round-trip time can have important
implications for the efficiency of the bandwidth utilization.
A Protocol Using Go Back N
Sliding Window Protocols
• As an example, consider a 50-kbps satellite channel with a 500-msec
round-trip propagation delay. Let us imagine trying to use protocol 4 to
send 1000-bit frames via the satellite. At t= 0 the sender starts sending the
first frame. At t = 20 msec the frame has been completely sent.
• Not until t = 270 msec has the frame fully arrived at the receiver, and not
until t = 520 msec has the acknowledgement arrived back at the sender,
under the best of circumstances (no waiting in the receiver and a short
acknowledgement frame).
• This means that the sender was blocked during 500/520 or 96 percent of
the time. In other words, only 4 percent of the available bandwidth was
used. Clearly, the combination of a long transit time, high bandwidth, and
short frame length is disastrous in terms of efficiency.
A Protocol Using Go Back N
Sliding Window Protocols
• The problem described above can be viewed because of the rule
requiring a sender to wait for an acknowledgement before sending
another frame.
• If we relax that restriction, much better efficiency can be achieved.
• Basically, the solution lies in allowing the sender to transmit up to 𝑤
frames before blocking, instead of just 1.
• With an appropriate choice of 𝑤 the sender will be able to
continuously transmit frames for a time equal to the round-trip
transit time without filling up the window.
A Protocol Using Go Back N
Sliding Window Protocols
• In the example above, 𝒘 should be at least 26.
• The sender begins sending frame 0 as before. By the time it has
finished sending 26 frames, at t = 520, the acknowledgement for
frame 0 will have just arrived.
• Thereafter, acknowledgements arrive every 20 msec, so the sender
always gets permission to continue just when it needs it. At all times,
25 or 26 unacknowledged frames are outstanding. Put in other terms,
the sender's maximum window size is 26.
A Protocol Using Go Back N
Sliding Window Protocols
• This technique is known as pipelining.
Channel capacity is 𝒃 𝒃𝒊𝒕𝒔/𝒔𝒆𝒄 ,
Frame size 𝒍 𝒃𝒊𝒕𝒔,
Roundtrip propagation time 𝑹 𝒔𝒆𝒄 ,
Then, the time required to transmit a single frame is 𝒍/𝒃 𝒔𝒆𝒄 .

𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑙/(𝑙 + 𝑏𝑅)

A Protocol Using Go Back N • Pipelining and error recovery.
Sliding Window Protocols • Effect of an error when (a) receiver's window size is 1
A Protocol Using Go Back N • Pipelining and error recovery.
Sliding Window Protocols • Effect of an error when (b) receiver's window size is large
A Protocol Using Selective Repeat
Sliding Window Protocols
• Go back N works well if errors are rare, but if the line is poor, it wastes a lot
of bandwidth on retransmitted frames.
• An alternative strategy for handling errors is to allow the receiver to accept
and buffer the frames following a damaged or lost one. Such a protocol
does not discard frames merely because an earlier frame was damaged or
lost.
• In this protocol, both sender and receiver maintain a window of acceptable
sequence numbers.
• The sender’s window size starts out at 0 and grows to some predefined
maximum, MAX_SEQ. The receiver's window, in contrast, is always fixed in
size and equal to MAX_SEQ.
A Protocol Using Selective Repeat
Sliding Window Protocols
• The receiver has a buffer reserved for each sequence number within
its fixed window. Associated with each buffer is a bit (arrived) telling
whether the buffer is full or empty.
• Whenever a frame arrives, its sequence number is checked by the
function between to see if it falls within the window. If so and if it has
not already been received, it is accepted and stored. This action is
taken without regard to whether it contains the next packet expected
by the network layer.
• It must be kept within the data link layer and not passed to the
network layer until all the lower-numbered frames have already been
delivered to the network layer in the correct order.
 ITER S`O´A
Error Detection and Correction(cont.)

The error-detecting and error-correcting properties of a code depend on this Hamming

distance.
➢ To reliably detect d error, one would need a distance d+1 code.
Ex : Forming a code with adding a parity bit while transmitting can be used to detect single error even
though it has a hamming distance of 2.
(when 1011010 transmitted with even parity the code will be 10110100. A single bit error produces a
code word of odd parity)
➢ To correct d error, one would need a distance 2d+1 code.
Ex : 4 valid codes: 0000000000, 0000011111, 1111100000, 1111111111
Minimal Distance of this code is 5 => can correct double errors.
(If the codeword 0000000111 arrives, the receiver knows that the original must have been
0000011111)
 ITER S`O´A
Error Detection and Correction(cont.)
Hamming code
Consider a message having four data bits (D) which is to be transmitted as a 7-bit codeword by adding three
check bits. This would be called a (7,4) code. The three bits to be added are three EVEN Parity bits (P), where
the parity of each is computed on different subsets of the message bits as shown below.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

P P D P D D D 7-BIT CODEWORD

P - D - D - D (EVEN PARITY)
- P D - - D D (EVEN PARITY)
- - - P D D D (EVEN PARITY)
• For example, the message 1101 would be sent as 1010101, since:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 7-BIT CODEWORD
1 - 1 - 1 - 1 (EVEN PARITY)
- 0 1 - - 0 1 (EVEN PARITY)
- - - 0 1 0 1 (EVEN PARITY)
Problem

• Let us assume that m = 3 and n =

4. Find the list of valid data words Valid dataword Valid codeword
and codewords assuming the check 000 0000
bit is used to indicate even parity in
the code word. 001 0011
010 0101
011 0110
100 1001
101 1010
110 1100
111 1111
Problem
What is the Hamming distance for each of the following codewords:
a. (10000, 00000)
b. (10101, 10000)
c. (11111,11111)
d. (000, 000)
Ans:
a. 1
b. 2
c. 0
d. 0
 Problem
Find the minimum Hamming
distance to be implemented
in codeword for the
following cases:
a. Detection of two errors.
b. Correction of two errors.
c. Detection of 3 errors or
correction of 2 errors.
d. Detection of 6 errors or
correction of 2 errors.
 Problem
Find the minimum Hamming a. For error detection → Hamming distance = d + 1 = 2 + 1 = 3
distance to be implemented b. For error correction → Hamming distance = 2d + 1 = 2 × 2 + 1 = 5
in codeword for the
following cases: c. For error detection → Hamming distance = d + 1 = 3 + 1 = 4
a. Detection of two errors. For error correction → Hamming distance = 2d + 1 = 2 × 2 + 1 = 5
b. Correction of two errors. Therefore, minimum Hamming distance should be 5.
c. Detection of 3 errors or d. For error detection → Hamming distance = d + 1 = 6 + 1 = 7
correction of 2 errors. For error correction → Hamming distance = 2d + 1 = 2 × 2 + 1 = 5
d. Detection of 6 errors or Therefore, minimum Hamming distance should be 7.
correction of 2 errors.
Problem

Given in the table a set of valid

dataword and codeword.
What is the dataword transmitted Dataword Codeword
for the following codewords
received assuming there is 1 bit 00 00000
error?
a. 01010 01 01011
b. 11010
10 10101

11 11110
Problem

Given in the table a set of valid

dataword and codeword.
What is the dataword transmitted Dataword Codeword
for the following codewords
received assuming there is 1 bit 00 00000
error?
a. 01010 01 01011
b. 11010
Answer: 10 10101
a. 01
11 11110
b. 11
Problem
• Sixteen-bit messages are
transmitted using a Hamming
code. How many check bits are
needed to ensure that the
receiver can detect and correct
single bit errors? Show the bit
pattern transmitted for the
message 1101001100110101.
Assume that even parity is used
in the Hamming code.
Problem
• Sixteen-bit messages are Answer:
transmitted using a Hamming • 5 check bits are needed at
code. How many check bits are positions 1, 2, 4, 8, and 16.
needed to ensure that the
receiver can detect and correct • The bit pattern transmitted for
single bit errors? Show the bit the message
pattern transmitted for the (first)1101001100110101 is
message 1101001100110101. 011010110011001110101
Assume that even parity is used
in the Hamming code.
Problem
• An 8-bit message using even-
parity Hamming code is received
as 101001001111. Find the 8-bit
message after getting decoded
assuming no error during
transmission?
Problem
• An 8-bit message using even- • Answer:
parity Hamming code is received The 8-bit message after decoding
as 101001001111. Find the 8-bit is 10101111.
message after getting decoded
assuming no error during
transmission?
Problem
• A 12-bit Hamming code whose
hexadecimal value is 0xE4F
arrives at a receiver. What was
the original value in
hexadecimal? Assume that not
more than 1 bit is in error.
Problem
• A 12-bit Hamming code whose Answer:
hexadecimal value is 0xE4F • If we number the bits from left
arrives at a receiver. What was to right starting at bit 1, in this
the original value in example bit 2 (a parity bit) is
hexadecimal? Assume that not incorrect. The 12-bit value
more than 1 bit is in error. transmitted (after Hamming
encoding) was 0xA4F. The
original 8-bit data value was
0xAF.
Problem
• What is the remainder obtained
by dividing x7+x5+1 by the
generator polynomial x3+1?
Problem
• What is the remainder obtained Answer:
by dividing x7+x5+1 by the • The remainder is x2+x +1.
generator polynomial x3+1?
Problem
• Given the dataword 101001111
and the divisor 10111. Show the
generation of the CRC codeword
at the sender site (using binary
division).
Problem
• Given the dataword 101001111 Answer:
and the divisor 10111. Show the The codeword at the sender site is
generation of the CRC codeword 1010011110101
at the sender site (using binary
division).
 Computer Network
(CSE 3034)

Text book: Computer Networks by Andrew S. Tanenbaum

 Introduction to the course
Syllabus :
 Introduction(Chapter 1)
 The Physical Layer(Chapter 2)
 The Data Link Layer(Chapter 3)
 The Medium Access Control Sublayer(Chapter 4)
 The Network Layer(Chapter 5)
 The Transport layer(Chapter 6)
 The Application layer(Chapter 7)
 Network security(Chapter 8)
The Medium access Control
Sublayer
 The MAC Sublayer

 Responsible for deciding who sends next on a multi-access link

 An important part of the link layer, especially for LANs

Application
Transport
Network
Link
Physical

MAC is here
 Multiple Access Protocols

 ALOHA »
 CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access) »
 Multiple Access Protocols (Cont.)
ALOHA

In 1970 by Norman Abramson and colleagues at the University of Hawaii

Used ground based radio broadcasting

Applicable to any system in which uncoordinated users are competing for the use of a
single shared channel

Two versions of the protocol :

 Pure ALOHA - time continuous
 Slotted ALOHA - divided into discrete slots into which all frames must fit
 Basic idea – let users transmit whenever they have data to be sent. If there are
collisions handle them.
 Multiple Access Protocols(Cont.)
ALOHA
Pure ALOHA :

 Each user is free to transmit whenever they have data to be sent.

• There will be collisions
• Senders need some way to find out if this is the case.
• Original sending station can listen to see if its frame has gone through.
• If listening not possible, acknowledgments are alternative.
 If the frame is destroyed, the sender just waits a random amount of time and sends it again.
• Waiting time must be random(usually doubles after each failure) or else the sending frames will
collide over and over.
• Contention systems: that use the same channel in the way that might lead to conflicts.
 Frames do not collide if no other frames are sent within one frame time of its start
 Multiple Access Protocols(Cont.)
ALOHA
 When two frames try to occupy the same channel there is a collision.
 If the first bit of a new frame overlaps with just the last bit of a frame almost finished,
both frames will be totally destroyed
User

Collision
Collision Time

In pure ALOHA, frames are transmitted

at completely arbitrary times
 Multiple Access Protocols(Cont.)
ALOHA
Pure ALOHA :

What is the efficiency of an ALOHA channel?

 Infinite collection of users typing at their terminals (stations).
 User states: WAITING or TYPING.
 When a line is finished, the user stops typing waiting for response.
 The station then transmits a frame containing the line over the shared channel and checks the
channel to see if it was successful.
 If so the users sees the reply and goes back to typing
 If not, the user continuously to wait while the station retransmits the frame over and over until it
has been successfully send.
 Multiple Access Protocols(Cont.)
Pure ALOHA : ALOHA
 Frame Time – denotes the amount of time needed to transmit the standard, fixed-length frame.
 Each new frame is assumed to be generated by Poisson distribution with a mean of N frames per
frame time.
 If N>1 the user community is generating frames at a higher rate than the channel can handle, and nearly
every frame will suffer a collision.
 For reasonable throughput we expect 0 < N < 1.
 In addition to the new frames, the stations also generate retransmissions of frames that previously
suffered collisions.
 Assume that the new and the old frames combined modeled by a Poisson distribution with mean G
frames per frame time, so G ≥ N.
 Low load:N ≈ 0, there will be few collisions, hence few retransmissions, G ≈ N
 High load: there will be many collisions, G > N.
 Under all loads the throughput S is just the offered load, G, times the probability P0 of a
transmission succeeding:
S = G P0, where P0 is the probability of a frame not collided
 Multiple Access Protocols(Cont.)
Pure ALOHA : ALOHA
 How to find P0? Can be computed making an assumption that collisions happen only when other
users transmit during a vulnerable period.
 Vulnerable period = 2*t, t => Frame period
 The probability that kframes generated during a given
frame time, in which G frames are expected, is given
by the Poison distribution:
𝐺 𝑘 𝑒 −𝐺
Pr[𝑘] =
𝑘!
 Probability of zero frames: 𝑒 −𝐺
 In an interval two frame times long, the mean
number of frames generated is 2G.
 Probability of no frames being initiated during the
entire vulnerable period is given by 𝑃0 = 𝑒 −2𝐺 . Vulnerable period for the shaded frame

Thus, 𝑆 = 𝐺𝑒 −2𝐺

 S will be maximum when G = 0.5 and is found to be

0.184(i.e. 18.4 %)
 Multiple Access Protocols(Cont.)
Slotted ALOHA : ALOHA
 Roberts in 1972 published a method for doubling the capacity of an ALOHA system.
 Divide time into discrete intervals called slots.
 Each interval/slot corresponds to one frame time.
 Users will have to agree on slot boundaries.
 A station is not permitted to send whenever the user types a carriage return.
 User waits for the beginning of the next slot.
 Continuous time ALOHA is turned into a discrete time one.
 Synchronization is required:
• One special station emit a pip at the start of each interval, like clock.
 Multiple Access Protocols(Cont.)
Slotted ALOHA : ALOHA
 Vulnerable period = t, (t => Frame period)
 Probability of no frames being initiated during the
entire vulnerable period is given by 𝑃0 = 𝑒 −𝐺 .
Thus, 𝑆 = 𝐺𝑒 −𝐺

 S will be maximum when G = 1and is found to be

0.368(i.e. 36.8 %)

t0 - t t0 t0 + t Time
Vulnerable

Throughput versus offered traffic for ALOHA systems

 Multiple Access Protocols(Cont.)
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) Protocols
 CSMA improves on ALOHA by sensing the channel.
 Protocols in which stations listen for a carrier (i.e., transmission) and act accordingly are
called carrier sense protocols.
 User doesn’t send if it senses someone else.
 Versions of these protocols :
 Persistent and Nonpersistent CSMA
• 1-persistent
• Nonpersistent
• p-persistent
 CSMA with Collision Detection
 Multiple Access Protocols(Cont.)
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) Protocols
Persistent and Nonpersistent CSMA

 1-Persistent is the simplest scheme.

 When station has data to send, it listens to channel to see if anyone else is transmitting
 If channel is idle, it sends its data, otherwise it waits until the channel is idle.
 When channel becomes idle it transmits.
 If a collision occurs, it waits a random amount of time and starts again.
 Called 1-persistent because the station transmits with a probability of 1 when the channel is idle.
 Collisions may occur when two patiently waiting stations will start transmitting at the same time if
the channel becomes idle and propagation delay increases.
 Still better than ALOHA because both stations have the decency of interfering with third station’s
frame.
 Multiple Access Protocols(Cont.)
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) Protocols
Persistent and Nonpersistent CSMA
 Nonpersistent: Conscious attempt is made to sense the channel and less greedy.
 Station listens for an idle signal and if no one else is transmitting it sends its data.
 If channel is in use it does not keep sensing; instead it waits a random amount of time before it
tries sensing again.
 This leads to a better channel utilization but longer delays than 1- Persistent CSMA.
 Multiple Access Protocols(Cont.)
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) Protocols
Persistent and Nonpersistent CSMA
 p – persistent: Transmission with probability p
 Protocol is applied to slotted channels
 When a station is ready to send, it senses the channel
 If the channel is idle, it sends with a probability p.
 With a probability q = 1-p, it defers until the next slot.
 If that slot is idle, it either transmits or defers again with probabilities p and q.
 This continues until the frame is transmitted or until another station begins transmitting.
 Multiple Access Protocols(Cont.)
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) Protocols
CSMA with Collision Detection
 CSMA protocols are an improvement over ALOHA because they ensure that no station transmits while
the channel is busy.
 If two stations sense the channel to be idle and both start transmitting simultaneously, collisions occur.
 An improvement is for the station to quickly detect the busy channel and to stop transmitting since the
frame will be garbled and lost anyway.
 This is known as CSMA/CD ( Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection) and it saves time
and bandwidth.
 Forms the basis of Ethernet LAN protocol.
 Multiple Access Protocols(Cont.)
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) Protocols
CSMA with Collision Detection
 Consists of alternate contention and transmission periods with idle periods when all stations are quiet.
 Multiple Access Protocols(Cont.)
Wireless LAN Protocols
 System of laptops/notebook computers that communicate by radio can be
regarded as a wireless LAN.
 Require special MAC sub layer protocols since different from conventional
LAN in structure.
 Common configuration of wireless LAN:
 Office Building with Access Points (APs)(also called as base stations)
 APs Strategically placed
 APs are wired together (copper or fiber)
 APs provide connectivity
 A geographical area/room covered by an AP can be treated as a cell like in
cellular telephony system.
 All radio transmitters have some fixed range.
 Receiver within the transmission range can only receive the signal form
transmitter.
 In wireless LANs not all stations are within range of one another(so
complicacy develops during communication).
 Multiple Access Protocols(Cont.)
Wireless LAN Protocols
Can CSMA be used in Wireless LAN for transmission ?
 Not really appropriate because what matters is interference at the receiver, not at the sender.
Example scenario : 4 stations A, B, C and D.
Assumption :
• A and B are within each other's range and can potentially interfere with one another.
• C can also potentially interfere with both B and D, but not with A.
Case I : Hidden node problem - Senders that cannot sense each other but nonetheless collide at intended receiver

o A starts sending to B.
o C senses and finds the channel is free so starts sending to B.
o A and C are hidden to each other so can’t sense each other’s status.
o Both of their data's gets interfered at B.

Case II : Exposed node problem - Senders who can sense each other but still transmit safely (to different receivers)
o There is an ongoing transmission from B to A.
o C can sense it since in the range of B and so thinks not to transmit.
o Absolutely not face any problem if C transmits to D since B and D
are not in either’s range.
o B and C are exposed terminals when transmitting to A and D.
 Multiple Access Protocols(Cont.)
Wireless LAN Protocols
Problems to note :
 Before starting a transmission, a station really wants to know whether there is activity around the
receiver.
 With a wire, only one transmission can take place at once anywhere in the system though all signals can
propagate to all stations.
 In a system based on short-range radio waves, multiple transmissions can occur simultaneously if they
all have different destinations and these destinations are out of range of one another.

Two protocols :
1. MACA
2. MACAW
 Multiple Access Protocols(Cont.)
Wireless LAN Protocols
MACA (Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance)
 An early protocol designed for wireless LANs .
 Basic idea :
 Sender to simulate the receiver into outputting a short frame.
 Nearby stations can detect this transmission and avoid transmitting for the duration of the upcoming (larger) data
frame.
Example :
• A initiates by sending Request To Send (RTS- a short frame
say of 30 bytes indicating the data length) to station B.
• B replies with a Clear To Send (CTS- contains the data
length being copied from RTS) frame.
• After reception of the CTS frame A begins transmission.
• Any station hearing the RTS from A (i.e. C and E)must remain
silent long enough for the CTS to be transmitted back to A
without conflict.
• Any station hearing the CTS from B(i.e. D and E) must (a) A sending an RTS to B. (b) B responding with a CTS to A.
remain silent during the upcoming data transmission.
• Still collisions are possible (e.g C and B sends RTS to A simultaneously). Requires random waiting time for retransmission
following to collision.
 Multiple Access Protocols(Cont.)
Wireless LAN Protocols
MACAW (MACA for Wireless)
 Fine tuned MACA to improve its performance.
 Introduces an ACK frame after each successful data frame.
 Includes CSMA to sense any nearby station has transmitted RTS to the destined node of itself.
 Runs the back off algorithm separately for each data stream (source-destination pair), rather than for
each station.
 Adds a mechanism for stations to exchange information about congestion.
 Ethernet
 Many of the designs for personal, local, and metropolitan area networks have been
standardized under the name of IEEE 802.
A few have survived but many have not.
The most important of the survivors are 802.3 (Ethernet) and 802.11 (wireless LAN).
 Two kinds of Ethernet exist:
1. Classic Ethernet, which solves the multiple access problem using the
techniques such as CSMA.
• Original form and ran at rates from 3 to 10 Mbps.
2. Switched Ethernet, in which devices called switches are used to connect different
computers.
• The today’s Ethernet and runs at
• 100 Mbps (fast Ethernet)
• 1000 Mbps (gigabit Ethernet)
• 10,000 Mbps (10 gigabit Ethernet
 Ethernet(Cont.)
Classical Ethernet physical layer
History and standard :
 Bob Metcalfe with David Boggs designed and implemented the first local area network in 1976 in
Xerox Palo Alto Lab.
It used a ingle long thick coaxial cable.
Speed 3 Mbps.
 Named this as Ethernet.
Successfully designed and later drafted as DIX standard in 1978 by Xerox, DEC, Intel with a 10 Mbps.
With a minor change, the DIX standard became the IEEE 802.3 standard in 1983.

Architecture of classic Ethernet

 Ethernet(Cont.)
Classical Ethernet physical layer
Structure :Two varieties
Thick Ethernet:
Uses a thick cable with markings every 2.5 meters to show where to attach computers.
Segment could be as long as 500 m.
Could be used to connect up to 100 computers.
Thin Ethernet:
Cables bent more easily and connections made using BNC connectors.
Segment could be no longer than 185 m.
Could be used to connect up to 30 computers.
 Each version of Ethernet has a maximum cable length per segment (i.e. unamplified length) over which the
signal will propagate.
For a large length connectivity the cables could be connected by repeaters.
Repeater is a physical layer device that receives, amplifies, and retransmits signals in both directions.
Over each of those cables the signal was coded using Manchester encoding.
 Other restriction was that no two transceivers could be more than 2.5 km apart and no path between any
two transceivers could traverse more than four repeaters.
 Ethernet(Cont.)
Classic Ethernet MAC Sublayer Protocol
Frame format :
Preamble (8 bytes)
Contains the bit pattern 10101010 (with the exception of the
last byte, in which the last 2 bits are set to 11).
This last byte is called the Start of Frame delimiter for 802.3.
The Manchester encoding of this pattern produces a 10-MHz
square wave for 6.4 μsec to allow the receiver’s clock to
synchronize with the sender’s.
The last two 1 bits tell the receiver that the rest of the frame is (a) Ethernet (DIX). (b) IEEE 802.3.
about to start.
Source and destination address (6 bytes)
 First bit of the destination address is 0 for ordinary addresses and 1 for group addresses.
 Group address allow multiple destinations to listen to a single address – Multicasting.
 Special address consisting of all 1 is reserved for broadcasting.
 Uniqueness of the addresses:
o First 3 bytes are used for (Organizationally Unique Identifier)
o Blocks of 224 addresses are assigned to a manufacturer.
o Manufacturer assigns the last 3 bytes of the address and programs the complete address into the NIC.
 Ethernet(Cont.)
Classic Ethernet MAC Sublayer Protocol
Frame format :
Type /length (2 bytes- depending on Ethernet/IEEE 802.3)
• Ethernet uses a Type field to tell the receiver what to do with
the frame.
o For example, a type code of 0x0800 means that the data
contains an IPv4 packet
• Now the rule is that any number there less than or equal to
(a) Ethernet (DIX). (b) IEEE 802.3.
0x600 (1536) can be interpreted as Length, and any number
greater than 0x600 can be interpreted as Type.

Data, Pad & Checksum

 Data field is up to 1500 bytes.
 Minimum frame length – valid frames must be at least 64 bytes long – from destination address to checksum,
including both.
 If data portion is less than 46 bytes the Pad field is used to fill out the frame to the minimum size.
 Checksum field uses 32 bit CRC.
 Ethernet(Cont.)
Ethernet Performance
 Performance of Ethernet can be analysed through the evaluation of channel efficiency.
 Assumptions :
 k stations always ready to transmit.
 Constant retransmission probability in each slot following to collision.

 If each station transmits during a contention slot with probability p, the probability A that some
station acquires the channel :

𝐴 = 𝑘𝑝 1 − 𝑝 𝑘−1 Max A for p=1/k with A→1/𝑒 𝑎𝑠 𝑘→∞.

 The probability that contention interval has exactly j slots in it is A(1-A)j-1.

 Mean number of slots per contention is:

∞
𝑗−1
1
𝑗𝐴 1 − 𝐴 =
𝐴
𝑗=0

 Duration of each slot is 2t, the mean contention interval w= 2t/A (Max w=2t𝑒with poptimum)
 Ethernet(Cont.)
Ethernet Performance
channel efficiency:
 If the mean frame takes P sec to transmit, when many stations have frames to send channel efficiency (E)
can be expressed as
𝑃
𝐸=
𝑃 + 2𝜏/𝐴

 The longer the cable the longer the contention interval; This is why the Ethernet standard specifies the
maximum cable length.
 Thus, considering
For the optimal case e contention slots per frame and using P = F/B
 Frame length F
1
 Network bandwidth B 𝐸=
1 + 2𝐵𝐿𝑒/𝑐𝐹
 The cable length L
 Speed of signal propagation c
 When the term 2𝐵𝐿𝑒/𝑐𝐹>> 0 the network efficiency becomes very low.
o Increasing BL; Bandwidth and/or Length of the cable reduces the efficiency.
o This is contrary to the design criteria to have largest possible bandwidth and longest connections.
o Classic Ethernet implemented in this manner is not the best system for these applications
 Ethernet(Cont.)
Switched Ethernet
 Long cable architecture of classic Ethernet often
suffers from problems associated with finding
breaks or loose connections.
 Replaced with a different kind of wiring pattern
in which each station has a dedicated cable
running to a central hub.
 A hub simply connects all the attached wires
electrically, as if they were soldered together.
 Advantage :
 Reuse of spare twisted pair cable.
 Cable breaks can be detected easily. Maintenance becomes easier
 Adding or removing a station is simpler.
 Limitation :
 Maximum cable run from hub is upto 100m or 200m(high quality cat 5 cable)
 Do not increase capacity. As more and more stations are added, each station gets a decreasing
share of the fixed capacity.
Leads to development and use of switched Ethernet
 Ethernet(Cont.)
Switched Ethernet
Looks appropriate to handle the increased load in LAN
efficiently as compared to hub.
Switch :
 From outside looks like a hub typically with 4 to 48 ports each
with a standard RJ-45 connector for a twisted-pair cable.
 Ports are interconnected through a high speed backplane.
 Similarity with hub :
o Easy to add or remove a new station by plugging or unplugging a
wire.
o Easy to find most faults since a flaky cable or port will usually
affect just one station.
 Operation of switch:
• After receiving data frame through a port output frames to the
ports for which those frames are destined.
• The destination port then transmits the frame on the wire so that
it reaches the intended station.
• None of the other ports even knows the frame exists.
 Ethernet(Cont.)
Switched Ethernet
Handling collision in switch and hub
Hub :
All stations are in the same collision domain.
Uses CSMA/CD for scheduling transmission.
Switch :
Each port has its own independent collision domain.
Doesn’t effect other port’s transmission if occurs at the same time.
Full duplex transmission possible without the use of CSMA/CD.
Only half duplex transmission requires CSMA/CD.
Important to note :
A switch improves performance over a hub.
Since there are no collisions, the capacity is used more efficiently.
 Multiple frames can be sent simultaneously(by different stations).
 Includes buffering to handle multiple frames reaching at the same output port simultaneously.
A switch also gives security benefits to the traffic.
With a hub, every computer that is attached can see the traffic sent between all of the other computers.
With a switch, traffic is forwarded only to the ports where it is destined.
 Ethernet(Cont.)
Fast Ethernet
With time it seemed that data expanded to fill the bandwidth available for their
transmission.
In Ethernet switches, the maximum bandwidth of a single computer was limited by the cable that
connected it to the switch port.
Data rate of switched Ethernet required to increase.
The work was done quickly (by standards committees’ norms), and the result, 802.3u, was
approved by IEEE in June 1995.
Technically, 802.3u is not a new standard, but an addendum to the existing 802.3 standard (to
emphasize its backward compatibility).
This strategy is used a lot. Since practically everyone calls it fast Ethernet, rather than 802.3u.

Basic Idea :
 Keep all the old frame formats, interfaces, and procedural rules, but reduce the bit time from 100 nsec
to 10 nsec.
Still detect collisions on time by just reducing the maximum cable length by a factor of 10.
 Ethernet(Cont.)
Fast Ethernet
Structure :
All fast Ethernet systems use hubs and switches with a specific choice of cables as per requirement.

The original fast Ethernet cabling.

 Ethernet(Cont.)
Gigabit Ethernet
After the standard for Fast Ethernet was adopted the work for yet even faster standard started:
GigaBit Ethernet
Goals:
Increase performance ten fold over Fast Ethernet while maintaining compatibility with all existing
Ethernet standards.
Offer unacknowledged datagram service with both unicast and broadcast.
Use the same 48-bit addressing scheme already in use.
Maintain the same frame format including minimum and maximum sizes.
Similar to fast Ethernet :
 Uses point to point link in all types of configuration.
 Supports both modes of operation
o Full duplex (normal mode):- when there is a central
switch connected to computers (or other switches) on the
periphery. (a) A two-station Ethernet (b) A multistation Ethernet
o Half duplex :- when the computers are connected to a
hub rather than a switch.
 Ethernet(Cont.)
Gigabit Ethernet
Issue raised initially and its solution
Suffers from length restriction to support high speed (i.e. 100 times faster than classic Ethernet).
Length restriction seems not supportive by the users.
 To overcome length restriction and increase maximum cable length to 200m (enough for office buildings)
two noticeable features are added.
 Carrier extension :
o Tells the hardware to add its own padding after the normal frame to extend the frame to 512 bytes.
o Software modification is not required since it is unaware of it.
 Frame bursting :
o Allows a sender to transmit a concatenated sequence of multiple frames in a single transmission.
o If the total burst is less than 512 bytes, the hardware pads it again.
Structure :
Gigabit Ethernet supports fast Ethernet structure with a specific choice of cables as per requirement.

Gigabit Ethernet cabling

 Wireless LANS
 Quite popular in the current scenario.
 Homes, offices, cafes, libraries, airports, zoos, and other public places are being outfitted with
them to connect computers, PDAs, and smart phones to the Internet.
 Lets two or more nearby computers communicate without using the Internet with the help of local
wireless access point.
 The main wireless LAN standard is 802.11.

• 802.11 architecture and protocol stack

• 802.11 physical layer
• 802.11 MAC sublayer protocol
• 802.11 frame structure
 Wireless LANS(Cont.)
The 802.11 Architecture and Protocol Stack
802.11 networks can be used in two modes:
To Network
 Infrastructure mode Access
• Each client (i.e. smart phones, laptops) is associated Point
with an AP (Access Point) that is in turn connected
to the other network (intranet/internet). Client
• The client sends and receives its packets via the AP.
• Several access points may be connected, typically
by a wired network called a distribution system, to
form an extended 802.11 network.
 Ad-hoc mode
• In this mode a collection of computing systems are
associated so that they can directly send frames to
each other without the help of an access point.
 Wireless LANS(Cont.)
The 802.11 Architecture and Protocol Stack
The 802.11 protocol stack is same for clients and APs.
The physical layer corresponds fairly well to the
OSI physical layer.
Several transmission techniques are adopted with
evolution as time grows from initial use leading to higher
data rates.
(e.g. initially of 1 or 2 Mbps to currently of 54 Mbps through
different techniques)
The data link layer splits into two parts.
MAC sub layer does its specified job (i.e. channel
allocation).
LLC sub layer hides the differences between the different Part of the 802.11 protocol stack
802 variants and make them indistinguishable as far as
the network layer is concerned.
These days the LLC layer also identifies the protocol (e.g.
IP) that is carried within an 802.11 frame.
 Wireless LANS(Cont.)
The 802.11 Physical Layer

 All of the 802.11 techniques use short-range radios to transmit signals in either the 2.4-GHz or
the 5-GHz ISM frequency bands license free.
 Signals may get interfered with the use of devices such as microwave oven, cordless phones and
many more mostly in 2.4 GHz band.
 5 GHz can be better for short range applications due to the higher frequency.
 All of the transmission methods also define multiple rates and uses rate adaptation based on
current conditions.
(i.e. If the wireless signal is weak, a low rate can be used. If the signal is clear, the highest rate can be
used)
 Wireless LANS(Cont.)
The 802.11 Physical Layer
More on transmission techniques :
 802.11b :
 uses spread spectrum method and supports rates of 1, 2, 5.5, and 11 Mbps. (Initially 1 to 2 Mbps but later it enhanced
to 11 Mbps)
 Uses barker sequence (since of less autocorrelation between spectrum sequences) with BPSK and QPSK modulation for
lower speed (i.e.1 and 2 Mbps respectively).
 Uses CCK (Complementary Code Keying) technique to construct code representing each baud as 4 bit/8 bit to enhance
data rate (i.e. 5.5/11 Mbps respectively).
 802.11a :
 Supports rates up to 54 Mbps in the 5-GHz ISM band.
 Uses OFDM technique with 52 subcarriers (i.e. 48 against data and 4 against synchronization)for transmission.
 Bits undergoes binary convolutional coding for error correction.
 Can run at eight different rates, ranging from 6 to 54 Mbps.
 802.11g :
 Comes after the lifting of rule in U.S. (i.e. 2.4 GHz ISM band transmission can’t use techniques other than spread
spectrum) in 2002 and approved by IEEE in 2003.
 Copies the OFDM modulation methods of 802.11a but operates in the narrow 2.4-GHz ISM band along with 802.11b.
 802.11n :
 Ratified in 2009 and employs MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) communication technique.
 Uses up to four antennas to transmit up to four streams of information at the same time and separated at the receiver
through multiple antennas.
 Wireless LANS(Cont.)
The 802.11 MAC Sublayer Protocol
 802.11 tries to avoid collisions with a protocol called CSMA/CA (CSMA with Collision Avoidance).
 CSMA/CA conceptually same as CSMA/CD meant for Ethernet as far as a station wants to transmit
(i.e. channel sensing before sending and exponential back off to avoid collisions).
 A station that has a frame to send, starts with a random backoff (except in the case that it has not used
the channel recently and the channel is idle).
 The station waits until the channel is idle, by sensing that there is no signal for a short period of time and
counts down idle slots, pausing when frames are sent.
 It sends its frame when the counter reaches 0. If the frame gets through, the destination immediately
sends a short acknowledgement.
 Lack of an acknowledgement is inferred to indicate an error, whether a collision or otherwise.
 In this case, the sender doubles the backoff period and tries again, continuing with exponential backoff as
in Ethernet until the frame has been successfully transmitted or the maximum number of retransmissions
has been reached.
 Wireless LANS(Cont.)
The 802.11 MAC Sublayer Protocol
Example:
 Station A is the first to send a frame.
 While A is sending, stations B and C become ready to
send.
 They see that the channel is busy and wait for it to
become idle.
 Shortly after A receives an acknowledgement, the
channel goes idle.
 However, rather than sending a frame right away and
colliding, B and C both perform a back off.
 C picks a short back off, and thus sends first.
 B pauses its countdown while it senses that C is using
the channel, and resumes after C has received an
acknowledgement. Sending a frame with CSMA/CA.
 B soon completes its back off and sends its frame.
 Wireless LANS(Cont.)
The 802.11 MAC Sublayer Protocol
Difference from Ethernet :
 Starting backoffs early helps to avoid collisions.
 Avoidance is worthwhile because collisions are expensive, as the entire frame is transmitted even
if one occurs.
 Acknowledgements are used to infer collisions because collisions cannot be detected.
Mode of operation:
 DCF (Distributed Coordination Function) :
 Each station acts independently, without any kind of central control.
 PCF (Point Coordination Function) :
 The access point controls all activity in its cell, just like a cellular base station.
 Wireless LANS(Cont.)
The 802.11 MAC Sublayer Protocol
Handling the hidden & exposed node problem :
 Source : Incapability of channel sensing due to limited Transmission range
 To reduce ambiguities about which station is sending, 802.11 defines
channel sensing to consist of both physical sensing and virtual sensing.
 Physical sensing : Simply checks the medium to see if there is a valid signal.
 Virtual sensing : Each station keeps a logical record of when the channel is in
use by tracking the NAV (Network Allocation Vector).
 NAV : The hidden terminal problem
• Each frame carries a NAV field that says how long the sequence of which this
frame is part will take to complete.
• Stations that overhear this frame know that the channel will be busy for the
period indicated by the NAV, regardless of whether they can sense a physical
signal.
• For example, the NAV of a data frame includes the time needed to send an
acknowledgement. All stations that hear the data frame will defer during
the acknowledgement period, whether or not they can hear the
acknowledgement.
The exposed terminal problem
 Wireless LANS(Cont.)
The 802.11 MAC Sublayer Protocol
 An optional RTS/CTS mechanism uses the NAV to prevent terminals from sending frames at the same time
as hidden terminals.
Example: Transmission of data from A to B
Assumptions : (i) C is within range of A (and possibly within range of B ) (ii) D is a station within range of B but not within range of A.
Protocol operation :
1. A begins by sending a RTS frame to B.
2. Upon receipt of RTS, B answers A with a CTS frame.
3. Upon receipt of CTS, A sends its frame and starts an ACK timer.
4. Upon correct receipt of the data frame, B sends an ACK frame.
5. If A’s ACK timer expires before the ACK gets back to it, it is
treated as a collision and the whole protocol is run again after a
backoff.
Virtual channel sensing using CSMA/CA
Role of NAV :
 C is within range of A, so it may receive the RTS frame.
 From the information provided in the RTS request, it can estimate how long the sequence will take, including the final
ACK and so it desists from transmitting anything until the exchange is completed.
 It does so by updating its record of the NAV to indicate that the channel is busy.
 D does not hear the RTS, but it does hear the CTS since within range of B and so it also updates its NAV.
 Wireless LANS(Cont.)
The 802.11 MAC Sublayer Protocol
 Depending on needs of real operation several other mechanisms are included.
1. Reliability :
 In contrast to wired networks, wireless networks are noisy and unreliable due to interference from other
devices in ISM band.
 Use of acknowledgements and retransmissions is of little help if the probability of getting a frame
through is small.
Possible strategies to improve successful transmission :
 Lower the transmission rate -- If too many frames are lost, a station can lower the rate.
 Send shorter frames -- If the probability of any bit being in error is p, the probability of an n-bit frame being received
entirely correctly is (1 − p)n.
Ex : Assume p = 10 -4
 If the frame length is of 12,144 bits, then probability of receiving a full Ethernet frame correctly is less than 30%.
 if the frames are only a third as long (4048 bits) two thirds of them will be received correctly.
 In summary, if a frame is too long, it has very little chance of getting through undamaged and will probably have to
be retransmitted.
 Wireless LANS(Cont.)
The 802.11 MAC Sublayer Protocol
Fragment burst :
 To deal with the problem of noisy channels, 802.11 allows
frames to be fragmented into smaller pieces, called
fragments, each with its own checksum.
 The fragments are individually numbered and
acknowledged using a stop-and-wait protocol (i.e., the
sender may not transmit fragment k + 1 until it has
received the acknowledgement for fragment k).
 Once the channel has been acquired using RTS and CTS,
multiple fragments can be sent in a row, as shown in
Fig. sequence of fragments is called a fragment burst.
 The NAV mechanism keeps other stations quiet only
until the next acknowledgement.
 Fragmentation increases the throughput by restricting
retransmissions to the bad fragments rather than the
entire frame.
 All of the above discussion applies to the 802.11 DCF
mode.
 Wireless LANS(Cont.)
The 802.11 MAC Sublayer Protocol
2. Power saving :
 Battery life is always an issue with mobile wireless devices.
 To deal with this issue 802.11 supports power management while operating in PCF mode.
 Goal : Clients need not waste power when they have neither information to send nor to receive.
 Basic mechanism : Use of beacon frame and polling by AP.
 Beacons are periodically broadcasted by the AP (e.g. every 100 or 1000msec) indicating its presence.
 Also contains system parameters and the time, how long until the next beacon.
 Besides, AP also does polling form clients to know whether it has the data to transmit/receive.
 If client has data to transmit then responds to poll and transmit to AP following which goes to sleep mode.
 Receive Process :
 Clients can intimate AP when it enters to power-save mode.
 In this mode, the client can doze and the AP will buffer traffic intended for it.
 To check for incoming traffic, the client wakes up for every beacon, and checks a traffic map that is sent as part of
the beacon.
 This map tells the client if there is buffered traffic for it.
 If so, the client sends a poll message to the AP, which then sends the buffered traffic.
 The client can then go back to sleep until the next beacon is sent.
 Wireless LANS(Cont.)
The 802.11 MAC Sublayer Protocol
3. Quality of service:
 Applications such as VoIP takes the attention of 802.11 to focus on quality of service by giving different priority
to different traffics.
 802.11 supports coexistence of DCF and PCF for such kind of need.
 Works by extending CSMA/CA with carefully defined intervals between frames.
 After a frame has been sent, a certain amount of idle time is required before any station may send a frame.
 Different time intervals are defined for different kinds of frames.
 DIFS (DCF Inter Frame Spacing) : Meant for regular DCF data frames
 SIFS (Short Inter Frame Spacing) : Meant for short frames such as RTS, CTS, fragments.
 AIFS (Arbitration Inter Frame Spacing) : Meant for different priority frames
 EIFS (Extended Inter Frame Spacing) : Meant for unknown/bad frame
 Wireless LANS(Cont.)
The 802.11 MAC Sublayer Protocol
More on inter frame spacing:
 DIFS (DCF Inter Frame Spacing) :
 Interval between regular data frame.
 Any station may attempt to acquire the channel to send a new
data frame after the medium has been idle for DIFS.
 SIFS (Short Inter Frame Spacing) :
 The shortest interval among all.
 Allows the parties in a single dialog the chance to go first.
 Examples : ACK, RTS, CTS, Fragments
 AIFS (Arbitration Inter Frame Spacing) :
 Used by AP for sending priority based traffic.
 EX :
o AIFS1: AP will wait for a shorter interval before it sends the voice
traffic, and thus send it before regular traffic.
o AIFS4: AP will wait for a longer interval before it sends regular
traffic the opportunity to transmit first.
 EIFS (Extended Inter Frame Spacing) : Inter frame spacing in 802.11
 Used only by a station that has just received a bad or unknown
frame, to report the problem.
 Wireless LANS(Cont.)
The 802.11 Frame Structure
802.11 standard defines three different classes of frames in the air: data, control, and management.
Data frame :
Frame control : Size 2 bytes and made up of 11 subfields
 Protocol version : Set to ‘00’ - allow two versions of 802.11 protocol to operate at the same time in the same cell.
 Type : Indicates (data, control, management)
EX : Type -‘10’, Subtype – ‘0000’ indicates a regular data frame
 Subtype : (e.g. RTS or CTS).
 To DS and From DS : ‘1’ - Indicate whether the frame is going to or coming from the network using APs (i.e. distribution
system)
 More fragments : ‘1’ – Means more fragments will follow after it
 Retry : ‘1’ - Retransmission of a frame sent earlier
 Power management : ‘1’ - Sender is going into power-save mode
 More data : ‘1’ – More data frames to come for receiver
 Protected : ‘1’ – Encrypted frame body
 Order : ‘1’ – Higher layer to expect frame to arrive in sequence
Format of the 802.11 data frame
 Wireless LANS(Cont.)
The 802.11 Frame Structure
Data frame :
Duration :
 Tells how long the frame and its acknowledgement will occupy the channel(in microseconds).
 Present in other frames (i.e. control and management)
o In management indicates the NAV.
Address :
 Data frames involving AP uses all 3 fields.
 1st address – Receiver (AP /station)
 2nd address – Sender (AP/station)
 3rd address – Distant point/station for which AP acts as relay.
Sequence :
 A number associated with frames to check duplicity.
 Of the 16 bits available
o 4 identify the fragment
o 12 carry a number that is advanced with each new transmission
Data : Contains the payload, up to 2312 bytes.
Check sequence : 32-bit CRC Format of the 802.11 data frame
 Wireless LANS(Cont.)
The 802.11 Frame Structure
Control frame :
 Short in size.
 Contains the Frame control, Duration, and Frame check sequence fields.
 May have only one address and no data portion.
 Most of the key information is conveyed with the Subtype field (e.g., ACK, RTS and CTS).
Management frame :
 Similar to that of data frames, except without one of the base station addresses, because
management frames are restricted to a single cell.
 Wireless LANS(Cont.)
Data Link Layer Switching
Many organizations have multiple LANs and wish to connect them.
Requires the use of Repeaters, Hubs, Bridges, Switches, Routers, and Gateways
Possible reasons why a single organization may end up with multiple LANs.
• First, many university and corporate departments have their own LANs, primarily to connect their own personal
computers, workstations, and servers. Since the goals of the various departments differ, different departments choose
different LANs, without regard to what other departments are doing.
• Second, the organization may be geographically spread over several buildings separated by considerable distances.
• Third, it may be necessary to split what is logically a single LAN into separate LANs to accommodate the load.
• Fourth, in some situations, a single LAN would be adequate in terms of the load, but the physical distance between the
most distant machines is too great (e.g., more than 2.5 km for Ethernet).
• Fifth, there is the matter of reliability. On a single LAN, a defective node that keeps outputting a continuous stream of
garbage can cripple the LAN.
• Sixth, bridges can contribute to the organization's security. Most LAN interfaces have a promiscuous mode, in which all
frames are given to the computer, not just those addressed to it. Spies and busybodies love this feature.
 Wireless LANS(Cont.)
Data Link Layer Switching
Repeaters, Hubs, Bridges, Switches, Routers, and Gateways :
All of these devices are in common use.
Operate in different layers. Why?
 Different devices use different pieces of information to decide how to
switch.
A typical scenario :
• The user generates some data to be sent to a remote machine.
Which device is in which layer
• Those data are passed to the transport layer, which then adds a
header (for example, a TCP header) and passes the resulting unit
down to the network layer. The network layer adds its own
header to form a network layer packet (e.g., an IP packet).
• Then the packet goes to the data link layer, which adds its own
header and checksum (CRC) and gives the resulting frame to the
Frames, packets, and headers
physical layer for transmission, for example, over a LAN.
 Wireless LANS(Cont.)
Data Link Layer Switching
Repeaters
 These are analog devices that work with signals on the cables to which they are connected.
 A signal appearing on one cable is cleaned up, amplified, and put out on another cable.
 Repeaters do not understand frames, packets, or headers.
 They understand the symbols that encode bits as volts.
 Example :
 In classic Ethernet four repeaters are used for boosting the signal to extend the maximum cable length from
500 meters to 2500 meters.
Hubs
 A hub has several input lines that it joins electrically.
 Frames arriving on any of the lines are sent out on all the others.
 If two frames arrive at the same time, they will collide.
 All the lines coming into a hub must operate at the same speed.
 Differ from repeaters in that they do not (usually) amplify the incoming
signals and are designed for multiple input lines.
Like repeaters, hubs are physical layer devices that do not examine the link layer
addresses or use them in any way.
 Wireless LANS(Cont.)
Data Link Layer Switching
Bridge
 Connects two or more LANs.
 When a frame arrives, the bridge extracts the destination address from the
frame header and looks it up in a table to see where to send the frame.
 The bridge only outputs the frame on the port where it is needed and can
forward multiple frames at the same time.
 It also offer the input lines may run at different speeds, possibly
even with different network types using a buffer.
 Limitation -- Used for connection between same kind of LAN.
Switches
 Switches are modern bridges by another name with more ports.
 Most often used to connect individual computers.
 Wireless LANS(Cont.)
Data Link Layer Switching
Router
 When a packet comes into a router, the frame header and trailer are stripped off and the packet located in
the frame’s payload field is passed to the routing software.
 This software uses the packet header to choose an output line.
 For an IP packet, the packet header will contain a 32-bit (IPv4) or 128-bit (IPv6) address.
 Used for connection between different kinds of LAN.
Transport gateways
 These connect two computers that use different connection-oriented transport protocols.
 For example, suppose a computer using the connection-oriented TCP/IP protocol needs to talk to a
computer using a different connection-oriented transport protocol called SCTP.
 The transport gateway can copy the packets from one connection to the other, reformatting them as
need be.
Application gateways
 It understand the format and contents of the data and can translate messages from one format to
another.
• An email gateway could translate Internet messages into SMS messages for mobile phones.