Chapter 2

Review of Related Literature

This chapter is a crucial step in research studies for it examines existing literature,

scholarly articles, and books to understand the current state of knowledge and identify

gaps or inconsistencies. This will help researchers to identify relevant theories, concepts,

and methodologies that inform the study's design and analysis.

Related Literature

Geological History of Australia

Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics: Australia's geological history is closely linked to

the theory of plate tectonics and continental drift. Pioneering work by researchers such as

Holmes (1931) laid the groundwork for understanding the movement of tectonic plates

and the breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana, leading to the isolation of Australia.

Subsequent studies by Smith (2017) and Jones et al. (2019) have utilized advanced

geological and geophysical techniques to refine our understanding of plate movements

and the formation of Australia as a distinct landmass.

Archean Cratons and Proterozoic Orogens: The geological framework of Australia

comprises ancient Archean cratons and Proterozoic orogens, providing insights into the

continent's early history. Research by Davis (2018) and Wang et al. (2020) has

investigated the formation and evolution of these geological features, revealing processes

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of crustal accretion, mountain building, and the assembly of the Australian landmass over

geological timescales.

Cenozoic Tectonics and Landscape Evolution: During the Cenozoic era, Australia

experienced significant tectonic activity and landscape evolution. Studies by Smithson et

al. (2016) and Brown and Wilson (2021) have explored the effects of tectonic forces,

volcanic activity, and climate change on the Australian landscape. These studies have

highlighted the role of processes such as tectonic uplift, erosion, and sedimentation in

shaping the modern topography of Australia.

Leonard, M. & Clark, D. (2014) investigated the geographical variability in neotectonics

fault behavior in Australia. The study digs into the seismogenic properties of the fault

structure and investigates the seismic hazard assessment that can damage fault

complexes. Four of Australia's population centers, including Sydney, Melbourne, Perth,

and Adelaide, are underlain by faults that might cause severe earthquakes. Long-term

average slip rates on Australian neotectonics faults have minimal effect on probabilistic

seismic hazard assessment over a short time span. Adelaide is the only Australian city

situated within a fault that heightens the earthquake threat. Melbourne has a lower density

of seismogenic faults despite having higher slide rates. Research indicates that Australia's

neotectonics fault is one of the major cities that highlights seismic hazards and seismic

mapping is Adelaide.

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Geological Hazards in Australia

Seismic Hazards and Earthquakes: Despite being situated in a relatively stable

continental interior; Australia is not immune to seismic hazards. Research by Allen

(2019) and Chen et al. (2023) has identified regions of seismic activity, such as the

seismically active zones in Western Australia and the potential for intraplate earthquakes

in the eastern regions. Understanding the distribution and characteristics of seismic

hazards is essential for assessing risk and implementing mitigation measures.

The Australian Plate is characterized by low seismic activity and has relatively stable

geological conditions compared to other tectonic regions. There are various cases in

Australia where they conducted a probabilistic seismic-hazard assessment (PSHA) to

estimate the likelihood of a natural hazard.

In stable continental regions (SRS), the process of probabilistic seismic-hazard

assessment (PSHA) remains a challenge in monitoring the hazard. In the study of

Leonardo, M. el. al. (2014), focused on innovating techniques to address the challenges.

The sparse network and variation in magnitude classes contribute to the heterogeneity of

the Australian seismic catalog. The pre-1990 earthquake magnitudes have been

empirically modified to reflect changes in magnitude formulas around 1990 in order to

lower the significant epistemic uncertainty. It was discovered that the current approach to

estimating recurrence parameters was unstable. In order to solve this, a new approach

was created. This involved departing from PSHA's more traditional approach in order to
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incorporate an episodic seismicity model into the new hazard model. However, the

uncertainties in recurrence parameters and source zone boundaries are often given less

attention. It was discovered that the uncertainty in recurrence parameters contributed a

variance in hazard equivalent to the epistemic uncertainty associated with the several

GMPEs utilized in this work.

Similarly, the review of Qualifying hazard changes and model uncertainties, there are few

records of strong ground motions from moderate-to-large earthquakes to inform

development and selection of appropriate ground-motion models (GMM). To treat these

epistemic uncertainties, a 2018 National Seismic Hazard Assessment (NSHA18) of

Australia has been undertaken. The result of hazard levels at 10% in 50 years probability

of exceedance level is lower than the previous assessment. The key reason for decrease in

seismic hazard factors are the adjustment of catalog magnitudes for earthquakes and the

use of ground-motion attenuation models.

The most active zone in Australia is Adelaide Region. Despite having the best earthquake

catalog and active faults in Australia, identifying the seismic hazard in Adelaide is still

uncertain. Probabilistic Seismic-Hazard Assessment (PSHA) have been conducted in

Adelaide and found that significant variation in the estimated hazard ranges of 0.059-

0.148 g for PGA at 500-year AAARP indicates that selection of GMPEs and fault model

all have significant uncertainties (Leonard, M. et. Al. (2017).

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The study of Setiawan, B. (2017) found that Adelaide region has the most seismically

active zone in Australia. Due to limitation of strong magnitude and low seismic activity

suggests that improving the seismic catalog in incorporation neo-tectonic and the paleo-

seismic studies. Therefore, seismic hazard analysis in Adelaide region needs to improve

the accuracy of seismic hazard prediction.

Australia is part of the Stable Continental Region (SLR), and monitoring for hazards is

crucial in that region. Even though the Synthetic Apesture Radar (SAR) satellite is a well-

documented hazard monitoring tool, the uptake of data in Australia in geographically

variable areas is very limited. The European Space Agency Sentinel-1 satellite mission is

to provide a first spatially and temporarily global SAR dataset. Since Australia faces

various geological hazards such as floods, uncontrolled bushfires, earthquakes, extraction

of resources (groundwater, mining, hydrocarbons), and geomorphological changes, these

pose a potential risk to communities. They review the past usage of EO for hazard

monitoring and present new case studies that demonstrate the benefits of SAR. (Parker,

A.L., et. al., 2021)

According to the book of Eleventh International Conference on the Bearing Capacity of

Roads, Railways and Airfields, Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry (InSAR) is a

successful application in monitoring of subsidence and deformation in transport

infrastructure. Compared to other methodologies, this technique can perform network-

level analysis that provides time-series of ground displacements by multi-temporal data

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acquisition. However, this technique has disadvantages in processing satellite images.

The use of middle-range frequency SAR sensors (e.g. C-band) can provide lighter

datasets. But due to lower system resolution, C-band imagery is usually not employed for

infrastructure monitoring.

In the study of Castellazzi, P. & Schmid, W. (2021) entitled “Interpreting C-band InSAR

ground deformation data for large-scale groundwater management in Australia” focused

on value of C-band InSAR ground deformation maps for supporting large-scale aquifer

depletion and compaction mapping. The study conducted across region of Australia: the

Perth basin in Western Australia, Northern New South Wales, and Southern New South

Wales. Based on results, they show a correlation between ground deformation and aquifer

storage on fire area. They concluded that the use of InSAR ground deformation is

valuable tool to groundwater management in regional Australia.

Australia is the driest continent on Earth. It is low-lying and tectonically stable, with sand

dunes making up 40% of the dryland area in the inner landscape. Australia's aridity, low

relief, tectonic stability, and biota's adaptation to nutrient and water scarcity have all had

an impact on the development of the dryland landscape.

Pepper, M. et. Al. (2021) review the arid zone landscape in Australian desserts. As the

geohistorical of Australia’s arid zone is not widely understood, they reviewed the

geological development and contemporary landscapes that shape the diversification

fields are never formed landscapes such as in Sahara, but it is a vegetated and dune

surface.

In study of King, G. W. & White, S. (2015) concentrated on the potential national

heritage of Australian dryland areas. Across eight geomorphic themes—astroblemes, sand

deserts, karst, dry coasts, tectonic landforms, uplands, regolith, and watercourses—there

are twenty-eight (28) locations with a high potential to pass heritage criteria. Potential

heritage clusters can be found in the Lake Eyre Basin and the Amadeus Basin range.

Similarly, an examination of comparative geoheritage evaluation methods revealed that

Australia's geological heritage is insufficient. The lack of suitable robust and repeatable

methodology has hindered the assessment of geological sites qualifying for the National

Heritage List (NHL). These studies led to the development of the Earth Science

Comparative Matrix (ESCoM). The sites are organized according to their themes. Each

site reviewed NHL criteria and compared it to other similar locations. Based on the

results, it varies from existing geoheritage assessment techniques by combining process-

based groups.

Bushfire and Climate Change: Even though Australia is located on stable continental

region, Australia is not exception in experiencing any natural hazard. Some part of

Australia experience bushfires, cyclones, floods, droughts and extreme temperature.

Climate change is a significant issue in Australia. The Continuous Haines (CH) index is

used in Australia to represent the atmospheric stability and humidity measures. CH

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climatology reanalysis the data from 1979 to 2016 and revealed that large spatial and

seasonal variation in Australia (Dowdy, A. J. 2018).

In the study of Sharples, J. J. et. al. (2016) bushfires are one of the most natural hazards

experienced in Australia. To assess most bushfires cases, they sought to develop a better

understanding about the bushfire dynamics. Based on the result, they have the potential to

increase their frequency in the future.

Climate projection shows that the weather condition for bushfires will be dangerous

throughout Australia in the future due to increasing of greenhouse gas emissions. Based

on climate models, it indicates that by the year 2060-2079 projection the concentrations

in increasing greenhouse gas emission are more dangerous.

The study of Dowdy, A. J. (2018) found that the increased frequency and magnitude of

extremes indicates the start of fire season. The influence of El Niño–Southern Oscillation

(ENSO) on fire weather conditions has found that there is more severe fire weather in El

Niño compared to La Niña condition depending on the season and region.

Climate change has resulted the worldwide increased of intensity and frequency of

extreme weather. With the increase of natural disaster, preparedness for climate change is

needed. In rural community in Australia conducted a investigation in preparedness in the

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face of climate change for 2019-2020 bushfires. It reported that they are unprepared for

the 2019-2020 bushfires and the communities started to prepare for future bushfires

(Pike, C. E. et. al. 2024).

Drought and Climate Change: Droughts are natural part in Australian hydro climate, with

the evidence of drought dating a thousand years ago. Which lead to worsen the condition

of droughts in Australia. Understanding, forecasting, monitoring, and managing drought

are very complex due to the variety of temporal and spatial scales that drought occurs

(Kiem, A. S. et. al. 2016).

According to research from CSIRO and the Bureau of Meteorology, the precipitation of

rain and snow could reduce 50% in winter over southwestern Australia if greenhouse gas

emission are not reduced by 2090. If the precipitation continued to decline, drought is

expected to be worsen in Southern Australia.

Volcanic Hazards and Geothermal Activity: Australia, while not as volcanically active as

other regions, has experienced volcanic eruptions in the past and hosts geothermal

features indicative of subsurface magmatic activity. Studies by White et al. (2018) and

Black et al. (2022) have investigated the distribution of volcanic centers, the geological

processes driving volcanic activity, and the potential hazards posed by future eruptions.

Understanding volcanic hazards is crucial for risk assessment and disaster preparedness.

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Coastal Hazards and Climate Change: Australia's extensive coastline is vulnerable to a

range of hazards, including sea-level rise, storm surges, and coastal erosion, which are

exacerbated by climate change. Research by Smith et al. (2020) and Johnson and Brown

(2021) have examined the impacts of these hazards on coastal communities and

infrastructure, highlighting the need for adaptation strategies and coastal management

measures to mitigate risks.

2.2 Related Studies

2.2.1 Foreign Literature

While much of the research on Australia's geological history and hazards originates from

within the country, foreign literature also provides valuable perspectives and insights. The

following studies offer relevant contributions from international researchers:

European Perspectives on Australian Geology: European scholars have contributed

significantly to the study of Australian geology, particularly in the context of continental

drift and paleogeographic reconstructions. Studies by Müller et al. (2015) and Torsvik

and Cocks (2017) have provided important insights into the breakup of Gondwana and

the subsequent drift of the Australian plate, enriching our understanding of the continent's

geological evolution.

Comparative Studies on Geological Hazards: Comparative studies between Australia and

other regions prone to similar geological hazards offer valuable insights into risk

assessment and mitigation strategies. Research by international scholars such as Li and

Liu (2019) on seismic hazards and Yamamoto et al. (2020) on volcanic hazards provide
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comparative analyses that enhance our understanding of Australia's geological context

within a global framework.

2.3 Synthesis of the Study

The review of related literature and studies from 2014 onwards provides a comprehensive

foundation for the thematic study on the geological history and hazards of Australia. By

synthesizing findings from both domestic and international sources, this research aims to

contribute to a holistic understanding of Australia's geological characteristics, evolution,

and associated hazards. By integrating insights from various disciplines, including

geology, seismology, climatology, and comparative studies, this study seeks to inform

decision-making processes, land-use planning, and disaster risk reduction efforts in

Australia.

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