RD-OPT:An Efficient ‘Ugorithm For Optimizing DCT

Quantization Tables*
Viresh Ratnakar Miron Livny
Unzverszty of Wzsconszn-Madison Cnzverszty of Wzsconszn-Madzson
C o m p u t e r Sczences D e p a r t m e n t C o m p u t e r S c i e n c ~ sD e p o r t m e n t
Modison, WI 5 3 7 0 6 M a d i s o n , WI 53706
Emazl: ratnakar@[Link] Emoil: m,ron@[Link]

Abstract
The Discret? Cosine Transform (DCT) is widely used in lossy image and video compression schemes
such as JPEG and MPEG In this paper we describe RD-OPT. an efficient algorithm for constructing
DCT quantization tables with optimal rate-distortion tradeoffs for a given image. The algorithm uses
DCT coefficient distribution statistics in a novel way and uses a dynamic programming strategy t o
produce optimal quantization tables over a wide range of rates and distortions I t ran he used to
compress images at any desired signal-to-noise ratio or compressed size.

1 Introduction
T h e Discrete Cosine Transform [ANR74] lies at the heart of most commonly used lossy image and video
compression schemes [PM93, MP911. T h e extent of compression achieved depends upon the coarseness
of quantization of the transform coefficients. The coarser the quantization, the lesser the entropy of the
quantized coefficients. But coarse quantization also leads to poor quality of the decompressed image. ’rhus,
the quantization table used directly determines the rate-distortion tradeoff. i e , the comprrssion-cluality
tradeoff
Several approaches have been tried in order to design quantization tables for particnlar distortioii or
rate specifications. T h e most coinnion of these is to use a drfault table and scale it up or down by a
scalar multiplier to vary quality and coniprrssion TVr have shown in [RL94]that this might not give the
best tradeoff possible. Other approaches include psycho-visual niodel based cpantizatioii [hP92,TVatS3],
rate-distortion model based quantization [Jai89], and stochastic optimization technicpies [MS93]
In this paper we present RD-OPT, an efficient algorithm for optimum quantization t,able design that
does not rely on visual or rate-distortion models The algorithm admits a widr range of quality ineasnres
(including [Link] PSNR)and produces quantization tables optimizing the tradeoff bet,wern quality
and compressed size. A key feature of the algorithm is that i t simultaneously optimizes quantization tables
over a wide range of rates and distortions.

2 Image compression based on the Discrete Cosine Transform

T h e human visual system is not very sensitive to sudden changrs in intensity across an image [VBtii] Lossy
image compression techniques strive to discard that part of the image structnre which is less percepbible
to the eye. T h e two-dimensional Discretr Cosine Transform (rrfrrred to hereafter as DCT) offers an ef-
ficient way to break up the underlying structure of an image into different spatial-frequency componeuts.
T h e high-frequency components are less perceptible t o the eyr compared t o t,hc low-frequency components.
‘This work was partially supported by NASA grant SAG\Y-3914 and NSF grant IRI-9224741.

332 1068-0314/95$4.00 0 1995 IEEE

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 333

Thus, the D C T orders the information-content of an image into parts with different degrees of visual im-
portance. ‘These parts can then be selectively discarded or stored with varying degrees of accuracy, for lossy
compression of the image. The compression-ratio increases as more and more information is thrown away.
DCT-based compression techniques typically allow the user to specify a table (called the quantization table)
that stipulates the level of accuracy with which each spatial-frequency component is to he stored.
We now briefly describe the basic steps used in DCT-based image compression and decompression, and
thereby present some notation. Details on various standards can be found in the standard documents.
Details on D C T itself can be found in [RYSO].
Let I be a W x H image with pixel values in the range [0 . . . M I . The DCT-based compression process
consists of the following steps.

1. The image is divided into 8 x 8 blocks. To each image block f , the DCT is applied to get an 8 x 8
block: f of DCT coefficients. Each coefficient represents the amount of a particular spatial-frequency
content in f. The lowest frequency coefficient (also called the DC: coefficient) is f ( 0 , O ) while the highest
frequency coefficient is f ( 7 , 7 ) .

2. An 8 x 8-matrix of integers Q, called the quantization table, is used to quantize the coefficients in f
to form f Q . For notational convenience, we number the 64 entries in each 8 x 8 image block and each
8 x 8 block of DCT coefficients in raster-scan order, and use this ordering t o refer t o individual entries
+
in the various blocks. Thus, f(u,v) is referred to as f [ 8 u U ] . Using this notation,

Here // represents division followed by rounding to the nearest integer’,

3 The block f~ is ent,ropy-coded. using (for example) Huffman codes to exploit similarities across blocks,
to give the compressed block E ( ~ Q[PM93].
) The sequence of these compressed blocks forms the
compressed image.

The decompression process reverses these steps as follows:

1. Each entropy-coded block E ( ~ Qis)decoded to get the corresponding block of quantized coefficients
fQ .

2 . Uequantization is done to construct the block f’, as follows:

j’[n]= f ~ [ n ]Q[n],
. 0 5 n 5 63

3 The two-dimensional Inverse Discrete Cosine Transform (IDC’IC), is applied to f’ t o get the decom-
pressed image block f’. ‘These decompressed blocks form the decompressed image I‘

The compression and decompression processes; can be summarized as:

~~~ ~

DCT Quantization Entropy-coding

f .f -+ iQ -+ E(fQ)
.1
1DC.r Dequantization Decoding
f’ f’ t .fQ t- NQ)
The lossiness of the compression is essentially because of the quantizalion step (f + j ~ )as, in gmeral,

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 334

This causes differences in pixel values between the original image block f and its approximation, the decom-
pressed image block f’ We refer to the mean-squared-error between f and 7 as dzstortzon in f caused by
Q and denote it by d(f,Q)
1 63
d(l,Q)= E (f[nI - f’[nI)’
n=O
The distortion D ( I ,Q) between an image I and its approximation I’ due to quantization by Q is similarly
defined as the mean-squared-error between corresponding pixel values. Clearly, D ( I ,Q) is the mean value
o f all d ( f , Q) over all constituent blocks f in I The distortion D ( I , Q) is used to judge the “quality” of 1‘,
in quality measures such as Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SKR) and Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR):

Here S is the mean-squared pixel value over I Higher distortion implies poorer quality and vice versa
Clearly, as entries in Q are made higher, D ( 1 . Q) tends to increase.
We can also define the distortion between the DCT coefficient-block f and its approximation f’ resulting
from quantization by Q ,as

Our approach to designing rate-distortion-optimal quantization tables exploits the following nice property
of the DCT.
4f.
Q!= d ( S , Q!
That is, the mean squared error in pixel-domain is the same as the mean squared error in DCT-domain
This can be seen as follows.
DCT(f) = f
IDCT(?) = f’
=+ DCT(f’) = f’
3 DCT(f-f’) = f-7, using linearity of DCT
j E
:
=, - f’[n])’=
(f[n] cFz,
- j i [ n ] ) ’ , since DCT preserves
(f[n] LZ norms
* d(f,Q) = d(f,Q)
This implies that D ( I ,&) can he split as a sum into distortions in various DCT coefficients. Let D n ( I ,q ) be
defined as
1
= -lrean{ti[nl
Dn(i,q)64 - P[~II’I,
Where i’[ii]= ( f ^ [ n ] / / qq). and the mean is taken over all t h e blocks in the image. Then
63

D ( 1 . Q! = D n ( I .Q[nl!
n=u
Since we are mainly concerened with the effects of different quantization tables on a given image. we
denote the distortion D ( I , Q ) simply as D ( Q ) Similarly, we denotr the distortion U , ( i , q ) in t,he nth
coefficient by D,(q) Then,
63

D(Q) = 1DiL(Q[nl)
n=O
(1)

This decomposit,ion of D(Q)into contributions from individual coefficients is important, as it simplifies the
task of minimizing D ( & ) to that of minimiaing a sum. each of whose components depends on just one entry
in Q. We now show how the rate (or compressed size) resulting from Q can also be split similarly into a
sum These two properties of the DCT allow the problem of optimizing the rate-distortion tradeoff to be
solved using a dynamic programming approach for miiiiiiiizing two sums.

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 335

2.1 Bit-rates for DCT-based compression

The degree of compression achieved is usually expressed in terms of the rate of the compressed image, which
is the number of bits used per pixel:

size of compressed image in bits

-
rate = ____
number of pixels in the image '

Low rates are achieved when the quantized blocks f~

have similar entries (low entropy). The most common
case is that of a coefficient being quantized to zero. The more zeros there are in the fewer bits it would i~,
take to store it. Thus, increasing the entries in Q tends to decrease the rate. We denote the rate resulting
with the use of a particular quantization table Q a s E ( & ) .
DCT has the nice property of being very close to the Karhunen-Loeve-Hotelling tranform, a transform
that produces uncorrelated coefficients [ANR74]. The lack of correlation between coefficients allows the rate
to be decomposed as a sum of contributions from individual coefficients. It has been shown in [RFVK94]
that the coefficient-wise average of entropies of the quantized DCT coefficients is a very good estimate of
the rate resulting from two-pass Huffman coding of runlengths. This allows us to approximate R ( Q ) as a
sum of rates of individual coefficients. Let R,(q) be defined as

Where the entropy is measured over all the blocks in the image'. Then
63

N Q )KZ Rn(Q[nl)
n=O

Thus, R ( Q ) can also be decomposed into a sum of contributions from individual coefficients, just like D ( Q ) .

3 The RD-OPT algorithm

In this section, we present the RD-OPT algorithni for constructing quantization tables with optimal rate-
distortion tradeoffs for a given image. It is desirable to have low rate (high compression) and low distortion
(high quality). However, varying Q has opposite effects on D ( Q ) and R ( Q ) . The distortion D ( Q ) tends to
increase and the rate E ( & ) tends to decrease as the entries in Q are made larger. The tradeoff between
D ( Q ) and E ( & )is different for different images.
The problem of choosing Q to optimize the rate-distortion tradeoff for a given image I can be stated in
two ways:

1. Given a target distortion A, find Q such that D ( Q ) 5 A and the rate R(Q)is minimized.
2. Given a target rate B bits per pixel (bpp), find Q such that R(Q) 5 B and the distortion D ( Q ) is
minimized.
We call the quantization tables Q that satisfy these conditions (for some A or B ) ED-optimal.
RD-OPT takes an image I as input and produces RD-optimalquantization tables for a wide range of rates
and distortions The contributions to rate and distortion of individual coefficients (Rn(&[n]) and &(Q[n]),
respectively) just depend on the entry Q[n]of 4'. RD-OPT first calculates R n ( Q [ n ]and ) Dn(Q[n])for
each possible value of Q [ n ] and
, then uses a dynamic programming approach t o minimize sums of Rn(Q[n])
against sums of D, (&[.I). To calculate R,(y) and Dn(q)for each possible y, a preliminary pass through the
image is run to gather DCT statistics which are used in a novel way. RD-OPT can be described at a high
lpvrl as.
'If ( f [ n ] j qtakes
) thc value ZI in a fraction p , > 0 of all blocks f , then this entropy is -E,
p,logzp,.

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 336

Algorithm RD-OPT
Input: An image I of width W and height H , with pixel values in the range [0 . . M ]

Output: RD-optimal D C T quantization tables Q

Step 1. Gather DCT statistics for the image (Procedure G a t h e r S t a t s )

Step 2. Use the statistics to calculate R,(q) and D,(q) for each possible p (Procedures F i l l R and F i l l D ) .

Step 3. Use dyiiamic programming to optimize R(Q)against D ( Q ) (Procedure FillLeastD)

W’e now present each of the three steps in RD-OPT in detail. Pseudo-code for all the procedures described
in this section can he found in Appendix A .

3.1 Step 1: Gathering DCT statistics

The task for this step is to gather DCT statistics for the image, which can be used to efficiently answer the
questions

1. How many times does the nth coefficient get quantized to value zi when Q[n] = q?

2. What is the mean-squared error for the nth coefficient when &[n] = q?

It can be shown that for any integer p 2 1,

c / / q = Bucket(c)//(Zp).

Hence, it suffices to gather statistics by counting the number of times each D C T coefficient takes a value in
a particular bucket, as this count can then be used to calculate the number of times a particular quantized
coefficient takes a particular value. The unquantized coefficient value itself can he approximated to within3
ztO.25.
Let OccursCount[O . .63][-2VMAX ZVMAX] be an array with the value OccursCount[n][v] being the num-
ber of blocks where the nth D C T coefficient en is such that Bucket(c,) = U . T h e constant VMAX is the
maximum absolute value any D C T coefficient can take (for 1-byte samples, M = 255 and VMAX = 2048). T h e
array OccursCount is filled by the procedure G a t h e r S t a t s .
G a t h e r S t a t s works by going through each 8 x 8 block f in I and calculating its Discrete Cosine Transform
g . For each coefficient g [ n ] ,the count OccursCount[n][Bucket(g[n])]is incremented by one.

3.2 Step 2 : Calculating R,(q) and D,(q).

Let the possible range of values of any quantization table entry q be 1 5 q 5 MAXQ. Let R[O . . 63][1. MAXQ]
and D[O .63][1 .NAXQ] be two-dimensional arrays. The task of this step is t o fill Lhese arrays usiiig the
array OccursCount such that,
R[nl[ql = Rn(q)
D[nl[ql = D n ( 9 )
This is accomplished by procedures F i l l R and F i l l D .
F i l l R fills the array R by calculating the entropy of the nth coefficient when quantized by q , for all
n and q . For each possible quantized value (QuantizedVal), the variable Count is used t o compute the
number of times the n t h coefficient gets quantized (by q ) to QuantizedVal. Count is simply the sum of all
3T0 make sure this is t h e case. bucket 0 which corresponds t o values in the interval (-0.5,0.5) must be split into two buckets,
b u t this detail is ignored here for clarrty

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 337

OccursCount[n][v] such that vll(2.q) is equal t o QuantizedVal. If F is the total number of blocks in I , then,
the entropy is calculated as:

Count Count
Entropy = - F l o g ’ 7
QuantizedVal

F i l l D fills the array D by calculating the error in quantizing the nth coefficient by q , for each n and q . For
each integer t i in the range -2VMAX. . .2VMAX, the nth coefficient gets quantized to the value QuantizedVal
(= v i ( 2 9 ) ) in OccursCount[n][v] blocks. The actual (unquantized) value of the coefficient in each of these
blocks is estimated by the variable OriginalVal., to within 1k0.25. For each U , the error is incremented by
OccursCount[n][v] , (OriginalVal - q QuantizedVal)’.

3.3 Step 3: Finding RD-optimal Q

The arrays R and D are used in this step to find rate-distortion-optimal quantization tables, using a dynamic
programming ( D P ) approach. For this, one of R ( Q ) and D ( Q ) needs to be discretized t o integral values,
to be used as an index in the DP table. This introduces some error in the quantity discretized, which is
analyzed in the next section.
Let BPPSCALE be a large integer constant. We discretize R ( Q )to integral values by multiplying each
R[n][q] with BPPSCALE and rounding off. This is done in Procedure FillR itself. For the rest of this section,
we will be referring to the discretized values, when we refer to rate, and to R(Q) and R n ( q ) ( =R [ n ] [ q l ) .
Let MAXRATE be the discretized value of the highest rate for which we are interested in finding an RD-
optimal quantization table. Let LeastD[O.. .63][0.. .NAXRATE] be an array whose entries have the following
definition: LeastD[nj[s] is the least total distortion for coefficients numbered 0 through n such that the total
( d i y h z e d ) rate (for these coefficients) is exactly s . That is, LeastD[n][s] is the least value (over all Q) of
Ck=oD[k][Q[k]]subject to the constraint

f:
k=O
R[kl[Q[kll= s

Theorem 1 states the property of LeastD that allows it to be computed using a dynamic programming
approach.

Theorem 1 For each n, I 5 n 5 63, and each 8, 0 5 s 5 MAXRATE, k t D ( n ,s) be the set

1 5 (I 5 MAXQ,
D[n][q] + [Link][n - 1][s‘]

Then,

Proof: (See Appendix B)

The array LeastD is filled by procedure F i l l L e a s t D using Theorem 1. F i l l L e a s t D starts with each entry
in LeastD set t o cc and then fills the rows one by one. Row number n is filled using row number 12-1, D[n][. . .],
and R[n][. .]. For each q (0 5 q 5 NAXQ) and each s‘ (0 5 s’ 5 MAXRATE), D[n][q]+LeastD[n-l][s‘] is compared
with LeastD[n][s], where s = s‘+R[n][q]. If the former is lesser, then it replaces the latter. To keep track of
the choices made at any point, F i l l L e a s t D mainhins another data structure, QChoice[O . . .63][0, , .MAXRATE].
QChoice[n][s] is set to the value q that gives the entry in LeastD[n][s]. That is, QChoice[n][s] is set t o q
+
whenever D[n][q] LeastD[n - 1][s’] is entered in LeastD[n][s].
Now, if a total distortion requirement A is t o be met, it’s straightforward to find the least s such that
LeastD[63][s] 5 A . Similarly, if a rate requirement B is to be met, it’s easy t o find s such that s 5 B and
LeastD[63][s] is the minimum over all such s . Thus, in both cases one can find a starting point s in the

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 338

63rd row. To recover the desired quantization table Q from that point, procedure Recoverq is used. This
procedure recovers the quantization table Q for target rate s by setting Q[63] to QChoice[63][s] and then
working its way up the rows as follows. For going from row number n to row number n 1, s is decremented
~

by R[n][Q[n]]and then Q [ n- 11 is set to QChoice[n - l][s].

4 Analysis of RD-OPT
In this section we discuss the running time of RD-OPT and the errors resulting from discretization

4.1 Complexity
G a t h e r s t a t s runs in time about that required to apply the D C I once to each block in the image. F i l l D
and F i l l R each run in time less than a constant times 64 x MAXQ x VMAX. F i l l L e a s t D runs in time less than
a constant times 64 x MAXQ x MAXRATE. In any practical implementation, these times can be substantially
reduced. T h e necessary optimizations are straightforward and are omitted here for clarity.

4.2 Error analysis

In calculating the distortion in F i l l D , the value O r i g i n a l V a l (see line 6 of the pseudo-code in Appendix A)
is an estimate of the actual D C T coefficient, accurate to within *0.25. Let I , be the imagefor which the D C T
coefficients are the same as those obtained as O r i g i n a l V a l in F i l l D Thus, if a particular D C T coefficient
+
for I has the value c, the corresponding coefficient for I, would have the value Bucket(c)/Z 0.25 if c 2 0
and Bucket(c)/2 - 0.25 if c < 0 The absolute difference between this value and c is a t most 0.25 T h e
distortion obtained by RD-OPT for any quantization table Q is D ( 1 6 ,Q) rather than D ( I ,Q ) . T h e triangle
inequality can be used to show that

In the most common case, RD-OPT will be asked to optimize PSNR For M = 255, the reported PSNR, P,,
will be:
2552
P,= 10log,, ~

D ( I e .Q )
Hence, the actual PSNR, P ,is bounded as follows:
P,- 2010g10(l+ ,(PE)) 5 P 5 P,- 2010g10(l - a ( P c ) ) ,
where m(Pc)= 1020
T h e total error in R ( Q ) is a t most
64 x o ~/BPPSCALE
plus the error in estimating rate as the coefficient-wise sum of entropies. T h e latter component goes down
as R ( Q )increases, and is typically around 0.02bits per pixel [RFVK94].

5 Performance results
We have implemented RD-OPT in C on various platforms. Figure 1 shows the performance of RD-OPT
running on an IBM POWERstation 370. The test image used was the well-known 512 x 512 grayscale image
of Lena. T h e figure tabulates running times and accuracy of results for various values of BPPSCALE. In each
case, RD-OPT was asked to compute optimal tables over the range 0 0 to 1.0bits per pixel. These tables
were used to compress the image using the Independent J P E G Group's J P E G compression software. T h e
table shows the actual rate and actual PSNR when Lena was compressed using the quantization table picked
by RD-OPT with a target rate of 0.8 bits per pixel. T h e scaled default J P E G table gave a PSNR of 34.90
dB a t 0 796 bits per pixel.

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 339

=SCALE Running time Predicted R a t a Actual Rate Predicted PSNR Actual PSNR
(secs.) (bits per pixel) (bits per pixel) (dB)
1000 0.800 0 822 35 809
2!iOO 0.800 0.801 35.726 35.714
0.800 0.798 35.708 35.695
7500 37.6 0.800 0.796 35.705 35.694
10000 0.800 0.795 35.701 35.690
12500 56.0 0.800 0.794 35 700 35.687
15000 G4.6 0.800 0.794 35.699 35.688
20000 82.2 0.800 0.795 35.699 35.687
50000 189.8 0.800 0.794 35.697 35.686

Figure 1: Running time and accuracy for different values of BPPSCALE

T h e running time in each case includes the time spent in G a t h e r S t a t s , F i l l D , and F i l l R , which is
indcpendeiit of BPPSCALE, and is about 10.91 seconds. Out of 10.91 seconds, about 2.5 seconds are spent
in G a t h e r S t a t s , and the rest in F i l l D and F i l l R . These procedures haven't been optimized in the current
implementation, and we expect to bring the running time down even more, in the near future.
We have used RD-OPT on a wide variety of images, with similar results.

References
[ANR74] Ahmed, N . , Natarajan, T., and Rao, K . R. Discrete Cosine Transform. IEEE Trans. Computers,
C--2390-3,Jan. 1974.
[APSS] Ahumada Jr., A . J. and Peterson, H. f1. Luminance-Model-Based DCT Quantization for Color
Image Compression. Human Vzszon, Vzsual Processzng, and Dzgztal Dzsplay III, B. E'. Rogoulztz, ed.
(Proceedings of the SPIE), 1992.
[Jai89] Jain, A. K . Fundamentals of Digztal Imuge Processzng. Preritice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1989,
[MPBl] MPEG I draft. Coding of Moving Pictures and associated audio for digital storage, 1991. Document
ISO/IEC-CD-11172.
[MSSS] Monro, D . M . and Sherlock, B. G. Optimum DCT Quantization. Proceedzngs of Data Compresszon
Conference, pages 188-194, 1993.
[PM931 Pmnebaker, W. B . and Mitchell, J . L . JFEG Still Image Data Comprrsszon Standard. Van Nostrand
Reinhold, New York, 1993.
[RFVK94] Ratnakar, V., Feig, E., Viscito, E., and Kalluri, S . Runlength encoding of quantized DCT
coefficients IBA4 R C 19693 (87318) 8/5/94 (To appear zn SPIE '95), 1994
[RL94] Ratnakar, V . and Livny, M. Performance of Customized DCT Quantization Tables on Scientific
Data. Science In,formatzon Management and Data Compression Workshop Proceedzngs, NASA
Conference Puhlzcation 3277, pages 1-8, Sept 1994.
[RYSO] Rao, K . R. and Yip, P. Dzscrete Cosznc Transform. Algorzthms, Advantages, Applicatzons Aca-
demic Press, Inc, San Diego, California, 1990.
[VB67] Van Ness, F . I. and Bouman, M . A . Spatial Modulation Transfer in the Human Eye. Journal of
the Optical Society of Amerzca, 57(3):40 (-406, March 1967.
[WatSS] Watson, A . B. DCT quantization matrices visually optimized for individual images. Human Vwion,
Visual Processzng, and Dzgztal Dzsplay I V , B. E. Rogowztz, ed. (Proceedzngs of the SPIE), 1993.

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 340

A RD-OPT Procedures

Procedure Gatherstats

Input: Image I
Output: Array OccursCount[O..631[-2VMAX..ZVMAX]

1. Initialize OccursCount to 0 everywhere

2. For each 8x8 block f in I
3. g : = DCT(f)
4. For n : = 0 to 6 3
5. v : = Bucket(gCn1)
6. OccursCount Cnl [VI++

Procedure FillR

Input: Array OccursCount[0..631[-2VMAX..2VMAX]

Output : Array R CO. ,631[l. .MAXQI

1. F := Number of 8x8 blocks in the image

2. For n := 0 to 6 3
3. For q : = 1 to MAXQ
4. Entropy = 0
5. For QuantizedVal : = (-VMAX) // q to VMAX / / q
/ * QuantizedVal i s the quantized value */
6. Count : = 0 / * Count i s the # of times the value QuantizedVal occurs */
7. For each v such that v / / (2q) == QuantizedVal
8. Count : = Count + OccursCount [nl Cvl
9. Probab : = Count/F
IO. If (Probab > 0 ) then
11. Entropy := Entropy - (Probab * Log2(Probab))
12. R[n]Cql : = ((Entropy / 64.0) * BPPSCALE) / / 1

Procedure FillD

Input: Array OccursCount[0..631[-2VMAX..ZVMAX]

Output : Array D C O . ,631C l . . MAXQI

1. N : = Number of pixels in the image

2. For n : = 0 to 63
3. For q := 1 to MAXQ
4. DCnl Cql : = 0
5. For v : = -2VMAX to 2VMAX
/ * OriginalVal is the original coefficient value, within 0.25 * /
6. OriginalVal = v/2.0 + ((v < 0 ) 7 -0.25 : 0.25)
/ * QuantizedVal is the quantized value * /
7. QuantizedVal = v / / (Zq)
8. Error : = OccursCount Cnl [VI * Square(OriginalVa1 - qiQuantizedVa1)
9. D Cn] Cql : = D Cnl Cql + Error
10. DCnl [ql : = DCnl Cql/N

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 341

Procedure F i l l L e a s t D

I n p u t : Arrays D CO. 631 C l . .MAXQl, RCO. ,631 [l. .MAXQl

Output: Arrays LeastDCO. ,631 CO. .MAXSIZE], QChoiceCO. ,631CO. .MAXSIZE]

/* I n i t i a l i z a t i o n s */
1 . For n := 0 t o 63
2. For s := 0 t o MAXRATE
3. LeastD En] [SI := INFINITY

/* F i l l row number z e r o */
4 . For q : = 1 t o MAXQ
5 . I f ( D CO1 [ql < L e a s t D CO1 [R CO1 Cql1 then
6. LeastDCOl [RCOl [qll := DE01 [ql
7. QChoiceCOl CRCOl [ q l l := q

/* Main loop */
8 . For 'n := 1 t o 63
9. FOK q : = 1 t o MAXQ
10. .For s ' := 0 t o MAXRATE
11. If (D[nl [ql + LeastDIn-11 [s'] .< LeastDCnl [ s ' + RCnl c q l l ) Then
12. s := s ' + RCnlCql
13. LeastDCn] [SI := DCnl Cql + Le,astDCn-11 Cs'l
14. QChoiceCnl [SI := q

Procedure Recover9

I n p u t : Arrays QChoice[O. ,631 CO. .MAXSIZE], REO. ,631 c l . .MAXQl; Target r a t e s

Output : Q u a n t i z a t i o n t a b l e Q CO. ,631

1. For n : = 63 downto 0
2. QCnl : = QChoiceCnl [SI
3. s : = s - R[nl[Q[nll

B Proof of Theorem 1
Suppose D ( n , s ) is empty or m i n D ( n , s ) is 03. 'Then, for every y (1 5 y 5 MAXQ), either R[n][p] > s , or
LeastD[n - l][s - R[n][q]] = 00. In either case, the rate s cannot be achieved from coefficients 0 through n,
implying LeastD[n][s] = W .
Now assume D ( n ,.s) is non-empty and that d IS the minimum value in D ( n , s), achieved by setting &[n]
to q . Assume LeastD[n][s] = d' < d . Then the distortion d' must be achieved with some value, say q' for
&[.I. Let d" = d' - D[n][q']. Then the distortion d" must be achievable from coefficients 0 through n - 1,
with thcir rate being exactly equal to s - R[n][q']. But then, d" = LeastD[n - 1][s- R[n][q']], as otherwise d'
+
can be improved, contradicting d' = LeastD[n][s]. Hence d' = D[n][q'] LeastD[n - 1][s - R[n][q'] implying
d' E D ( n ,s). Thus, d 5 d', which conhadicts d' < d . 0

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