NFAs with ε Moves

An NFA-ε is a five-tuple:
M = (Q, Σ, δ, q 0, F)
Q A finite set of states
Σ A finite input alphabet
q0 The initial/starting state, q0 is in Q
F A set of final/accepting states, which is a subset of Q
δ A transition function, which is a total function from Q x Σ U {ε} to 2 Q
δ: (Q x (Σ U {ε})) –> 2Q
δ(q,s) -The set of all states p such that there is a
transition labeled a from q to p, where a is in Σ U {ε}
Sometimes referred to as an NFA-ε other times, simply as an NFA.

1
Example:
q3
1
0 0 0/1
ε ε
q0 q1 q2
1 0

δ: 0 1 ε
q0 - A string w = w 1w2…wn
is processed {q0} {} {q1}
as w = ε *w1ε*w2ε* …
ε* w nε
*
{q1, {q0, {q2}
q1 - Example: all
computations on 00: q2} q3}
{q2} {q2} {} 0 ε 0
q2 q0 q 0 q 1 q 2
{} {} {} :
q3

2
 Informal Definitions
Let M = (Q, Σ, δ,q0,F) be an NFA-ε.

A String w in Σ* is accepted by M iff there exists a path in M from q0

to a state in F labeled by w and zero or more ε transitions.

The language accepted by M is the set of all strings from Σ* that

are accepted by M.

3
 ε-closure
Define ε-closure(q) to denote the set of all states reachable from q by zero
or more ε transitions.
Examples: (for the previous NFA)
ε-closure(q0) = {q0, q1, q2} ε-closure(q2) = {q2}
ε-closure(q1) = {q1, q2} ε-closure(q3) = {q3}

ε-closure(q) can be extended to sets of states by defining:

ε-closure(P) = ε-closure(q)
Examples:
q3
1
ε-closure({q1, q2}) = {q1, q2} 0 0 0/1
ε ε
ε-closure({q0, q3}) = {q0, q1, q2, q3} q0 q1 q2
1 0
4
 Extension of δ to Strings and Sets of
States
What we currently have: δ : (Q x (Σ U {ε})) –> 2Q

What we want (why?): δ : (2Q x Σ*) –> 2Q

As before, we will do this in two steps, which will be slightly

different from the book, and we will make use of the
following NFA. q3
1
0 0 0/1
ε ε
q0 q1 q2
1 0
5
Step #1:
Given δ: (Q x (Σ U {ε})) –> 2Q define δ#: (2Q x (Σ U {ε})) –>
2Q as follows:
1) δ#(R, a) = δ(q, a) for all subsets R of Q, and symbols a
in Σ U {ε}
Note that:

δ#({p},a) = δ(q, a) by definition of δ#, rule #1 above

= δ(p, a)
Hence, we can use δ for δ#
δ({q0, q2}, 0) These now make
sense, but previously
δ({q0, q1, q2}, 0) they did not.

6
Examples:

What is δ({q0 , q1, q2}, 1)?

δ({q0 , q1, q2}, 1) = δ(q0, 1) U δ(q1, 1) U δ(q2, 1)

= { } U {q0, q3} U {q2}
= {q0, q2, q3}

What is δ({q0, q1}, 0)?

δ({q0 , q1}, 0) = δ(q0, 0) U δ(q1, 0)

= {q0} U {q1, q2}
= {q0, q1, q2}
7
Step #2:

Given δ: (2Q x (Σ U {ε})) –> 2Q define δ^: (2Q x Σ*) –> 2Q as follows:

δ^(R,w) – The set of states M could be in after processing string w,

having starting from any state in R.

Formally:

2) δ^(R, ε) = ε-closure(R) - for any subset R of

Q
3) δ^(R,wa) = ε-closure(δ(δ^(R,w), a)) - for any w in Σ*, a in
Σ, and

subset R of Q

Can we use δ for δ^?

8
Consider the following example:

δ({q0}, 0) = {q0}

δ^({q0}, 0) = ε-closure(δ(δ^({q0}, ε), 0)) By

rule #3
= ε-closure(δ(ε-closure({q 0}), 0)) By
rule #2
= ε-closure(δ({q 0, q1, q2}, 0)) By ε-
closure
= ε-closure(δ(q 0, 0) U δ(q1, 0) U δ(q2, 0)) By
rule #1
= ε-closure({q 0} U {q1, q2} U {q2})
= ε-closure({q 0, q1, q2})
= ε-closure({q 0}) U ε-closure({q1}) U ε-closure({q2})
= {q0, q1, q2} U {q1, q2} U {q2}
= {q0, q1, q2}

So what is the difference?

δ(q0, 0) - Processes 0 as a single symbol, without ε transitions.

δ^(q0 , 0) - Processes 0 using as many ε transitions as are possible. 9
Example:

δ^({q0}, 01) = ε-closure(δ(δ^({q0}, 0), 1))

By rule #3
= ε-closure(δ({q0, q1, q2}), 1)
Previous slide
= ε-closure(δ(q0, 1) U δ(q1, 1) U δ(q2, 1))
By rule #1
= ε-closure({ } U {q0, q3} U {q2})
= ε-closure({q0, q2, q3})
= ε-closure({q0}) U ε-closure({q2}) U ε-closure
({q3})
= {q0, q1, q2} U {q2} U {q3}
= {q0, q1, q2, q3} 10
 Definitions for NFA-ε Machines
Let M = (Q, Σ, δ,q0,F) be an NFA-ε and let w be in Σ*. Then w is
accepted by M iff δ^({q0}, w) contains at least one state in F.

Let M = (Q, Σ, δ,q0,F) be an NFA-ε. Then the language accepted

by M is the set:

L(M) = {w | w is in Σ* and δ^({q0},w) contains at least

one state in F}

Another equivalent definition:

L(M) = {w | w is in Σ* and w is accepted by M}

11
 Equivalence of NFAs and NFA-εs
Do NFAs and NFA-ε machines accept the same class of
languages?
• Is there a language L that is accepted by a NFA, but not by any NFA -ε?
• Is there a language L that is accepted by an NFA -ε, but not by any DFA?

Observation: Every NFA is an NFA-ε.

Therefore, if L is a regular language then there exists an

NFA-ε M such that L = L(M).

It follows that NFA-ε machines accept all regular languages.

But do NFA-ε machines accept more? 12

Lemma 1: Let M be an NFA. Then there exists a NFA-ε M’
such that L(M) = L(M’).

Proof: Every NFA is an NFA-ε. Hence, if we let M’ = M, then

it follows that L(M’) = L(M).

The above is just a formal statement of the

observation from the previous slide.

13
Lemma 2: Let M be an NFA-ε. Then there exists a NFA M’ such that L(M) =
L(M’).

Proof: (sketch)

Let M = (Q, Σ, δ,q0,F) be an NFA-ε.

Define an NFA M’ = (Q, Σ, δ’,q0,F’) as:

F’ = F U {q} if ε-closure(q) contains at least one state

from F
F’ = F otherwise

δ’(q, a) = δ^(q, a) - for all q in Q and a in

Σ

Notes:

• δ’: (Q x Σ) –> 2Q is a function

• M’ has the same state set, the same alphabet, and the same start state as M
• M’ has no ε transitions 14
Example:
q3
1
0 0 0/1
ε ε
q0 q1 q2
1 0

Step #1: q3

• Same state set as M

• q0 is the starting state

q0 q1 q2

15
Example:
q3
1
0 0 0/1
ε ε
q0 q1 q2
1 0

q3
Step #2:
• q0 becomes a final state

q0 q1 q2

16
Example:
q3
1
0 0 0/1
ε ε
q0 q1 q2
1 0

q3
Step #3:
0
0
q0 q1 q2

17
Example:
q3
1
0 0 0/1
ε ε
q0 q1 q2
1 0

q3
Step #4:
1
0/1

0/1
q0 q1 q2

0/1

18
Example:
q3
1
0 0 0/1
ε ε
q0 q1 q2
1 0

q3
Step #5:
1
0/1
0
0/1 0
q0 q1 q2

0/1

19
Example:
q3
1
0 0 0/1
ε ε
q0 q1 q2
1 0

q3
Step #6:
1
0/1 1
0/1
0/1 0/1
q0 q1 q2
1
0/1

20
Example:
q3
1
0 0 0/1
ε ε
q0 q1 q2
1 0

q3
Step #7:
1
0/1 1 0
0/1
0/1 0/1
q0 q1 q2
1
0/1

21
Example:
q3
1
0 0 0/1
ε ε
q0 q1 q2
1 0

q3
Step #8: [use table of e-closure]
1
• Done!
0/1 1 0/1
0/1
0/1 0/1
q0 q1 q2
1
0/1

22
Theorem: Let L be a language. Then there exists an NFA M
such that L= L(M) iff there exists an NFA-ε M’ such that L =
L(M’).

Proof:
(if) Suppose there exists an NFA-ε M’ such that L =
L(M’). Then by Lemma 2 there exists an NFA M such that L
= L(M).

(only if) Suppose there exists an NFA M such that L

= L(M). Then by Lemma 1 there exists an NFA-ε M’ such
that L = L(M’).

Corollary: The NFA-ε machines define the regular

languages. 23
 Method for conversion
NFA with ε to DFA
The method for converting the NFA with ε to DFA is explained
below −
Step 1 − Consider M={Q, Σ, δ,q0,F) is NFA with ε. We have
to convert this NFA with ε to equivalent DFA denoted by
M0=(Q0,Σ, δ0,q0,F0)
Then obtain,
ε-closure(q0) ={p1,p2,p3,……pn}
then [p1,p2,p2,….pn] becomes a start state of DFA
now[p1,p2,p3,….pn] ∈ Q0
 Method for conversion
NFA with ε to DFA
Step 2 − We will obtain δ transition on [p1,p2,p3,…pn] for
each input.
δ 0([p1,p2,p3,..pn],a) = ε-closure(δ(p1,a) U
δ(p2,a2)U……………… δ(pn,a))
= U (i=1 to n) ε-closure d(pi,a)
Where a is input ∈Σ
Step 3 − The state obtained [p1,p2,p3,…pn] ∈ Q0 .
The states containing final state in pi is a final state in DFA
 Example

Convert the following NFA with epsilon to equivalent DFA

 Solution
−

Consider the following NFA for conversion of NFA with

epsilon to DFA

To convert this NFA with epsilon, we will first fin

the ε-closures, as given below −
•ε-closure(q0)={q0,q1,q2}
•ε-closure(q1)={q1,q2}
•ε-closure(q2)={q2}
 Solution
−

Consider the following NFA for conversion of NFA with

epsilon to DFA

To convert this NFA with epsilon, we

will first find the ε-closures, as given
below −
•ε-closure(q0)={q0,q1,q2}
•ε-closure(q1)={q1,q2}
•ε-closure(q2)={q2}
 Solution
−

Consider the following NFA for conversion of NFA with

epsilon to DFA
ε-closure(q0)={q0,q1,q2}, we will call this state as A.
•ε-closure(q0)={q0,q1,q2}
•ε-closure(q1)={q1, q2} δ'(A, a) = ε-closure(δ(A,a))
•ε-closure(q2)={q2} = ε-closure(δ(q0, q1, q2), a))
= ε-closure(δ(q0, a) ∪ δ(q1,a) U δ(q2,a) )
= ε-closure(ΦU q1∪q2)
= ε-closure(q1)
= {q1, q2} let us call it as state B
 Solution
−

Consider the following NFA for conversion of NFA with

epsilon to DFA

•ε-closure(q0)={q0,q1,q2}
•ε-closure(q1)={q1,q2} δ'(A, b) = ε-closure(δ(A,b))
•ε-closure(q2)={q2} = ε-closure(δ(q0,q1,q2), b))
= ε-closure(δ(q0, b) ∪ δ(q1,b) U δ(q2,b) )
= ε-closure(q0 U Φ∪q0)
= ε-closure(q0)
= {q0,q1, q2} its nothing but state A
 Solution
−

Consider the following NFA for conversion of NFA with

epsilon to DFA

•ε-closure(q0)={q0,q1,q2}
•ε-closure(q1)={q1,q2} δ'(B, a) = ε-closure(δ(B,a))
•ε-closure(q2)={q2} = ε-closure(δ(q1,q2), a))
= ε-closure(δ(q1,a) U δ(q2,a) )
= ε-closure(q1 ∪q2)
= ε-closure(q1)
= {q1, q2} its nothing but state B
 Solution
−

Consider the following NFA for conversion of NFA with

epsilon to DFA

•ε-closure(q0)={q0,q1,q2}
•ε-closure(q1)={q1,q2} δ'(B, b) = ε-closure(δ(B,b))
•ε-closure(q2)={q2} = ε-closure(δ(q1,q2), b))
= ε-closure(δ(q1,b) U δ(q2,b) )
= ε-closure(Φ∪q0)
= ε-closure(q0)
= {q0,q1, q2} its nothing but state A
Example:
Convert the following NFA with epsilon to equivalent DFA

1.ε-closure {q0} = {q0, q1, q2}

2.ε-closure {q1} = {q1}
3.ε-closure {q2} = {q2}
4.ε-closure {q3} = {q3}
5.ε-closure {q4} = {q4}
Example:
Convert the following NFA with epsilon to equivalent DFA

1.ε-closure {A} = { }
2. ε-closure {B} = { }
3.ε-closure {C} = { }
4.ε-closure {D} = { }
5.ε-closure {E} = { }
Example:
Convert the following NFA with epsilon to equivalent DFA

1.ε-closure {1} = { }
2.ε-closure {2} = { }
3.ε-closure {3} = { }
4.ε-closure {4} = { }
5.ε-closure {5} = { }
6.ε-closure {6} = { }
 Minimization of DFA
The process of reducing a given DFA to its minimal form is called as minimization of DFA.
●

It contains the minimum number of states

●

The DFA in its minimal form is called as a Minimal DFA.

●

How To Minimize DFA?

●

● The two popular methods for minimizing a DFA are-

36
37
 Minimization of DFA Using Equivalence Theorem-

Step-01:
●Eliminate all the dead states and inaccessible states
from the given DFA (if any).
–Dead State
–All those non-final states which transit to itself for all
input symbols in ∑ are called as dead states.
–Inaccessible State
–All those states which can never be reached from the
initial state are called as inaccessible states.
38
Step-02:

● Draw a state transition table for the given DFA.

●Transition table shows the transition of all states on all
input symbols in Σ.

39
Step-03:

Now, start applying equivalence theorem.

● Take a counter variable k and initialize it with value 0.
●Divide Q (set of states) into two sets such that one set
contains all the non-final states and other set contains all
the final states.
● This partition is called P0.

40
 Step-04:
● Increment k by 1.
● Find Pk by partitioning the different sets of Pk-1 .
●In each set of Pk-1 , consider all the possible pair of
states within each set and if the two states are
distinguishable, partition the set into different sets in Pk.
●Two states q1 and q2 are distinguishable in partition Pk
for any input symbol ‘a’,
if δ (q1, a) and δ (q2, a) are in different sets in partition
●

Pk-1.

41
 Step-05:

•Repeat step-04 until no change in partition occurs.

•In other words, when you find Pk = Pk-1, stop.

42
 Step-06:

•All those states which belong to the same set are

equivalent.
•The equivalent states are merged to form a single state
in the minimal DFA.

43
 Example
Minimize the given DFA-
Step-01:
The given DFA contains no dead states and inaccessible states.
Step-02:
Draw a state transition table-

a b Step-03:
Now using Equivalence Theorem, we have-
→q0 q1 q2 P0 = { q0 , q1 , q2 , q3 } { q4 }
q1 q1 q3 P1 = { q0 , q1 , q2 } { q3 } { q4 }
q2 q1 q2 P2 = { q0 , q2 } { q1 } { q3 } { q4 }
P3 = { q0 , q2 } { q1 } { q3 } { q4 }
q3 q1 *q4 Since P3 = P2, so we stop. So, Our minimal
*q4 q1 q2 DFA is- 44
 Example
Minimize the given DFA-

Step-03:
Now using Equivalence Theorem, we have-
P0 = { q0 , q1 , q2 , q3 } { q4 }
P1 = { q0 , q1 , q2 } { q3 } { q4 }
P2 = { q0 , q2 } { q1 } { q3 } { q4 }
P3 = { q0 , q2 } { q1 } { q3 } { q4 }
Since P3 = P2, so we stop. So, Our minimal
DFA is-

45
 Example
Minimize the given DFA-

46
 Example
Minimize the given DFA-

47