ZNOTES.

ORG

UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE AS LEVEL
COMPUTER SCIENCE
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
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CAIE AS LEVEL COMPUTER SCIENCE

1. Information Representation Character Encoding Standards:

| ASCII | Extended ASCII | Unicode | |----|----|----| | Only
1.1. Data Representation the English alphabet can be represented | ASCII’s extension -
Also includes most European languages’ alphabets |
The two fundamental characteristics of any number Superset for ASCII & extended ASCII - recognized by various
system are: global languages | | Each character encoding takes up 7
A base: The number of different digits that a system bits, hence 128 possible characters | ASCII extended to 8
can use to represent numbers bits, hence 256 possible characters | It has an excellent
Place value: The specific-value of a digit based on its range of characters, using 2 or 4 bytes per character | |
position within a number Smaller storage space | | 2 or 4 times more storage space
Denary - Base 10 per character |
Binary Systems - Base 2
Possible bits (binary digits): 0 and 1 1.2. Multimedia - Graphics, Sound
All data and characters are represented in binary
Bitmap Images
| 128 | 64 | 32 | 16 | 8 | 4 | 2 | 1 | |----|----|----|----|----|---- Definition: Bitmap images are created by assigning a
|----|----| | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | solid color to each pixel using bit patterns.
Encoding:
For example, 65 in binary is 01000001
Bit patterns are generated by considering each
grid row as a series of binary color codes
Denary vs. Binary prefixes: corresponding to each pixel’s color.
These bit patterns are ‘mapped’ onto the main
| Denary Prefix | Factor Value | Binary Prefix | Factor Value memory.
| |----|----|----|----| | kilo- (k) | ×10³ | kibi- (Ki) | Pixels: The smallest picture element whose color can
×2¹⁰ | | mega- (M) | ×10⁶ | mebi- be accurately represented by binary code.
(Mi) | ×2²⁰ | | giga- (G) | ×10⁹ | File Header: Bitmap images contain a file header with
gibi- (Gi) | ×2³⁰ | | tera- (T) | metadata, including image size, number of colors,
×10¹² | tebi- (Ti) | ×2⁴⁰ | etc.

Image Resolution
Definition: the number of pixels that make up an
image. Example:- 4096x3192 pixels.
Effect: Higher resolution results in sharper, more
detailed images.

Screen Resolution
Definition: The number of pixels that can be viewed
horizontally and vertically on a device’s screen.
Calculation: $Number\ of\ pixels = width × height$
(e.g., 1680 × 1080 pixels).

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Colour depth Sound

Definition: The number of bits used to represent the Analogue vs Digital:
colour of a single pixel. Analogue data consists of continuous electrical
Calculation: An image with $n$ bits has signals.
2^$n$ colours per pixel (e.g., a 16-color Digital data consists of discrete electrical signals.
bitmap has 4 bits per pixel because Sound Signals: Vibrations through a medium,
2^$4$ = 16) inherently analogue due to infinite detail.
Effect: Increasing color depth improves color quality Conversion:
but also increases file size. Analogue signals are converted to digital signals
File Size Calculation: by sampling.
File Size = Number of Pixels × Color Depth The sound wave’s amplitude is sampled at set
Convert bits to bytes by dividing by eight if time intervals.
necessary. These samples are encoded as a binary number
Applications: Scanned images and general computer sequence, providing a digital representation of
usage, where small file sizes and easy manipulation the sound wave
are beneficial.
Sampling Rate
Vector Graphics Definition: Number of samples taken per unit of time.
Definition: Made up of drawing objects. Effect: Increasing the sampling rate improves the
Drawing Objects: Mathematically defined constructs accuracy of the digitized sound wave representation
(e.g., rectangles, lines, circles). but increases file size.
Drawing List: A set of commands defining the vector
(e.g., points, lines, shapes, and their attributes that
define the image.) Sampling Resolution
Definition: Number of bits used to encode each
Properties: Basic geometric data that determine the
sample.
shape and appearance of each object.
Effect: Increasing sampling resolution improves the
Encoding: Data is encoded using mathematical
formulas to generate properties for drawing lines accuracy of digitized sound waves but increases file
and curves to create the image. size.
Scalability: Objects can be resized without losing
quality, unlike bitmaps. Bit Rate
Applications: Company logos and other graphics that Definition: Number of bits used to store 1 second of
require scaling. sound.
Calculation: $Bit\ Rate = Sampling\ Rate * Sampling\
Resolution$
Length of Sound: Measured in seconds.

1.3. Compression
Definition: Compression is the process of reducing file
size without significant loss in quality, resulting in:
Reduced time needed to search for data.
Faster transfer of compressed files, using less
bandwidth than uncompressed files.

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Lossless Compression Networking devices: Interconnected devices that

Definition: A type of compression that allows original enable fast data transmission within a network.
data to be perfectly reconstructed from a Networking benefits:
compressed file by utilizing some form of File sharing: Easily share data between different
replacement. interconnected devices.
Examples: Bitmap (.bmp), vector graphic (.svg), .png Resource sharing: Use network-connected output
images, text file compression, database records. devices like printers or share software within the
Run-Length Encoding (RLE): network.
Definition: A form of lossless compression used Higher storage: Files can be stored in network-
for compressing text files and bitmap images. connected storage mediums.
Mechanism: Reduces file size by encoding Client-Server Model
sequences of adjacent, identical elements Server-based network: A dedicated server provides
(characters in text files and pixels in bitmap applications (administration of users, security, and
images) into two values: run count and run value. resources) for the client computer to utilize.
Example: RLE of a bitmap image. Client-server Applications:
Printer: Manages print jobs from client
computers.
Lossy Compression File Sharing: Clients access software and user
Definition: A type of compression that irreversibly
data files stored on the server.
eliminates unnecessary data.
Proxy server.
Effect: File accuracy/quality is lower than with lossless
Email server: For sending, receiving, and storing
compression, but file size is significantly reduced emails.
(often to about 10% of the lossless size). Database server: Manages DBMS.
Examples: Sound files (.mp3), .jpeg images.
Domain controller server:
Mechanism in Sound Files:
Manages user accounts (IDs & passwords).
Perceptual Coding: Removes parts of the sound
The client sends a login request to the server,
that are less audible or discernible to human which processes and grants the request if the
hearing, as used in .mp3 compression. user ID & password are recognized.
Thin Clients vs. Thick Clients
2. Communication |Thin Clients|Thick Clients| |:---|:---| |A client that solely
runs on the resources provided by the server and has no
2.1. Networks, including the Internet local storage.|An independent client that does not require
the server to run.| |Only provides input and receives
|LAN|WAN| |:---|:---| |A network that connects devices output; processing is done by the server.|Thick client
within a small geographical area, often within the same processes most of the application locally.| |Smaller
building.|A network that connects devices within a larger purchase cost: inexpensive, demanding hardware is not
geographical area, such as a city, country, or globally.| |Only required.|Can function even if no server is connected (works
private ownership.|Private or public ownership.| offline).| |Improved security: Cannot run unauthorized,
|Transmission medium: Twisted Pair Cables , Coaxial Cables harmful software.|No lag related to network problems.|
or Wi-Fi.|Transmission medium: PSTN or Satlink.| |Higher
data transfer rate.|Lower data transfer rate.| |Less
congestion.|Higher congestion.|

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||Benefits|Drawbacks| |:---|:---|:---| |Copper Cable|Less
Peer-to-Peer network model (P2P) expensive and easier to install. Flexible. Easier to make
Definition: A decentralized network where each terminations.|Doesn’t perform well with small charges.
connected computer stores data and operates Affected by electromagnetism.| |Fiber-Optic Cables|Greater
independently as a ‘peer’, acting as both a client and bandwidth, improved security, lightweight, easy to install,
a server. and less signal boosting are required; used in long-distance
Applications: Internet and Ad hoc networks. communications.|Needs expensive optical transmitters and
Client-Server vs. Peer-to-Peer models receivers.|
|Client-Server|Peer-to-Peer| |:---|:---| |Centralized Wired Networks
backup.|Lesser initial setup cost.| |Files & resources Use copper (twisted-pair cable or coaxial cable) or
centralized in server: Prevents illegal resource usage.|Lesser fiber-optic cables.
network traffic: Each peer can simultaneously receive data Cables are connected to an Ethernet port on the
from different sources.| |Improved security: Files are stored network router.
on a central server, which would be regularly scanned for
malware.|It can work even if a device goes down, but the ||Benefits|Drawbacks| |:---|:---|:---| |Radio waves|Can
client-server model can’t work if the server goes down.| travel over large distances with a wide range of wavelengths.
Relatively inexpensive. Used for TV signals and mobile phone
Network Topologies communications.|Low frequency means less data can be
Bus transmitted at one time. Affected by interference from radio
A single line (bus) connects all devices with stations with similar frequencies.| |Microwaves|Larger
terminators at each end. bandwidth allows more data transfer.|Expensive to build
Other computers can read data being sent emitting towers. Physical obstacles can interfere with
between any two computers. signals.| |Satellites|Cost-effective for long-distance
Unsuitable for heavy traffic due to frequent communication, used in satellite phones and radio
collisions. broadcasts.|Susceptible to interference. Expensive setup.|
Star
Consists of a central server (switch) with all other Wireless Networks
computers connected via dedicated connections. Use radio waves (including WiFi), microwaves, and
The server can send packets to different devices satellites to connect devices to networks without
simultaneously and bidirectionally. cables.
No collisions are possible.
Mesh
Every device (node) is directly interconnected with
each of the other devices (nodes).
Commonly used for wireless networks, such as
the Internet, through the mesh connection of
routers.
Hybrid
A combination of two or more topologies.
Example: A connection between two or more
LANs of different topologies.

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|Real-time|On-demand| |:---|:---| |The event is captured
live via a video camera that is connected to a Ethernet
computer.|Existing digital files are converted to encoded bit- The most common wired medium for data
streaming format for broadcasting on the internet by transmission in LANs or WANs.
uploading to a dedicated server.| |Video signal converted to Typically used in bus topology; data collisions are
an encoded streaming video signal.|A link for encoded video managed by the CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple
is placed on the website, and the user clicks on the link to Access with Collision Detection) method.
view encoded streaming video.| |Encoded video signal CSMA/CD Process:
uploaded from computer to a dedicated streaming server Device checks if the channel is busy before
via cables or high-speed wireless internet connection.|The transmitting.
data is streamed to a buffer in the user’s computer, and the If busy, the device waits a random time before
buffer stops the video from being paused as the bits are retrying.
streamed.| |The server then sends live images to all users During transmission, the device listens for other
requesting them as a real-time video.|As the buffer is transmissions.
emptied, it’s filled again, thus providing continuous viewing.| If a collision occurs, transmission is aborted, and
|It cannot be paused, fast-forwarded, etc.|Can be paused, both devices wait random times before retrying.
fast-forwarded, etc.| Bit Streaming
Sequence of digital signals (bits) transferred over a
communication path at high speeds, requiring a fast
broadband connection and buffers.
Bit Streaming Types:
Real-time: Live events captured and transmitted
directly.
On-demand: Pre-existing files are converted and
streamed as requested.
Importance of High Broadband Speed/Bit-Rate
The user has to download and display bits at the
same time.
Higher quality media requires faster speeds due
to larger data frames as well.
Real-time streaming needs higher speeds due to
simultaneous data requests coming from multiple
different users.

<b>Cloud Computing</b>
On-demand provision of computing services over the
internet, including infrastructure, and platforms.
Infrastructure: Storage capacity and higher
processing power.
Platform: Software, testing & debugging
resources.

<b>Public cloud vs. Private cloud</b>

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|Public cloud|Private Cloud| |:---|:---| |Access provided by
third-party service providers, shared among multiple <b>LAN-Supporting Hardware:</b>
users.|Owned and maintained by a single organization, <b>Switch:</b>
providing exclusive access.| |Managed by cloud service Connected to all devices in a LAN.
providers using large server farms.|Can be managed Can simultaneously broadcast information to all
internally by the organization itself, or outsourced.| devices.
|Benefits|Drawback| |:---|:---| |Less technical knowledge <b>Server:</b>
required, easy to implement.|Cannot access the Device/software that provides specific functions
resources/data stored on the cloud if there are bandwidth for computers in the network.
issues.| |Flexibility to scale with organization’s growth <b>Network Interface Card (NIC):</b>
mindset.|Poor data privacy, since there may be data leakage Provides each device (end-system) in the wired
in the multi-tenant architecture (public clouds).| LAN with a unique MAC address to uniquely
identify it on the network.
Allows each device to connect to the network.
<b>World Wide Web (WWW):</b>
<b>Wireless Network Interface Card (WNIC):</b>
<b>Description:</b> Collection of web pages stored
Provides each end-system of a wireless (WiFi) LAN
on websites.
a unique network address to identify it.
<b>Function:</b> Protocols are used to transmit data
<b>Wireless Access Points (WAP):</b>
across the WWW.
Allows devices to connect to the LAN via WiFi
<b>Internet (Interconnected Network):</b>
instead of using a cable.
<b>Description:</b> Massive, open network of
Usually built into the router.
networks.
<b>Cables:</b>
<b>Protocol:</b> Uses TCP/IP protocol, which uses IP
A wired transmission medium that allows
addresses to identify devices connected to the
communication in wired networks.
internet.
<b>Bridge:</b>
<b>Access:</b> Provided by Internet Service
Connects two LANs which work using the same
Provider.
protocol, which can be two segments of the same
<b>Communication Methods:</b> Wired, radio, and
network.
satellite.
Stores network addresses for all devices (end-
<b>Router in a Network:</b>
systems) between the two networks.
<b>Function:</b> Connects two networks together
Looks for the receiving device before it sends the
which operate under the same protocols (for
message.
example, IP).
<b>Repeater:</b>
<b>Connections:</b> Allows internal connections
Connects two cables.
between LANs or external connection from the main
Regenerates the sent data signal over the same
LAN to a WAN.
network before the signal weakens (attenuation)
<b>Additional Roles:</b> Acts as a gateway and
to prevent it from being corrupted.
firewall.
<b>Setup:</b> Usually attached to a server or switch
in a LAN.
<b>IP Address Translation:</b> Translates private IP
addresses to public IP addresses and vice versa.

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|IPv4|IPv6| |:---|:---| |32-bit address, split into 4 blocks by
Internet-Supporting Hardware: “.”|The 128-bit address is divided into eight 16-bit blocks by
<b>Modems:</b> “:”| |Each block could have a value between 0 and 255 (00 to
Allows a device to connect to the Internet via a FF in hex).|Each block can have 4 hex values ranging from
telephone line. 0000 to FFFF.| |For example, [Link].|IPv6 can be
<b>Function:</b> A transmitter uses a modem to shortened by removing at least (≥) 2 blocks containing only
convert digital signals (from the transmitting zeroes. For example:
device) to analogue signals sent down the “[Link]” can be
telephone line. A receiver uses a modem on the shortened to “[Link]"|
other end to convert the analogue signals to
digital signals so the receiving device can <b>IPv4 Functionality:</b>
understand the data. <b>IP Address Structure:</b>
<b>PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network):</b> <b>Network Identifier (netID):</b> Identifies the
Refers to all telephone networks. network to which the host (device) is connected.
<b>Channel:</b> Used between two endpoints <b>Host Identifier (hostID):</b> Identifies the
for the call duration via circuit switching. host within the network.
<b>Resilience:</b> Lines are active even during a <b>Classful Addressing:</b> Used for IPv4, where
power outage. different bit lengths for identification impose
<b>Communication:</b> Bi-directional. restrictions on available addresses.
<b>Dedicated Lines:</b> <b>Subnetting:</b>
Telecommunication path between endpoints. <b>Definition:</b> The practice of dividing a
Not shared with multiple users; it’s network into two or more networks.
bought/leased. <b>Structure:</b> IP addresses are broken down
<b>Function:</b> Able to host websites as well as into three parts by not changing the netID but
carry phone calls. Allows continuous, partitioning the host ID into a subnet ID and host
uninterrupted access to the Web. ID.
<b>Cell Phone Network:</b> <b>Subnet ID:</b> These bits are used to
Wireless networks spread over land areas divided identify each subnet within the network.
into (hexagonal) cells. <b>Subnet Masks:</b> Numbers that hide
<b>Base Stations:</b> Each cell is served by at (mask) the netID of a system's IP address and
least one base station (transceiver), which uses a leave only the host part as the machine
different frequency range compared to adjacent identifier, allowing data to be routed within
cells to transmit data. the subnet to the appropriate host.
<b>Capacity:</b> Larger capacity is possible since
the same frequencies can be used in non-
adjacent cells.
<b>Transmission:</b> Radio waves are usually
used for transmission. Can be broadcast in all
directions over a wide area.
<b>Portable Transceivers:</b> Devices like mobile
phones can communicate and access the internet
via base stations.

IPv4 vs. IPv6

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<b>Public and Private IP Addresses:</b>

<b>Public IP:</b> 3.1. Computers and Their Components
Provided by the ISP.
Unique and can be accessed across the internet. A general-purpose computer system comprises a
processor, memory, and I/O functionality.
<b>Private IP:</b>
The following essential features are needed in a
Issued by the LAN’s router.
Unique within the LAN and can only be accessed computer -
within the LAN. Input: Takes in data from the outside world.
<b>NAT (Network Address Translation):</b> Output: Displays data for human understanding.
Primary Storage: Main memory storing critical
Required for private IP addresses to access the
program instructions and data.
internet directly.
<b>Security:</b> Private IPs are more secure than Secondary Storage: Non-volatile storage for
public IPs since they are not directly accessible on noncritical data.
the Internet and are hidden by NAT. Removable secondary storage:
File backup and archives
<b>Address Range:</b> The range of IP
Portable transfer of files to a second device
addresses used for private IP addressing can
never be assigned to public IP addresses. Embedded systems:
Miniature computer systems such as
microprocessors that are often a part of a more
<b>Static vs. Dynamic IP addresses</b> extensive system.
Each embedded system performs a few specific
|<b>Static</b>|<b>Dynamic</b>| |:---|:---| |IP address functions, unlike general-purpose computers.
never changes.|The IP address will change at regular
periods.| |Static IP addresses are valid when websites need |Benefits|Drawbacks| |:---|:---| |Reliable since there are no
to remember a device for a long time, e.g VPNs moving parts|Difficult to program functions since there is no
whitelisting.|Dynamic IP address is relatively more secure, interface| |Require less power|Expensive expert help is
hence used where data privacy is quite important.| |Faster needed for the repair| |Cheap to mass-produce||
upload/download speeds.|Maintaining the cost of the
dynamic IP address is a lesser.| Principle Operations of Hardware Devices

<b>URL (Uniform Resource Locator)</b> Laser printer:

Unique reference address for the exact location of an A laser beam and rotating mirrors are used to draw an
internet resource on the WWW image of the page on a photosensitive drum
<b>Protocol:</b> Enables the browser to know what The image is converted into an electric charge, which
protocol is used to access information in the domain. attracts charged toner such that it sticks to the image
<b>Host-name:</b> The domain name. Electrostatic-charged paper rolled against the drum
<b>Location of Server:</b> The path indicating the Charge pulls toner away from drum and onto paper
server location. Heat applied in the fuser to fuse toner to the paper
<b>Domain Name Service (DNS)</b> The electrical charge was removed from the drum, and
<b>Definition:</b> A naming system used for excess toner was collected
computers or resources having an internet please note: inkjet printers have been removed from the
connection. syllabus
<b>Structure:</b> Consists of a hierarchy of DNS
servers which have a URL database and their 3D Printer:
corresponding IP addresses.
The process starts with a saved digital file that holds the
blueprint of the object to be printed
3. Hardware The object is then built by sequentially adding layers of a
material (e.g. polymer resin) until the object created
The object is then cured (e.g. resin-made objects are
hardened by UV light)

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Microphone:
The disc surface has a reflective metal layer and is spun
Incoming sound waves enter the screen and cause The tracking mechanism moves the laser assembly
vibrations in the diaphragm The lens focuses laser onto the disc
Vibrations cause the coil to move past a magnetic core A laser beam shone onto a disc to read/write
Electrical current is generated, which is then digitized Tracks have sequences of amorphous and crystalline
states on the metallic layer
Speaker: When reading, the reflected light from the different
Takes electrical signals and translates them into physical states on the track is encoded as bit patterns
vibrations to create sound waves When writing, the laser changes surface to crystalline
The electric current in the voice coil generates an and amorphous states along the track, corresponding to
electromagnetic field 1s or 0s.
Change in digital audio signal causes current direction to Touchscreen:
change, which changes field polarity
Electromagnet is either attracted or repelled to a Considered as both an input & output device
permanent magnet, causing a diaphragm that is There are two main-types:
attached to the coil to vibrate
Vibration transmitted to air in front of the speaker |Resistive|Capacitive| |:---|:---| |Consists of two charged
The degree of vibration determines the amplitude and plates|Made from materials that store electric charge|
frequency of the sound wave produced |Pressure causes plates to touch, completing the
circuit|When touched, the charge is transferred to the
Magnetic Hard Disk: finger| |Point of contact registered with coordinates used to
calculate the position||
Hard disks have platters whose surfaces are covered
with a magnetisable material. Virtual (Reality) Headset:
Platters are mounted on a central spindle and rotated at Virtual headsets consist of 2 lenses, (an LCD) display,
high speed a circuit board with sensors, a cover and foam
The surface of platters is divided into concentric tracks & padding
sectors, where data is encoded as magnetic patterns The display provides a simulation of a 3D
Each surface is accessed by read/write heads environment generated by a 3D graphics package
When writing, current variation in the head causes The user can ‘move’ in the virtual environment by
magnetic field variation on the disk moving their head or using controllers
When reading, magnetic field variation from the disk Buffers:
produces current variation in the read head A queue that temporarily stores data to balance
input/output speed of data, while the cache is the
Solid State (Flash) Memory: short-term memory storage that stores frequently
Most use NAND-based flash memory used data.
Consist of a grid of columns & rows that has 2 transistors Random Access Memory vs. Read-Only Memory
at each intersection |RAM|ROM| |:---|:---| |Volatile memory: loses content
Two transistors: when power is turned off|Non-volatile memory: does not
Floating Gate: stores electrons, and the presence or lose content when power is turned off| |It can be read and
absence of charge (electrons) represents either 1 or 0 altered|It can only be read| |Used to store currently
Control Gate: controls charge (electrons) flow for executing program|Used for storing OS kernel and boot-up
read/write instructions|
Optical Disc Reader/Writer: Types of RAM - Static RAM vs. Dynamic RAM

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|SRAM|DRAM| |:---|:---| |Doesn’t need to refresh; hence, it
uses less power and faster access time|Has to be refreshed; Monitoring and Control Systems
it has slower access times and needs higher power| |More Monitoring System:
complex circuitry, hence more expensive|Only a single Monitors some state external to the computer
transistor & capacitor, hence less expensive to purchase| system
|Each bit is stored in a flip-flop|Each bit is stored as a No changes were made to the environment by
charge| |Has lower data density|Has higher data density| the system, and hence, no feedback
|Used in cache memory|Used in main memory| Control System:
Regulates the behaviour of other devices or
Types of ROM – PROM vs. EPROM vs. EEPROM systems
Event-driven system: the controller alters the
|PROM|EPROM|EEPROM| |:---|:---|:---| |Programmable system's state in response to some event
ROM|Erasable Programmable ROM|Electrically Erasable Time-driven system, where the controller takes
Programmable ROM| |It can be programmed only once action at a specific point in time
after it is created|It can be erased by UV light exposure and Hardware typically used in a system:
can then be reprogrammed|It can be erased by an electrical Sensor that measures an (analogue) property and
signal and can then be reprogrammed| |Data cannot be transmits it to a processing unit, generally as an
erased or deleted|Chip has to be removed for electrical or optical signal
reprogramming|Can update data without removing the Actuators that switch on/off heavy appliances
chip.| (e.g. heater to heat/fan to cool)
ADC that converts analogue signals to digital
signals
Transmission cable to transfer signals
Feedback Systems:
Output from the system affects the input of
sensors
Ensures the system operates within the given
criteria
Enabling the system output to affect subsequent
system inputs may cause a change in the actions
taken by the system
This enables the system to adjust conditions in a
continuous process automatically

3.2. Logic Gates and Logic Circuits

Logic Gates: use one or more inputs and produce a
single logical output
AND gate: If both inputs are high, the output is high
(A•B)
|A|B|Output| |:---|:---|:---| |0|0|0| |0|1|0| |1|0|0|
|1|1|1|

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OR gate: If either input is high, the output is high (A+B) NOR gate: (A+B)

|A|B|Output| |:---|:---|:---| |0|0|0| |0|1|1| |1|0|1| |A|B|Output| |:---|:---|:---| |0|0|1| |0|1|0| |1|0|0|
|1|1|1| |1|1|0|

XOR gate: (A⨁B)

|A|B|Output| |:---|:---|:---| |0|0|0| |0|1|1| |1|0|1|

|1|1|0|
NOT gate: an inverter (A)

|A|Output| |:---|:---| |1|0| |0|1|

NAND gate: (A•B)

4. Processor Fundamentals
|A|B|Output| |:---|:---|:---| |0|0|1| |0|1|1| |1|0|1| 4.1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
|1|1|0|
Architecture
Von Neumann model

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Von Neumann realized data & programs are Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): part of the processor
indistinguishable and can, therefore, use the same that processes instructions which require some form of
memory. arithmetic or logical operation
Von Neumann's architecture uses a single processor. Control Unit (CU): part of the CPU that fetches
It follows a linear sequence of fetch–decode–execute instructions from memory, decodes them &
operations for the set of instructions, i.e. the program. synchronizes operations before sending signals to the
To do this, the processor uses registers. computer’s memory, ALU and I/O devices to direct how
to respond to instructions sent to the processor
Registers Immediate Access Store (IAS): memory unit that the
Registers: smallest unit of storage of microprocessor; processor can directly access
allows fast data transfer between other registers System Clock: a timing device connected to a processor
that synchronises all components.
General Purpose registers
Used to temporarily store data values which have Buses
been read from memory or some processed result
Assembly language instructions can use it Set of parallel wires that allow the transfer of data
Special Purpose Registers between components in a computer system
Some are accessible by assembly language Data bus: bidirectional bus that carries data
instructions instructions between processor, memory, and I/O
Only holds either data or memory location, not both devices.
Particular purpose registers include: Address bus: unidirectional bus that carries the
Program Counter (PC): holds the address of the address of the main memory location or input/output
next instruction to be fetched device about to be used, from processor to memory
Memory Data Register (MDR): holds data value address register (MAR)
fetched from memory Control bus
Memory Address Register (MAR): Holds the Bidirectional
address of the memory cell of the program which used to transmit control signals from the control unit
is to be accessed to ensure access/use of data & address buses by
Accumulator (ACC): holds all values that are components of the system does not lead to conflict
processed by arithmetic & logical operations.
Index Register (IX): Stores a number used to Performance of Computer System Factors
change an address value
Current Instruction Register (CIR): Once program
instruction is fetched, it is stored in CIR and allows
the processor to decode & execute it
Status Register: holds results of comparisons to
decide later for action, intermediate and
erroneous results of arithmetic performed

The Processor (CPU)

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Clock Speed Hardware which provides a physical interface between a

Number of pulses the clock sends out in a given time device with CPU and a peripheral device
interval, which determines the number of cycles Peripheral (I/O) devices cannot be directly connected to
(processes) the CPU executes in a given time interval the CPU, hence connected through ports.
Usually measured in Gigahertz (GHz) Universal Serial Bus (USB): Can connect both input and
If the clock speed is increased, then the execution output devices to the processor through a USB port.
time for instructions decreases. Hence, more cycles High Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI)
per unit time, which increases performance. Can only connect output devices (e.g. LCD) to the
However, there is a limit on clock speed since the processor through a HDMI port
heat generated by higher clock speeds cannot be HDMI cables transmit high-bandwidth and high-
removed fast enough, which leads to overheating. resolution video & audio streams through HDMI
Bus Width ports
Determines the number of bits that can be Video Graphics Array (VGA)
simultaneously transferred Can only connect output devices (e.g. second
Refers to the number of lines in a bus monitor/display) to the processor through a VGA port
Increasing bus width increases the number of bits VGA ports allow only the transmission of video
transferred simultaneously, increasing processing streams but not audio components
speed and performance.
Cache Memory Fetch-Execute (F-E) cycle
Commonly used instructions are stored in the cache Fetch stage
memory area of the CPU. PC holds the address of the next instruction to be
If the cache memory size is increased, more
fetched
commonly executed instructions can be stored, and The address on the PC is copied to MAR
the need for the CPU to wait for instructions to be PC is incremented
loaded reduces. Hence, the CPU executes more Instruction loaded to MDR from the address held in
cycles per unit of time, thus improving performance. MAR
Number of Cores
Instruction from MDR loaded to CIR
Most CPU chips are multi-core — have more than Decode stage: The opcode and operand parts of
one core (essentially a processor) instruction are identified
Each core simultaneously processes different Execute stage: Instructions executed by the control unit
instructions through multithreading, improving sending control signals
computer performance.
Register Transfer Notation (RTN)
Ports MAR ← [PC]
PC ← [PC] + 1
MDR ← [[MAR]]
CIR ← [MDR]
Decode
Execute
Return to start
Square brackets: value currently in that register
Double square brackets: CPU is getting value stored
at the address in the register

Interrupts

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A signal from a program seeking the processor’s Assembly language: low-level programming language
attention with instructions made up of an op code and an operand
Handles the interrupt by controlling the processor Machine code: code written in binary that uses the
Different ISRs used for different sources of interrupt processor’s basic machine operations
Relationship between machine and assembly language:
A typical sequence of actions when an interrupt occurs: every assembly language instruction (source code)
The processor checks the interrupt register for translates into exactly one machine code instruction
interrupt at the end of the F-E cycle for the current (object code)
instruction Symbolic addressing
If the interrupt flag is set in the interrupt register, the Symbols used to represent operation codes
interrupt source is detected Labels can be used for addresses
If the interrupt is low priority, then an interrupt is Absolute addressing: a fixed address in memory
disabled Assembler
If interrupting is a high priority: Software that changes assembly language into
All contents of registers of the running process machine code for the processor to understand
are saved on the stack The assembler replaces all mnemonics and labels
PC is loaded with the ISR and is executed with their respective binary values (that are
Once ISR is completed, the processor pops the predefined before by the assembler software)
registers’ contents from the stack, and the One pass assembler
interrupted program continues its execution. Assembler converts mnemonic source code into
Interrupts re-enabled and machine code in one sweep of program
Return to the start of the cycle Cannot handle code that involves forward
referencing
4.2. Assembly Language Two pass assembler: software makes 2 passes through
the code
On the first pass:
Symbol table created to enter symbolic addresses
and labels into specific addresses
All errors are suppressed
On the second pass:
Jump instructions access memory addresses via
table
Whole source code translates into machine code
Error reported if they exist
Grouping the Processor’s Instruction Set

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|Op Code|Operand|Explanation| |:---|:---|:---|
|Addressing||| |LDM|#n|Immediate: Load n into ACC| Binary numbers can be multiplied or divided by shifting
|LDD|<address>|Direct: load contents at address into the Left shift (LSL #n)
ACC| |LDI|<address>|Indirect: load contents of address at Bits are shifted to the left to multiply
given address into ACC| |LDX|<address>|Indexed: load E.g. to multiply by four, all digits shift two places to
contents of given address + IR into ACC| |Data left
Movement||| |STO|<address>|Store contents of ACC into Right shift (LSR #n)
address| |Arithmetic Operations||| |ADD|<address>|Add Bits are shifted to the right to divide
contents of register to ACC| |INC|<register>|Add 1 to E.g. to divide by four, all digits shift two places to right
contents of the register| |Comparing||| |CMP| Logical shift: zeros replace the vacated bit position
<address>|Compare contents of ACC with that of given Arithmetic shift: Used to carry out multiplication and
address| |CMP|#n|Compare contents of ACC with n| division of signed integers represented by bits in the
|Conditional Jumps||| |JPE|<address>|Jump to address if accumulator by ensuring that the sign-bit (usually the
compare TRUE| |JPN|<address>|Jump to address if MSB) is the same after the shift.
compare FALSE| |Unconditional Jumps||| |JMP| Cyclic shift: the bit that is removed from one end by the
<address>|Jump to given address| |I/O Data||| |IN||Input shift is added to the other end.
any character and store ASCII value in ACC| |OUT||Output
Bit Masking
character whose ASCII value is stored in ACC| |Ending|||
|END||Return Control to operating system|
#denotes immediate addressing
B denotes a binary number, e.g. B01001010 & denotes a
hexadecimal number, e.g. &4A

Modes of Addressing
Direct Addressing: loads contents at address into ACC
Indirect Addressing: The address to be used is at
given address. Load contents of this second address
to ACC
Indexed addressing: form the address to be used as
<address> + the contents of the IR (Index Register)
Relative addressing: next instruction to be carried out
is an offset number of locations away, relative to
address of current instruction held in PC; allows for
relocatable code
Conditional jump: has a condition that will be
checked (like using an IF statements)
Unconditional jump: no condition to be followed,
simply jump to the next instruction as specified

4.3. Bit Manipulation

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Each bit can represent an individual flag. Need for OS

∴ by altering the bits, flags could be operated upon. A set of programs designed to run in the background
Bit manipulation operations: on a computer system which
Masking: an operation that defines which bits you Controls operation of computer system
want to keep and which bits you want to clear. Provides a user interface
Masking to 1: The OR operation is used with a 1. Controls how computer responds to user’s
Masking to 0: The AND operation is used with a 0. requests
Matching: an operation that allows the accumulator Controls how hardware communicate
to compare the value it contains to the given value in Provides an environment in which application
order to change the state of the status register. software can be executed
Practical applications of Bit Masking: OS hardware is unusable without an OS, as the OS
Setting an individual bit position: acts as an interface since it controls communication
Mask the content of the register with a mask between user and hardware
pattern which has 0 in the ‘mask out’ positions
and 1 in the ‘retain’ positions. Key Management Tasks
Set the result with the match pattern by using the (Main) Memory Management
AND command with a direct address.
Memory protection to ensure 2 programs do not try
Testing one or more bits: to use same memory space
Mask the content of the register with a mask Paging
pattern which has 0 in the ‘mask out’ positions Use of virtual memory
and 1 in the ‘retain’ positions. File Management
Compare the result with the match pattern by
Provides file naming conventions
using the CMP command or by “Checking the Maintains a directory structure
pattern”. Allocates space to particular files
Checking the pattern Security Management
Use AND operation to mask bits and obtain Proves usernames & passwords
resultant.
Ensures data privacy
Now subtract matching bit pattern from resultant. Prevents unauthorized access
The final ‘non-zero’ result confirms the patterns Carries out automatic backup
are not the same else vice versa. Hardware (input/output/peripherals) Management
Installation of appropriate driver software
5. System Software Controls access to data sent to and from peripherals
Receives & handles interrupts from hardware devices
Process Management
5.1. Operating System Enables multiprogramming and multitasking
Resolution of conflicts when 2 or more processes
requires the same resource
E.g. via Round-robin method

Utility Software

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Disk Formatter Pre-written code that can be linked to a software under

Prepares a hard disk to allow data to be stored on it development without any amendments
Deletes any existing data on disk Can perform common or complex tasks
Performs formatting, process where computer ‘draws Takes the form of classes
lines’ on disk surface to split it into small areas Benefits:
Virus checker Saves time: less code needs to be written
Checks for and then removes any viruses found Smaller testing time: pre-tested and used by others
Constantly checks all incoming and outgoing files Library file is a complex algorithm which the user
Defragmentation Software does not need to understand to use it
Files can be big so have to be stored in multiple Dynamic Link Library (DLL) files
sectors, which can result in fragmentation (contents Shared library file that contains code and data
of file scattered across >2 non-contiguous sectors) Code saved separately from the main .EXE file,
Fragmentation slows down disk access and thus the reducing the .EXE file’s size
performance of the entire computer. Code only loaded to main memory when required
Defragmenting software works by physically DDL file can be made available to several applications
reorganizing disk contents (files) such that they are simultaneously, thus reducing strain on memory
stored in contiguous sectors. DLL files act as modules in more complex programs,
This defragmentation reduces number of movements making it easier to install and run updates
of the read/write heads require to access the disk
contents, hence increasing computer performance 5.2. Language Translators
The defragmentation also creates larger contiguous
free space regions Assembler
Disk contents analysis/disk repair software Software that translates assembly language
Software utility for visualization of disk space usage statements into machine code (binary) for execution
Gets size for each folder and files, and generates a The mnemonics used translates into machine
graphical chart showing disk usage distribution opcodes
according to folders or other user defined criteria. Process simple because assembly language has a
Allows disk to report errors (e.g. “bad sector”) one-to-one relationship with machine code.
Software will attempt to offer a solution Compiler and Interpreter
File Compression
Reduces file size by removing redundant data in files |Compiler|Interpreter| |:---|:---| |Translates a high-level
Causes improvements in the computer’s language program to machine code.|Translates and
performance by reducing the data that needs to be executes a high-level language program, line-by-line.|
stored |Creates a .exe file which can be easily distributed.|No .exe
Back-up Software file created.| |Once compiled, .exe file does not need to be
Makes copy of files on another storage medium in compiled again, resulting in faster execution.|Execution very
the event of a hard drive failure, user error, disaster slow – translated each time program run.| |Reports all
or accident. errors at the end of compilation: difficult to locate errors∴
Should be a regular process development process long.|Debugging easier/faster, since it
Can provide synchronization between devices stops translating when it reaches an error. This allows real
time error correction.| |Only be produced when all errors
Program Libraries are fixed.|Can run program any time, even before code
finished.| |Used when development is completed.|Used
during development.|

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Malware
6. Security, Privacy and Data software intentionally designed to damage a
computer or computer network
Integrity Includes Virus & Spyware
Virus: Software that replicates itself by inserting a
copy of itself into another piece of software, which
6.1. Data Security may cause the computer to crash and can lead to
deletion or corruption of data
Data Security: ensuring data is protected against loss and Spyware: software that gathers information about
unauthorized access. users' online and offline activity, including accessed
Data Integrity: making sure that data is valid and does sites, applications, and downloaded files.
not corrupt after transmission Risk restriction: Ensure anti-virus and anti-spyware
Data Privacy: ability to determine what data is shared software is installed, regularly updated and run.
with a third party Hacking
Data Security and Computer System Security illegal access to a computer system
| Data Security | System Security | |----|----| | Protection of Hackers can obtain user’s confidential data which can
data on a computer system | Protection of the computer cause identity theft
system | | To prevent corruption of data and prevent Can lead to the deletion or corruption of data
hackers from using data | To prevent access of viruses to Risk restriction: Use strong passwords and ensure
the system and prevent hackers from entering your firewall
computer system | | E.g. encryption | E.g. ID & Password | Phishing
Threats to Computer & Data Security* Attempt through emails to obtain user’s confidential
data which can cause identity theft
Risk restriction: Ignore suspicious mails and ensure
firewall criteria include SPAM filters, blacklist, etc.
Pharming
Redirects user to a fake website that appears
legitimate to gain confidential data
Risk restriction: use a reliable ISP; check that links are
genuine and ensure https is present in the URL

Computer System Security Measures

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User Accounts and Passwords

Usernames & passwords to deny access to 6.2. Data Integrity
unauthorized users
User-assigned privilege, which accesses to only the Data validation and data verification help protect the
integrity of data by checking whether the data entered is
user’s workplace, preventing the user to have admin
sensible and accurate, respectively.
rights.
Can assign privileges to files so users with low Data Validation: checks if data entered is valid, but not its
privileges do not have access. accuracy
Firewalls Data Validation Methods
Range check: data must be between a set of values
Hardware or software that filters information
Format check: data must follow correct pattern/order
travelling between the computer system and the
internet Length check: data must have exact no. of characters
(software) firewall can make decisions about what to Presence check: checks if some data has been
allow and block by detecting illegal attempts by entered
Existence check: data entered must exist
specific software to connect to the internet
Limit check: checks whether a value entered is within
Authentication
Process of determining whether someone is who acceptable minimum and maximum values.
they claim to be. Check digit: A digit is used as the answer to an
Helps prevent unauthorized access arithmetic operation of other digits in data. If not
matched, then data entered incorrectly
Log-on using digital signatures, passwords and
Data Verification: checks data entered is accurate during
biometric scans.
Anti-virus software data entry and data transfer
Runs in the background to detect & remove viruses. Data Entry Verification Methods
Checks files for known malicious patterns Visual Check: Person manually compares original
data with that entered to check if correct
Anti-spyware software: detects & removes spyware.
Double Entry: Enter data into computer twice and
Encryption:
Conversion of data to code by encoding it compares.
It doesn’t stop illegal access but appears meaningless If differences found, go back to raw data to fix error
Necessary to use decryption software to decode data Data Transfer Verification Methods
Data Security Measures
Encryption
Access Rights to data (authorization): different users
assigned different authorization levels which prevent
them from accessing all data ∴ increases security
Data Backup
An exact copy of an original piece of data in case the
original is lost or corrupted
Within the same computer system or at different site
Disk-mirroring strategy
Real-time strategy that writes data to two or more
disks at the same time.
If one fails, the other is still there to be read off of

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Software Licencing
Errors may occur when data moved in system.
Parity Check Free Software Foundation:
All data transmitted as bits A license gives users freedom to run, copy, distribute,
Number of 1s in a byte must always be either an odd study, change, and improve the software.
number or an even number Condition: any redistributed version of software must
Parity can be set either as even or odd be distributed with original terms of free use,
E.g. two communicating devices decide there will modification, and distribution (aka copyleft)
always be an odd number of 1s. A byte is received The Open Source Initiative:
that has even number of 1s so error occurred and The source code of open-source software is readily
receiving device would ask for it to be sent again available to users under copyright; it does enable
Used also when data sent between parts of the CPU users to re-distribute the software.
Not foolproof: if 2 bits are transposed, data accepted The concept of an open-source program relies on the
Checksum Check fact that users can review source code to eliminate
Data sent from one place to another as block of bytes bugs in it
rather than individual bytes Shareware:
Computer adds together all bytes being sent Demonstration software that is distributed for free
Any bits lost at most-significant end as carry ignored but for a specific evaluation period only
so answer is an 8-bit number Distributed on a trial basis and with an
Checksum calculated before and after data sent understanding that sometime later, a user may be
If two bytes different, error occurred therefore block interested in paying for it
of bytes must be sent again Used for marketing purposes
Commercial: Requires payment before it can be used,

7. Ethics and Ownership but includes all program's features, with no restrictions

Artifical intelligence (AI)

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Artificial Intelligence (AI): the ability of a computer to

perform tasks in such a way that is conventionally 8.2. Database Management Systems
associated with human intelligence: (DBMS)
AI can learn from past mistakes
they adapt to stop the same problem from Database: collection of non-redundant interrelated data
occurring again DBMS: Software programs that allow databases to be
they learn to predict what might happen & raise defined, constructed and manipulated
alert
AI can learn to work more efficiently Features of a DBMS:
when an action slows the system down, it can
Data management: data stored in relational databases -
prevent this from happening again
tables stored in secondary storage
when an action increases the speed of the
Data dictionary contains:
system, it can repeat this when necessary to
List of all files in database
improve efficiency
No. of records in each file
AI Applications
Names & types of each field
Developing autonomous mechanical products
Data modeling: analysis of data objects used in
Machine learning through data sets
database, identifying relationships among them
AI Impacts
Logical schema: overall view of entire database,
Social
includes: entities, attributes and relationships
Replacement of manual labour with automation
Data integrity: entire block copied to user’s area when
could lead to massive unemployment.
being changed, saved back when done
However, it could lead to increased leisure time.
Data security: handles password allocation and
Economic: Due to increased innovation and efficiency
verification, backups database automatically, controls
with automation provided by AI, there’d be lower
what certain user’s view by access rights of individuals or
manufacturing costs in general
groups of users
Environmental: Detrimental impact on the
environment due to robot manufacture with limited Data change clash solutions:
resources and its waste disposal
Open entire database in exclusive mode – impractical

8. Database and Data with several users

Lock all records in the table being modified – one user

Modelling changing a table, others can only read table

Lock record currently being edited – as someone
changes something, others can only read record
8.1. File Based System User specifies no locks – software warns user of
simultaneous change, resolve manually
Data stored in discrete files, stored on computer, and <span class="underline">Deadlock</span>: 2 locks at the
can be accessed, altered or removed by the user same time, DBMS must recognize, 1 user must abort task

Disadvantages of File Based System: Tools in a DBMS:

No enforcing control on organization/structure of files Developer interface: allows creating and manipulating
Data repeated in different files; manually change each database in SQL rather than graphically
Sorting must be done manually or must write a program Query processor: handles high-level queries. It parses,
Data may be in different format; difficult to find and use validates, optimizes, and compiles or interprets a query
Impossible for it to be multi-user; chaotic which results in the query plan.
Security not sophisticated; users can access everything
8.3. Relational Database Modelling

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2^nd Normal Form (2NF): it is in 1NF and every
Entity: object/event which can be distinctly identified non-primary key attribute is fully dependent on the primary;
Table: contains a group of related entities in rows and all the incomplete dependencies have been removed.
columns called an entity set Example:
Tuple: a row or a record in a relational database
Attribute: a field or column in a relational database
Primary key: attribute or combination of them that
uniquely define each tuple in relation
Candidate key: attribute that can potentially be a
primary key
Foreign key: attribute or combination of them that
relates 2 different tables
Referential integrity: prevents users or applications
from entering inconsistent data
Secondary key: candidate keys not chosen as the
primary key
Indexing: creating a secondary key on an attribute to
provide fast access when searching on that attribute; 3^rd Normal Form (3NF): it is in 1NF and 2NF
indexing data must be updated when table data changes and all non-key elements are fully dependent on the primary
key. No inter-dependencies between attributes.
8.4. Relational Design of a System
MANY-TO-MANY functions cannot be directly normalized
to 3NF, must use a 2 step process e.g.

becomes:

8.5. Normalization
8.6. Data Definition Language (DDL)
1^st Normal Form (1NF): contains no repeating
attribute or groups of attributes. Intersection of each tuple Creation/modification of the database structure using
and attribute contains only 1 value. Example: this language
written in SQL
Creating a database:
CREATE DATABASE <database-name>

Creating a table:

CREATE TABLE <table-name> (…)

Changing a table:

ALTER TABLE <table-name>

Adding a primary key:

PRIMARY KEY (field)

ADD <field-name>:<data-type>

Adding a foreign key:

FOREIGN KEY (field) REFERENCES <table>(field)

Example:

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CREATE DATABASE ‘[Link]’

CREATE TABLE Training
(EmpID INT NOT NULL,
CourseTitle VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL,
CourseDate Date NOT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (EmpID, CourseDate),
FOREIGN KEY (EmpID) REFERENCES Employee(EmpID))

8.7. Data Manipulation Language (DML)

Query and maintenance of data done using this language
– written in SQL

<span class="underline">Queries:</span>

Creating a query:
SELECT <field-name>
FROM <table-name>
WHERE <search-condition>

SQL Operators:

| = | Equals to | |----|----| | > | Greater than | | < | Less

than | | >= | Greater than or equal to | | <= | Less than or
equal to | | <> | Not equal to | | IS NULL | Check for null
values |

Sort into ascending order:

ORDER BY <field-name>

Arrange identical data into groups:

GROUP BY <field-name>

Joining together fields of different tables:

INNER JOIN

<span class="underline">Data Maintenance:</span>

Adding data to table:

INSERT INTO <table-name>(field1, field2, field3)

VALUES (value1, value2, value3)

Deleting a record:

DELETE FROM <table-name>

WHERE <condition>

Updating a field in a table:

UPDATE <table-name>
SET <field-name> = <value>
WHERE <condition>

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Computer Science

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