Page 1: Introduction and Case 1: Distinct Linear Factors
Partial Fraction Decomposition is a technique used in calculus to simplify a
rational function (a fraction where the numerator and denominator are
polynomials) into a sum of simpler fractions. This method is particularly useful
for integration, as the simpler fractions are often much easier to integrate than
the original function. The method is applicable when the degree of the
numerator is less than the degree of the denominator.
The first case covered in the document is when the denominator can be
factored into distinct linear factors.
Example 1:
The problem is to evaluate the integral:
∫x2−2x−35x−3dx
Steps:
1. Factor the denominator: The quadratic x2−2x−3 is factored into its
linear components: (x+1)(x−3).
2. Decompose the fraction: The rational function is set equal to a sum of
two new fractions, each with a constant numerator (A and B) over one
of the linear factors from the denominator:
(x+1)(x−3)5x−3=x+1A+x−3B
3. Solve for the constants: The document shows a method for finding the
values of A and B by substituting specific values of x. By multiplying
both sides by the denominator, we get the equation:
A(x−3)+B(x+1)=5x−3
o To find A, let x=−1: A(−1−3)+B(−1+1)=5(−1)−3⟹−4A=−8⟹A=2.
o To find B, let x=3: A(3−3)+B(3+1)=5(3)−3⟹4B=12⟹B=3.
4. Integrate the partial fractions: The original integral is replaced with the
sum of the new, simpler integrals:
∫(x+12+x−33)dx=∫x+12dx+∫x−33dx
5. Final Answer: Using the rule ∫u1du=ln∣u∣, the final answer is:
2ln∣x+1∣+3ln∣x−3∣+C
Page 2: Case 2: Another Example with Distinct Linear Factors
This page illustrates another problem of the same type, reinforcing the
method of partial fraction decomposition for denominators with distinct linear
factors.
Example 2:
The problem is to evaluate the integral:
∫x2−x−63x+11dx
Steps:
1. Factor the denominator: The quadratic x2−x−6 is factored into
(x−3)(x+2).
2. Decompose the fraction: Set up the partial fraction form:
(x−3)(x+2)3x+11=x−3A+x+2B
3. Solve for the constants: Multiply both sides by the denominator to get
the equation:
A(x+2)+B(x−3)=3x+11
o To find B, let x=−2:
A(−2+2)+B(−2−3)=3(−2)+11⟹−5B=5⟹B=−1.
o To find A, let x=3: A(3+2)+B(3−3)=3(3)+11⟹5A=20⟹A=4.
4. Integrate the partial fractions: Replace the original integral with the sum
of the decomposed fractions:
∫(x−34+x+2−1)dx=∫x−34dx−∫x+21dx
5. Final Answer: Using the same integration rule as before, the result is:
4ln∣x−3∣−ln∣x+2∣+C
Page 3: Case 3: Three Distinct Linear Factors
This example expands on the concept by demonstrating how to handle a
denominator with three distinct linear factors.
Example 3:
The problem is to evaluate the integral:
∫3x3+4x2−4xx2+4dx
Steps:
1. Factor the denominator: First, factor out the common term x, then
factor the remaining quadratic.
3x3+4x2−4x=x(3x2+4x−4)=x(x+2)(3x−2)
2. Decompose the fraction: With three distinct linear factors, the
decomposition requires three terms with constants A, B, and C:
x(x+2)(3x−2)x2+4=xA+x+2B+3x−2C
3. Solve for the constants: The document shows solving for A, B, and C
by using the root of each linear factor. The fundamental equation is:
A(x+2)(3x−2)+Bx(3x−2)+Cx(x+2)=x2+4
o To find A, let x=0: A(0+2)(3(0)−2)=02+4⟹−4A=4⟹A=−1.
o To find B, let x=−2:
B(−2)(3(−2)−2)=(−2)2+4⟹B(−2)(−8)=8⟹16B=8⟹B=21.
o To find C, let x=32: C(32)(32+2)=(32)2+4⟹C(32)(38)=94
+4⟹916C=940⟹C=1640=25.
4. Integrate the partial fractions: Once all constants are found, the
integral can be solved as the sum of three simple integrals.
Page 4: Summary of the Partial Fraction Method
This page provides a high-level summary of the overall process of using
partial fractions, based on the examples in the document.
The method is a systematic approach to breaking down a complex rational
expression into a sum of simpler fractions. This is possible when the
denominator is factorable.
General Steps:
1. Analyze the Denominator: The first and most critical step is to factor
the denominator completely. The success of the method depends on
correctly identifying the types of factors (linear, repeated linear, or
irreducible quadratic).
2. Set up the Decomposition: Based on the factors found in the
previous step, set up the partial fraction decomposition. For each
distinct linear factor, a corresponding fraction with a constant
numerator is created.
o For a factor (ax+b), the term is ax+bA.
3. Solve for the Unknown Constants: Use an algebraic method to find
the values of the constants in the numerators. The examples in the
document show a simple and effective method of substituting the roots
of the linear factors into an expanded equation to isolate each
constant.
4. Integrate the Simpler Fractions: Once the constants are determined,
the original complex integral is transformed into a series of simpler
integrals. These integrals are typically in the form of ∫ax+b1dx, which
are easily solved using the natural logarithm rule.
Page 5: Key Integration Rules and Conclusion
The final page of the summary brings together the core ideas and rules used
in the partial fraction method as presented in the document.
Key Integration Rules:
The entire process of partial fraction decomposition is designed to lead to
simple integrals that can be solved with fundamental rules. The primary rule
used in all three examples is the one for integrating a function of the form u1:
∫u1du=ln∣u∣+C
In the context of the examples, this rule is applied to each of the linear partial
fractions, where u is the linear factor in the denominator. For example, for the
integral ∫x−31dx, we can let u=x−3, and du=dx, leading to ln∣x−3∣. For a factor
like 3x−2, a minor adjustment is needed (e.g., a constant factor to account for
the chain rule, as shown in some other integration examples).
Conclusion:
The partial fraction method, as detailed in the document, is a valuable
technique for solving a class of integrals that would otherwise be very difficult.
By breaking down a complex rational function into manageable parts, the
problem is simplified, allowing for the application of basic integration rules to
find the final solution.
