International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 2025, 60(1), vvaf091

[Link]
Advance access publication: 24 April 2025
Review

Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.): nutritional

profile, polysaccharide analysis, and opportunities for
product development
Shujun Ye1 , Ali Imran1 , Osman Tuncay Agar1 , Dakshina Yadav2 , Chelsea Moore2 , and Hafiz A.R. Suleria1, *

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1 School of Agriculture, Food and Ecosystem Sciences, Faculty of Science, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
2 Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Northern Territory Government, Darwin, Australia
*Corresponding author: School of Agriculture, Food and Ecosystem Sciences, Faculty of Science, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia.
Email: [Link]@[Link]

Abstract
Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.) has been drawing lots of attention recently due to its abundant bioactive compounds, health-
promoting benefits, and wide application in the food and nonfood industry. This comprehensive review explores the nutritional
profile of jackfruit, emphasising the polysaccharides, macro- and micronutrients, and bioactive phytochemicals. The health benefits of
phytochemicals have been examined, including anti-inf lammatory, antidiabetic, antioxidant, anticancer, antiobesity, immune effects,
antimicrobial, antiviral, and wound healing. This review also extends the content of jackfruit polysaccharides extraction, bioactivity,
along their research limitation. For application, this review discussed the traditional use and current product development tendency,
especially in the food and nonfood industry. Due to its unique texture, jackfruit takes a place in meat analogue, which has been
demonstrated in this review as well. Finally, commercial potential and challenges in jackfruit and related product development have
been discussed and future research direction and market opportunities have been provided.

Keywords: jackfruit, polysaccharides, bioactivity, phytochemicals profile, product development

Graphical abstract

Received: 6 January 2025. Accepted: 18 April 2025

© The Author(s) 2025. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Institute of Food Science and Technology.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License ([Link] which
permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
2 | Ye et al.

Introduction out among the many tropical fruit commercial products, such
as bananas, coconuts, mangoes, and durians. This article tried to
Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.) is a tropical fruit that
explore specific strategies to enhance jackfruit’s competitiveness
belongs to the Moraceae family. It is originally from India and
in the market.
Malaysia, while it is widely worldwide, grown in Southeast Asia
This review aims to provide a comprehensive exploration of
and other tropical areas including Thailand, India, Bangladesh,
jackfruit, focusing on its nutritional and phytochemical compo-
Australia, USA (Florida), Latin America, and the Caribbean
sition, including impact of maturity stages on the composition,
(Jagadeesh et al., 2007; Sidhu, 2012).
therapeutic potential, food applications, and commercial viability.
Nutritionally, jackfruit is rich in carbohydrates, dietary fibre,
Through systematic exploration of the current literature, this
and proteins. It contains a great amount of vitamins and min-
review endeavours to illuminate the diverse facets of jackfruit,
erals, including vitamin A, vitamin group B, vitamin C, calcium,
from multifaceted benefits and potential to the opportunities and
iron, magnesium, potassium, and sodium (Srivastava & Singh,
challenges in its utilisation and commercialisation. This review
2020), and other vital components compared to other common
would highlight jackfruit not only as a nutritional fruit but also
fruits (e.g., bananas, mangos, and pineapples) (Prem et al., 2015).
as a valuable commodity in the food industry.

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From a phytochemical perspective, jackfruit possesses a valuable
profile of bioactive compounds including polyphenols (f lavonoids,
tannins, phenolic acids), volatile acids, amino acids, carotenoids,
Nutritional profile of jackfruit
and minerals. Those compounds contribute to its pharmaceu-
tical properties, including but not limited to antioxidant, anti- Nutritionally, jackfruit is a good source of carbohydrates, dietary
inf lammatory, and antimicrobial (Gupta et al., 2023). Notably, fibre, and proteins and a notable source of vitamins and minerals
those profiles of jackfruit are significantly variable across differ- as well, including vitamin A, vitamin group B, vitamin C, calcium,
ent maturity stages. This variability has sparked growing interest iron, magnesium, potassium, and sodium (Srivastava & Singh,
among researchers to investigate the optimal harvest time for 2020). Comparing jackfruit to other common fruits, Prem et al.
specific end-use purposes (Tiwari & Vidyarthi, 2015). (2015) found that jackfruit has higher levels of protein, calcium,
In addition to its nutritional value, jackfruit has been noted for iron, vitamins, and other vital components. Phytochemically,
its therapeutic potential. It has been shown to obtain antimicro- jackfruit is rich in bioactive substances that endow jackfruit with
bial properties against various bacteria and foodborne pathogens the pharmaceutical properties, for example, antioxidant, anti-
and antiviral properties against HIV (Human Immunodeficiency inf lammatory, and antimicrobial (Gupta et al., 2023). A significant
Virus) (Fu et al., 2020) and HCV (Hepatitis C Virus) (Hafid et al., aspect of jackfruit’s nutritional and phytochemical composition is
2017). Previous studies have also demonstrated its effectiveness its variability across different maturity stages (Tiwari & Vidyarthi,
in managing diabetes by regulating blood sugar levels and inhibit- 2015).
ing key enzymes responsible for glucose metabolism. Related
research has focused on the anticancer, obesity management, Macronutrients
immunomodulatory (Ma et al., 2021), wound healing (Baliga et al., Maturity plays a key role in a jackfruit’s chemical composition.
2011; Gupta & Tandon, 2004), and antioxidant potential of jack- For the macronutrients, young and ripe jackfruit showed different
fruit and its various fractions. Furthermore, jackfruit exhibited patterns. According to the summary of Ranasinghe et al. (2019),
significant versatility in both processed and nonprocessed forms. 100 g edible portion of young jackfruit contains 76.2–85.2 g water,
Its fibrous and meaty texture makes it a popular plant-based 2.0–2.6 g protein, 0.1–0.6 g fat, 9.4–11.5 g carbohydrates, and 2.6–
meat substitute (Hamid et al., 2020) in culinary dishes such as 3.6 g fibre. That of ripe fruit is 72.0–94.0 g water, 1.2–1.9 g protein,
curries, sandwiches, and tacos. Its neutral f lavour allows a wide 0.1–0.4 g fat, 16.0–25.4 g carbohydrates, 1.0–1.5 g fibre, and 20.6 g
range of use in culinary. In addition, jackfruit concentrate has total sugars. During the maturation of jackfruit, the concentration
great potential to contribute to sensory qualities and nutritional of sugars increases, which might be because glucose is released by
benefits for the food industry (Ahiduzzaman et al., 2024). India starch hydrolysis and glucose and fructose are released by sucrose
is the largest producer of jackfruit with an area of 102 khm2 hydrolysis (Li et al., 2017). Based on this research, acid invertase
and a production of 1,436 kilo tons (Sidhu, 2012). The following and neutral invertase might play a key role in sucrose hydrolysis
is Bangladesh, where jackfruit is cultivated in 79,000 ha of land during ripening. In addition to its rich nutritional profile, the
with about 1,352,000 tons of annual fruit production (Khan et al., particular interest is polysaccharides, which play an important
2021). In addition, Malaysia, Thailand, and the Philippines are role in the structure properties as well. This review would explore
also important cultivators and producers of jackfruit. Notably, the analysis of polysaccharides from jackfruit in the next section.
in the past 10 years, the production of jackfruit in Mexico has
increased by two times with an output value of USD 3.7 million
Polysaccharides in jackfruit
(Siap, 2015). These data indicate that the market demand for
Jackfruit polysaccharides are found in pulp, seeds, and some part
jackfruit is continuously increasing. Although jackfruit has a long
that been seen as jackfruit waste, including peel, the core part.
growth period, there is still a need for continuous innovation
Unlike well-defined polysaccharides, jackfruit polysaccharides do
and optimisation to increase yield, reduce the incidence of pests
not have a specific name, most research is based on starch,
and diseases (Khan & Khan, 2020), and minimise environmental
cellulose, and pectin.
impact. Additionally, the potential threat of extreme weather
events due to global climate change poses a significant risk to the
cultivation and growth of jackfruit. The storage, processing, and Extraction methods
transportation of jackfruit present significant challenges for sales. Polysaccharides from jackfruit can be extracted using the conven-
Ensuring a stable supply while maintaining the freshness and tional method (Figure 1); assisted techniques would be applied to
quality of the fruit is the primary issue that needs to be addressed improve the yield or add functional properties. The most common
in the commercialisation process of jackfruit. In addition, jackfruit are microwave and ultrasonic, while radio frequency (Naik et al.,
also faces market competition issues such as how it can stand 2020), pulsed electric field (PEF) (Lal et al., 2021), and subcritical (Li
 International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 2025, Vol. 60, No. 1 | 3

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Figure 1. Conventional extraction of jackfruit polysaccharides.

et al., 2019) are added. The extraction of jackfruit polysaccharides Subcritical water extraction (SWE) is an efficient, green, and
were summarized in Table 1. lower energy consumption method. During the extraction process,
Microwave-assisted extraction could enhance the extraction the condition ensures that the water remains in liquid form under
efficiency. According to Thirugnanasambandham et al. (2015), the high temperature and high pressure; usually, the pressure is less
mechanism of microwave extraction for polysaccharides is as than 22.12 MPa and the temperature is between 100 and 374 ◦ C
follows. One is temperature rapid increase to reduce emulsion (Kumar, 2020). Li et al. (2019) explored the SWE to prepare the
viscosity and break the plant’s outer film/organism, while other pectin from jackfruit waste (peel) for the first time. Compared
one is zeta potential, which has been neutralised by molecular with the conventional extraction using citric acid (CTAE), pectin
rotation. However, this method would affect the physicochemical by SWE has a lower yield; the results are 16.83% and 14.96%,
and functional properties of pectin that has been extracted (Ling respectively. The main reason might the extraction medium; for
et al., 2023) and the potential mechanism is unclear yet. Tran et al. SWE, the extraction medium is water, while that of CTAE is citric
(2023), using microwave-assisted extraction to extract jackfruit acid. In addition, pectin from SWE has more hairy regions and side
rags pectin, demonstrated that optimal parameters are 66 ◦ C for chains, lower molecular weight, and lower apparent viscosity and
10.56 min and pectin has excellent antioxidant and antibacterial elasticity.
abilities. Lal et al. (2021) used pulsed electric field combined with Radio frequency–assisted extraction (RFAE) has numerous
microwave to extract the pectin of rind and the core part. The yield advantages, including but not limited to rapid heating, minimal
could reach to 29.78% with the optimised parameters. solvent requirements, preventing burning/overheating of a
Ultrasound-assisted extraction uses ultrasound acoustic cav- sample, protecting the sample from a direct contact heating
itation to destroy tissue while breaking the cell and membrane source, normal atmospheric pressure, and even heat through
of plants, which speeds up the solvent penetration ability into the sample (Jusoh et al., 2017). Previously, RFAE was applied in
the plant tissue matrix to increase efficiency of plant materials, extracting pectin from apple pomace (Zheng et al., 2021), pomelo
such as the cytoplasm and cell sap, into the solvent during the peel (Wang et al., 2024). Naik et al. introduced radio frequency
extraction period (Mazvimba et al., 2012). Moorthy et al. (2017) for jackfruit pectin extraction with response surface design. The
applied ultrasound to the pectin extraction of jackfruit peel. Four outcome is under optimal conditions, with a radio frequency time
factors were optimised, and the optimal parameters were as of 61.5 min, a 20.63:1 liquid–solid ratio, and a pH of 2.61; the yield
follows: liquid/solid of 15:1, pH 1.6, sonication for 24 min, and is 29.05% and higher than conventional extraction (12.37%).
extraction under 60 ◦ C. Yield under this condition is 14.48 ± 0.11%.
Another study carried out by Saurabh et al. (2023) showed that Bioactivity of jackfruit polysaccharides
the highest pectin yield is 13.15% with 40% ultrasound power, Jackfruit polysaccharides (JFPs) have demonstrated various
0.15 N oxalic acid for 10 min. Ultrasonic plus microwave-assisted bioactivities that contribute to human health. Li et al. (2024)
extraction (UMAE) is the integration extraction of green technol- explore the anti-inf lammatory effects of JFPs of pulp (JFPs-P)
ogy; it achieves rapid, uniform, and low-temperature extraction through an in vivo trial by dextran sodium sulphate–induced
while overcoming the drawbacks of ultrasound and microwave enteritis in rats. The results showed that purified JFPs-P alleviated
technology (Zhang et al., 2023). Xu et al. (2018) determined the the small intestine tissue damage through reduction of pro-
pectin extraction efficiency of jackfruit peel by UMAE. When peel inf lammatory cytokine expression and the increase in anti-
was extracted at a temperature of 86 ◦ C and a 1:48 solid–liquid inf lammatory cytokine interleukin-10 expression. In addition,
ratio for 29 min, the ultimate yield was 4.3% higher as compared JFPs could minimise the oxidative stress through restraining the
to the conventional method. antioxidant enzyme activity and decreasing the malondialdehyde
 4
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Table 1. A summary of the extraction methods of polysaccharides from jackfruit.

Type Part Compounds Size Extraction Precipitation Drying Yield Ref

Ye et al.

Conventional Pulp Polysaccharides Homogenate Water 95% ethanol – – Zhu et al. (2017)
Conventional Seeds Polysaccharides Powder Water 50%, 75%, 95% Lyophilisation 2%–8% Dasaesamoh and
ethanol Seechamnanturakit
(2014)
Conventional Peel Pectin 60-mesh powder Citric acid, pH = 2 95% ethanol Freeze-dry 16.83% Li et al. (2019)
Conventional Peel Polysaccharides – Water Ethanol Freeze-dry 13.6 g/kg crude Wang and Jiang (2022)
extract
Conventional Peel Polysaccharides – Water Acidified (pH 4) Freeze-dry 11.80% Wiater et al. (2020)
96% ethanol
Conventional Seeds Starch homogenate, 0.5 M sodium thiosulphate Water 45 ◦ C oven dry 18.68 ± 0.34% to Zhang et al. (2018)
200-mesh sieve 22.92 ± 0.46%
(74 μm)
Conventional Peel Pectin Powder Hydrochloric acid, oxalic acid, 95% ethanol 50 ◦ C oven dry 22.5%–38.42% Sundarraj et al. (2018)
tartaric acid, nitric acid, and
citric acid.
Conventional Peel Cellulose Powder Acetic acid and nitric acid at – – – Reshmy et al. (2021)
100 ◦ C for first extract; acetic
acid, sulphuric acid, and NaCl for
second extract
Conventional Peel Cellulose 20 and 80 sieve Sodium chlorite Suspend in Filtered and 20.08 ± 0.05% Trilokesh and Uppuluri
powder water dried (2019)
Conventional Peel Cellulose 20 and 80 sieve Acetic acid and nitric acid Washed by 50 ◦ C dry Around 12.5% Trilokesh and Uppuluri
powder water and 95% (2019)
ethanol
Conventional Peel Cellulose 20 and 80 sieve Formic acid – – Around 5% Trilokesh and Uppuluri
powder (2019)
Conventional Seeds Starch Powder Water Sodium 45 ◦ C dry 24.61% Yaowiwat et al. (2023)
hydroxide
Microwave-assisted Rags Pectin Powder Citric acid Ethanol 50 ◦ C oven dry 10.90%–29.78% Tran et al. (2023)
Pulsed electric field and Rind and Pectin 80-mesh powder 1% citric acid Ethanol 60 ◦ C dry 13.9%–18.3% Lal et al. (2021)
microwave-assisted core
Radiofrequency assisted Peel Pectin Powder Oxalic acid 96% ethyl 55 ± 2 ◦ C oven 9.6%–29.4% Naik et al. (2020)
alcohol dry
Subcritical water Peel Pectin 60-mesh powder Water 95% ethanol Freeze-dry 125.6 ± 2.17 to Li et al. (2019)
extraction 149.8 ± 1.41 g/kg
Ultrasonic and Peel Pectin Powder Three types of mineral acids 95% ethanol 60 ◦ C vacuum 5.2% – 21.0% Xu et al. (2018)
microwave-assisted (hydrochloric acid, sulphuric dry
acid, and nitric acid) and three
types of organic acids (citric acid,
tartaric acid, and lactic acid)
Ultrasonic assisted Peel Pectin Powder Oxalic acid Ethanol Freeze-dry 6.15%–13.15% Saurabh et al. (2023)
Ultrasonic assisted Peel Pectin 40-mesh powder Water 95% ethanol 51 ◦ C oven dry 14.48 ± 0.11% Moorthy et al. (2017)

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 International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 2025, Vol. 60, No. 1 | 5

content. Zhu et al. (2017) determined the antioxidant ability of health, such as anticancer, anti-inf lammatory, and antidiabetic.
purified JFPs-P; during the concentration range of 0.25–4 mg/ml, However, further trials were not carried out.
the DPPH scavenging ability is from 21.82% to 69.64%, in the
concentration range of 0.5–2 mg/ml. The OH scavenging ability is
Micronutrients
dose-dependent. The result of reducing power is not ideal.
Nutritional content varies based on the ripeness of the fruit and
Later research conducted by Zhu et al. (2021) showed that
the specific part consumed, such as the f lesh, seeds, or bulbs
polysaccharides are beneficial to gut health through the mice
(Konsue et al., 2023) (Table 2). Jackfruit f lesh is low in calories
model. Twenty-four male mice treated with different concentra-
and fat while providing a valuable source of dietary fibre. It
tions administration (50, 100, and 200 mg/kg BW), fresh faeces
contains essential vitamins (C, A, thiamine, ribof lavin, niacin, and
samples were collected after 2 weeks and DNA extraction, 16S
folate) and important minerals (potassium, magnesium, man-
rRNA gene amplification and sequencing, gut microbiota bioin-
ganese, and calcium) (Goswami & Chacrabati, 2016). Notably,
formatics analysis and short-chain fatty acid products analysis
the latest research showed the mineral profiling of 12 different
were conducted. The outcome showed that the jackfruit polysac-
genotypes of jackfruits grown in Australia, which includes the
charides treatment would increase operational taxonomic units
quantity elements, essential trace elements, and other elements.

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(OTUs) of faecal bacteria (control and treatment groups were 711,
The result exhibited a total of 20 minerals in jackfruit pulp
635, 850, and 787). Higher variation in intestinal bacteria and sig-
(Kaur et al., 2024). In the total 12 genotypes, pulp showed high
nificant differences in bacterial communities were shown in the
concentrations of potassium (4,028 ± 16.4 to 9,559 ± 33.5 mg kg−1 ),
treatment group compared to the control group. For short-chain
magnesium (1,401 ± 31.1 to 2,307 ± 6.1 mg kg−1 ), and phospho-
fatty acids (SCFAs), the concentrations of acetic acid, propionic
rus (990 ± 35.1 to 1825 ± 776 mg kg−1 ) while sodium (11.3 ± 2.5 to
acid, n-butyric acid, and total SCFAs in mouse faeces increased.
36.7 ± 13.2 mg kg−1 ) has lower concentrations.
In addition, Li et al. (2023) using the polysaccharides from
peel (PJPs) confirmed the above finding by in vitro digestion and
faecal fermentation. The PJPs could reach the colon intact. The Phytochemicals
molecular weight of PJPs decreased during the faecal fermenta- Jackfruit is a rich source of beneficial phytochemicals, includ-
tion; the reason is that PJPs had been degraded during the faecal ing f lavonoids and carotenoids (Table 2). Flavonoids include
fermentation, which was caused by microbes in the intestine and quercetin, kaempferol, catechins, and epicatechins, which exhibit
also released the oligosaccharides. For α-diversity, the Chao and antioxidant properties (Arung et al., 2007). Carotenoids, including
Shannon indices of the PJP group are lower than the control, which beta-carotene, lutein, and zeaxanthin, provide health benefits
indicates that microbiota richness and diversity are lower. After and act as the precursors of vitamin A. The jackfruit kernel
48 hr fermentation, the total SCFAs of PJP (25.843 ± 1.036 mmol/L) has numerous carotenoids, including β-carotene, α-carotene,
are higher than the control group (11.142 ± 1.558 mmol/L), which β-zeacarotene, α-zeacarotene, and β-carotene-5,6α-epoxide, a
demonstrates that PJPs increase the amount of SCFAs and have dicarboxylic carotenoid and crocetin. Further carotenoids present
the potential of being a prebiotic. in jackfruit include all-trans-lutein, all-trans-β-carotene, all-
According to Wiater et al. (2020), water-soluble polysaccha- trans-neoxanthin, 9-cis-neoxanthin, and 9-cis-violaxanthin (de
rides (WSPs) from jackfruit revealed their anticancer properties Faria et al., 2009). Alkaloids, saponins, and tannins might
through assays performed on cell lines HT29 and SW620. The contribute to the health benefits of jackfruit because of their
outcome of neutral red (NR) uptake assay, MTT assay, and May– diverse bioactivities (Chun-Nan & Chai-Ming, 1993; Mukprasirt
Grünwald–Giemsa (MGG) staining showed that both cell lines & Sajjaanantakul, 2004). Terpenoids, including phytosterols,
exhibit no overall significant viability loss in the NR in treatment are present in jackfruit, which exhibit anti-inf lammatory and
group with WSP, even at the highest concentration (250 μg/ml) anticancer properties. Lignans, resveratrol, and phenolic acids,
with viability not dropping below 94%. No morphological alter- such as ferulic acid and caffeic acid, contribute to the antioxidant
ation was observed in either cells treated with WSP at the highest potential of jackfruit (Arung et al., 2007; de Faria et al., 2009). The
concentration. In addition, two assays (DPPH and FRAP) were phytochemicals may vary in different parts of the jackfruit, and
performed to determine the antioxidant capacity. The DPPH and the concentration and types of the compounds are inf luenced
FRAP assays showed 16.2 μg Trolox equivalent (TE)/ml and 48.4 μg by factors such as the maturity and growth conditions of the
ascorbic acid equivalent (AAE) at the highest WSP concentration, jackfruit.
respectively. Moreover, jackfruit tree wood contains f lavonoids like arto-
The bioactivity of jackfruit polysaccharides is summarised in carpin, brosimone, albanin A, morin, 2 ,4 -dihydroxyf lavone, and
Table 4. oxyresveratrol (Arung et al., 2007). Similarly, in twigs of jackfruit,
the phenolic content is higher than the f lavonoid content, having
Limitations a higher concentration of vanillic acid and hydroxybenzoic acid.
Although jackfruit polysaccharides have attracted attention for The root of jackfruit is rich in prenylated f lavonoids, such as
their health benefits, commercial products, and other advantages, artonol and cyclocommunol. The phytochemical profile of the
there are the following limitations when studying these bioactive stem is distinguished by the presence of prenylated chromone
compounds. (1) The methods of extraction, quantification, char- and f lavonoids, including cnidimol and tetramethoxy-6-C-
acterisation, and experiment condition are different in different prenylf lavone (Table 3). Furthermore, betulinic acid, f lavones,
studies; it is hard to compare the results, which means it is and tannins were mainly found in the bark (Prakash et al., 2009).
essential to establish the standardised methods (Zhang et al., Generally, leaves and stems contain sapogenins, β-sitosterol,
2021b). (2) The structure analysis still contains a large research cycloartenone, tannins, and cycloartenol (Prakash et al., 2009).
gap, such as 3D structure and glycosidic linkage. Therefore, when The fruit encompasses carotenoids (all-trans-neoxanthin and cis-
the jackfruit polysaccharides are mentioned, there is no specific antheraxanthin), oxyresveratrol, artocarpesin, artoheterophoid,
name, only general terms such as pectin, starch, and cellulose. (3) 16-dione, and artoheteronin. Fruit pulp analysis reveals the
Limitation in product development. In vivo assays have confirmed presence of uronic acid and phenolic acid. Among the extracts,
that there are many essential properties that are related to human methanolic fractions of the peel exhibited elevated phenolic
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Ye et al.

Table 2. The brief summary of mineral and vitamin profile of jackfruit.

Vitamin and mineral Fruit Seeds Peel Fibre Core Leaves

Vitamin A 30–540 IU/100 g EP 10–17 IU/100 g EP

Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) 0.03 — 0.15 mg/100 g EP 0.25 mg/100 g EP
Vitamin B2 (Ribof lavin) 0.05–0.4 mg/100 g EP 0.11–0.3 mg/100 g EP
Vitamin B3 (Niacin) 12.75 mg
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)
Vitamin B9 (Folate) 52.9–83.6 μg/100 g 51.1 μg/100 g
Vitamin C 7.0–14.0 mg/100 g EP 11 mg/100 g EP 0.99 mg/100 g
Calcium 20.0–73.2 mg/100 g EP 50.0 mg/100 g EP 4.9 mg/g DW 7.32 ± 4.099 mg/g DW 6.94 ± 2.074 mg/g DW 0.52 g/100 g
Magnesium 27 mg/100 g EP 54.0 mg/100 g EP 1.45 mg/g DW 1.24 ± 0.421 mg/g DW 0.011 ± 0.004 mg/g DW
Phosphorus 20.0–57.2 mg/100 g EP 38.0–97.0 mg/100 g EP – – –
Potassium 191–407 mg/100 g EP 246 mg/100 g EP 23 mg/g DW 31.07 ± 17.502 mg/g DW 24.15 ± 8.105 mg/g DW 0.21 g/100 g
Sodium 2.0–41.0 mg/100 g EP 63.2 mg/100 g EP 0.47 mg/g DW 0.48 ± 0.091 mg/g DW 0.43 ± 0.079 mg/g DW
Iron 0.4–1.9 mg/100 g EP 1.5 mg/100 g EP – – – 59.5 mg/100 g
Zinc 5.2 mg/100 g 40.85 ppm 1.44 mg/g DW 0.98 ± 0.044 mg/g DW 1.9 ± 0.408 mg/g DW 5.73 mg/100 g
Cooper 0.28–0.38 mg/100 g 22 ppm 0.018 mg/g DW 0.005 ± 0.005 mg/g DW 0.018 mg/g DW
Ferrous 1.20–4.24 mg/100 g 148 ppm 0.11 mg/g DW 0.088 ± 0.133 mg/g DW 0.051 ± 0.023 mg/g DW
Manganese 11.75 mg/100 g – 0.15 mg/g DW 0.01 ± 0.0025 mg/g DW 0.011 ± 0.004 mg/g DW 12.75 mg/100 g

Sources: Narasimham (1990), Soepadmo (1991), Gunasena (1996), Azad (2000), Haq et al. (2006), Ajayi (2008), Swami et al. (2012), Ranasinghe et al. (2019), Striegel et al. (2019), Adan et al. (2020), Gupta et al. (2020), Shedge
et al. (2022), Gupta et al. (2023). Note. DW = dry weight; EP = edible portion.

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 International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 2025, Vol. 60, No. 1 | 7

content, while the highest f lavonoid content was observed in discovered that seven prenylated coumarins exhibited notable
fruit peels (Zhang et al., 2017). inhibitory effects on NO production, showing the IC50 values
A. heterophyllus seeds exhibit a diverse composition, containing ranging from 0.58 ± 0.06 to 6.29 ± 0.12 μM, showing comparable
f lavonoids, isof lavones, phenols, saponins, and lignans (Fernan- effects with the positive control 4.08 ± 0.11.
des et al., 2017). Likewise, seed kernels contain carotenes, zeac- Meera et al. (2018) evaluated the ethanol extract from jackfruit
arotenes, dicarboxylic carotenoid, 6α-epoxide, β-carotene-5, and parts such as fruit spine, skin, and rind; the skin extract
crocetin (Chandrika et al., 2005). A. heterophyllus fruit also exhibits demonstrated the highest anti-inf lammatory response, with
a varied volatile profile, and a study on Malaysian A. heterophyllus 71.9% of COX-1 and 70.7% of COX-2 percentage inhibition. Those
fruit revealed 45 compounds, including esters (31.9%) (Wong et al., of skin and rind extract were 57.4%, 56.9%, and 39.1%, 65.3%,
1992). Similarly, 86 volatile compounds, ranging from aldehydes respectively.
to carboxylic acids, were identified in different Mexican jackfruit Yao et al. (2016) reported that Moracin C (MC) significantly
varieties (Barros-Castillo et al., 2021). inhibited the production of NO with IC50 7.70 μM. The concen-
trations of MC were 25 and 50 μM significantly inhibited LPS-
induced ROS generation. Pretreatment of MC could restrain the
Healthy benefits

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mRNA and protein expression of iNOS and COX-2 stimulated by
Jackfruit offers significant therapeutic potential, as outlined LPS at concentrations of 10, 25, and 50 μM. Furthermore, 25 μM
in Figure 2. Packed with essential nutrients like protein and MC pretreatment could reduce the secretion of IL-1β and IL-6 and
healthy fats, the seeds support overall well-being. Meanwhile, 50 μM MC reduced TNF-α by 70.6%. Moracin C could inhibit NF-κB
the f lesh and leaves contain potent antioxidant phytochemicals, activation by block nuclear translocation of p65, which is triggered
including f lavonoids and carotenoids. These antioxidants help by LPS and inhibits the MAPK pathways.
combat oxidative stress and disease—key players in jackfruit’s Jackfruit may hold potential in managing inf lammation
protective abilities. Additionally, Figure 2 illustrates its potential associated with diabetes. A study conducted on Wistar albino
across various health areas, including cardiovascular health, rats with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) demonstrated that
anticancer action, antimicrobial and antiviral properties, and ethanol extract from jackfruit seeds exhibited hypoglycaemic and
more. The ongoing exploration of jackfruit’s health benefits could anti-inf lammatory properties. Although the jackfruit seed extract
revolutionise natural, holistic practices in health support and showed beneficial effects, its efficacy was not as pronounced
disease prevention. as that of metformin, a standard pharmaceutical treatment for
diabetes (Manurung et al., 2023). In addition, the jackfruit stem
Anti-inflammatory activity bark acetone extract has been shown to reduce IL-6, TNF-α, and
Inf lammation is a key factor in many chronic diseases. NF-κB levels in diabetic rats, which also confirms the potential
Researchers are actively exploring the anti-inf lammatory poten- of jackfruit in managing anti-inf lammatory effects related to
tial of phytochemicals in jackfruit. The polyphenols extracted diabetes (Ajiboye et al., 2020).
from the fruit of jackfruit exhibit anti-inf lammatory activity In conclusion, the above multiple evidence and studies indicate
by inhibiting the production of nitric oxide (NO) that leads to that jackfruit, especially its components, has anti-inf lammatory
the downregulation of COX-2 and iNOS proteins (Fang et al., properties. Future research can be directed towards investigation
2008). Quercetin, a f lavonoid abundant in jackfruit, exerts its of the molecular mechanisms and identification of the com-
anti-inf lammatory properties by interfering with the action pounds responsible for these actions, helping to provide valu-
of inf lammatory enzymes and cytokines (Chen et al., 2016). able insights into the potential of jackfruit as a natural anti-
Numerous studies have delved into the anti-inf lammatory inf lammatory resource.
attributes of compounds from various parts of jackfruit.
Liu et al. (2020) analysed the anti-inf lammatory effects of
Antidiabetic capacity
seven prenylated chromones and five prenylated f lavonoids Diabetes is a severe disease, which is one of the top five leading
extracted from jackfruit stems and leaves. A total of 12 causes of death and disability in the world. As of 2019, the
compounds exhibited significant inhibitory activities against NO International Diabetes Federation projected a global prevalence of
production, showing IC50 values in the range of 0.48 ± 0.05 to 9.3% for diabetes among adults aged 20–79, affecting 463 million
19.87 ± 0.21 μM, while Compounds 1–4 (prenylated chromones) people. From the statistical data of Diabetes Atlas (2021 version),
exhibited lower IC50 than positive-control hydrocortisone projections indicate an increase to 578 million by 2023 and a
(3.83 ± 0.12 μM). Their structure plays a key role in their anti- further rise to 700 million by 2045. Hyperglycaemia, a common
inf lammatory effects; for example, the absence of the benzene consequence of diabetes, arises from insulin resistance, inade-
ring located at C-2, C-6 has an isopentenyl derivative and C-5, C-7, quate insulin production, or excessive glucagon secretion (Gupta
and C-4 have hydroxyl groups at the same time. et al., 2023).
Fang et al. (2008) examined the phenolic compounds extracted Type 2 diabetes mellitus, the most prevalent form of the dis-
from jackfruit fruits; three compounds were purified: (1) arto- ease, accounts for 85%–95% of cases and poses a significant public
carpesin, (2) norartocarpetin, and (3) oxyresveratrol. Through the health concern. Jackfruit seeds comprise resistant starch, which
RAW 264.7 murine macrophage cells induced the inf lammatory helps regulate blood sugar levels and promotes intestinal health
effect by lipopolysaccharide (LPS), the outcome demonstrated (Waghmare et al., 2019). Previous research has indicated that raw
that artocarpesin (1) has the potential in inf lammatory-related jackfruit, due to its high protein and fibre content, has a consider-
diseases, as it suppressed the production of NO and prostaglandin ably lower glycaemic load (GL) compared to rice and wheat, mak-
E2 (PGE2). Liu et al. (2021) explored the anti-inf lammatory effects ing it potentially favourable for individuals with diabetes (Sreeja
of steroids from jackfruit fruit by measuring the same cell line Devi et al., 2021). Various components of A. heterophyllus have been
as Fang et al. All eight steroids showed remarkable inhibitory traditionally used in diabetes treatments. In recent research, the
effects against NO production with the IC50 values in the range efficacy of green jackfruit powder as a medical nutritional therapy
of 0.72 ± 0.07 to 5.93 ± 0.12 μM. In addition, Tao et al. (2022) for blood sugar control can replace the equivalent amount of rice
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Table 3. The brief summary of jackfruit’s phytochemical composition.

Plant part Class Extraction solvent Specific compounds Ref

Heartwoods Flavonoids Ethyl acetate Cycloartocarpin, artocarpin, artocarpanone, cyanomaclurin Septama and
Panichayupakaranant
(2015)
Wood Flavonoids Methanol Artocarpin (1), cudraf lavone C (2), 6-prenylapigenin (3), kuwanon C (4), norartocarpin (5), albanin A Arung et al. (2010)
(6), cudraf lavone B (7), brosimone I (8), and artocarpanone (9)
Phenolic compounds Ethanol Artoheterophyllin E (1), artoheterophyllin F (2), artoheterophyllin G (3), artoheterophyllin H (4), Zheng et al. (2014)
artoheterophyllin I (5), artoheterophyllin J (6), 2-geranyl-2 ,3,4 ,5-tetrahydroxy-cis-stilbene (7),
5-methoxymorican M (8),
2,3-dihydro-5,7-dihydroxy-2-(2-hydroxy-4-methoxyphenyl)-4H-1-benzopyran-4-one (9),
6-[(1S,2S)-1,2-dihydroxy-3-methylbutyl]-2-(2,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-5-hydroxy-7-methoxy-3-(3-methyl-
2-buten-1-yl)-4H-1-benzopyran-4-one (10), artocarpin (11), cycloartocarpin (12), cycloartocarpesin
(13), steppogenin (14), artocarpesin (15), norartocarpetin (16), brosimone I (17), isoartocarpesin (18),
cyanomaclurin (19), artocarpanone (20), albanin A (21), artocarmin A (22), apigenin (23), artocarpetin
(24), gemichalcone A (25), artocarpfuranol (26), morin (27), moracin M (28), artocarbene (29),
cudraf lavone C (30), hypargyf lavones A (31), 2,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid methyl ester (32), and
2,4-dihydroxybenzaldehyde (33)
Flavonoid 95% ethanol Artocarpfuranol (1), dihydromorin (2), steppogenin (3), norartocarpetin (4), artocarpanone (5), Zheng et al. (2008)
artocarpesin (6), artocarpin (7), cycloar-tocarpin (8), cycloartocarpesin (9), artocarpetin (10), brosimone
I (11), cudraf lavone B (12), carpach-romene (13), isoartocarpesin (14), and cyanomaclurin (15)
Flavonoids, chalcones Methanol Artocarmins A (1, 7.0 mg), artocarmins B (2, 5.0 mg), artocarmins C (3, 6.0 mg), artocarmins D Nguyen et al. (2012)
(4, 8.3 mg), artocarmitins A (5, 5.0 mg), artocarmitins B (6, 8.5 mg), artocarmitins C (7, 5.5 mg),
3 -[γ-hydroxymethyl-(Z)-γ-methylallyl]-4,2 ,4 -trihydroxychalcone (8, 8.5 mg), gemichalcone B
(9, 12.0 mg), gemichalcone A (10, 6.8 mg), isogemichalcone B (11, 5.7 mg), morachalcone A (12,
7.8 mg), norartocarpin (13, 9.0 mg), cudraf lavone C (14, 7.5 mg), albanin A (15, 50.0 mg),
p-hydroxybenzoic acid (16, 6.5 mg), β-resorcylic acid (17, 5.g), vanillic acid (18, 6.7 mg), (goldfussinol
(19, 6.5 mg), and p-coumaric acid (20, 20.8 mg)
Twigs Phenolic compounds Ethanol Artoheterophyllin A (1), artoheterophyllin B (2, 10.0 mg), artoheterophyllin C (3, 2.0 mg), Zheng et al. (2009)
artoheterophyllin D (4, 3.0 mg), dihydrophaseic acid 4 -O-β-d-glucopyranoside (5, 11.7 mg),
p-counmaric acid (6, 24.2 mg), vanillic acid (7, 3.0 mg), norartocarpetin (8, 23.3 mg), 4-hydroxybenzoic
acid (9, 2.0 mg), licof lavone C (10, 2.0 mg), moracin M (11, 39.2 mg),
(E)-5-(6-hydroxybenzofuran-2-yl)-4-(3-methylbut-l-enyl)benzene-1,3-diol (12, 34.8 mg), artocarpesin
(13, 33.0 mg), artocarpin (14, 5.6 mg), 6-prenyl-4 ,5,7-trihydroxyf lavone (15, 4.0 mg), artonin A (16,
14.0 mg), artonin J (17, 8.0 mg), cudraf lavone B (18, 3.0 mg), cycloheterophyllin (19, 16.6 mg), and
2-(2,4-dihydroxy-6-methoxyphenyl)-5-hydroxy-7-methoxy-6-(3-methyl-l-buten-l-yl)-3-(3-methyl-2-
buten-l-yl)-4H-1-benzopyran-4-one (20,
2.0 mg)

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Table 3. Continued
Plant part Class Extraction solvent Specific compounds Ref

Root Prenylated f lavonoids 95% ethanol 6-(3-Methylbutyl-2-enyl)apigenin (1), Artonin K (2), Albanin A (3), 14-Hydroxyartonin E (4), Ye et al. (2019)
Artoindonesianin P (5), Artonin J (6), Artelastoxanthone (7), Artobiloxanthone (8), Artonin E (9),
Cyclocommunol (10), Artoindonesianin Q (11), Artoindonesianin R (12), Artonol E (13),
Artoindonesianin T (14), Cycloartobiloxanthone (15), Artoindonesianin B (16), Artocarpetin A (17),
Heterof lavanone C (18), Artocarpesin (19), 6-(3-Methylbut-2-enyl) Apigenin (20), Styracifolin D (21),
Cycloartocarpesin (22), Artonin U (23), Norartocarpin (24), Mulberrochromene (25),
Dihydroisocycloartomunin (26), Morusin (27), Heterophyllin (28), Artocarpetin B (29), Artelastofuran
(30), 5’-Hydroxycudraf lavone A (31), Artonin F (32), Isocycloheterophyllin (33), Artoindonesianin I (34),
Artocarpin (35), Cannf lavin C (36), Artonin H (37), Artonin S (38), Artonin G (39), Artonin A (40),
Artonin B (41), Cudraf lavone A (42), Artoindonesianin G (43), Cycloartocarpin (44), Artoindonesianin H
(45), Cycloheterophyllin (46), Artelastochromene (47)
Stem and leaves Prenylated chromones Petroleum ether and Artoheterophines A (1, 12.6 mg) and B (2, 21.8 mg), cnidimol D (3, 37.2 mg), ficuformodiol B (4, 5.8 mg), Liu et al. (2020)
ethyl acetate harperamone (5), perforatin B (6, 38.5 mg), 5,7-dihydroxy-8-
[(2E)-4-hydroxy-3-methylbut-2-enyl]-2-methyl-4H-1-benzopyran-4-one (7, 9.7 mg)
Prenylated f lavonoids Petroleum ether and 2-(4-Hydroxy-phenyl)-8-(3-methyl-but-2-enyl)-chroman-4-one (8, 23.7 mg), bractef lavone B Liu et al. (2020)
ethyl acetate (9, 82.3 mg), dinklagin C (10, 8.7 mg), 6-(3-methyl-(E)-1-butenyl) chrysin (11, 23.6 mg) and
5,7,3 ,5 -tetramethoxy-6-C-prenylf lavone (12, 49.8 mg)
Leaves Phenolic compounds 80% ethanol Kaempferol 3-O-rutinoside (1), Kaempferol 3-O-β-d-apiofuranosyl (2), Citric acid (3), Caffeic acid (4), Vázquez-González et al.
Quinic acid (5), Phenylalanine (6), Chlorogenic acid (7), Cistanoside (8), 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid (9), (2020)
l-isoleucine-pentaf luoropropionic- pentadecyl ester (10), Carvacrol (11), Hydroxytyrosol-hexose
isomer a (12), Luteolin (13), Catechin (14), Isorhamnetin-3-O-rutinoside (15), Apigenin
8-C-xyloside-6-C-glucoside (Vicenin 3) (16), Naringin (17), Epigallocatechin (18), Penstebioside (19),
β-OH-acteoside (20), Ferulic acid 4-O-glucoside (21)
Stem bark Phenolic compounds Ethanol Phenol, 3,4,5-trimethoxy- (1), 4-((1E)-3-Hydroxy-1-propenyl)-2-methoxyphenol (2), Scopoletin (3), Ajiboye et al. (2016)
10,11-Dihydro-10-hydroxy-2,3-dimethoxydibenz(b,f) oxepin(16),
2,4a,8,8-Tetramethyldecahydrocyclopropa[d]naphthalene (22),
2,2,4-Trimethyl-3-(3,8,12,16-tetramethyl-heptadeca3,7,11,15-tetraenyl)-cyclohexanol (23), Vitamin E
(24)
Fatty acid Ethanol n-Hexadecanoic acid (4), Ethyl 9,12-hexadecadieno-ate (7), Ethyl oleate (8), Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Ajiboye et al. (2016b)
phthalate (14), Butyl 9,12-octadecadienoate (17), Octadecanoic acid, 2-hydroxy-1-(hydroxymethyl)
ethyl ester (18)
Aldehyde compound Ethanol 3,5-Dimethoxy-4-hydroxycinnamaldehyde (5) Ajiboye et al. (2016)
Fatty acid ethyl ester Ethanol Hexadecanoic acid, ethyl ester (6), Hexadecanoic acid, 2-hydroxy-1-(hydroxymethyl) ethyl ester (13) Ajiboye et al. (2016)
Amino compound Ethanol Hexadecanami-de (9), 1H-Pyrido[3,4-b] indol-1-one, 2,3,4,9-tetrahydro- (10), 9-Octadecenamide, (Z)- Ajiboye et al. (2016)
(11), Decanamide- (12),
Pyrazolo[3,4-b]thiopyrano[4,3-d]pyridin-1-1-amine,3,6,8,9-tetrahydro-8,8-dimethyl-5-phenyl (15),
Phytosterol Ethanol Stigmast-4-en-3-one (19), Squalene (20) Ajiboye et al. (2016)
Ketone compounds Ethanol Methanone (5-hydroxy-3-benzofuryl) (2,5-dimethoxyphenyl) (21) Ajiboye et al. (2016)

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Table 3. Continued
Plant part Class Extraction solvent Specific compounds Ref

Fruit Phenolic compounds Ethyl acetate Artocarpesin [5,7,2 ,4 -tetrahydroxy-6-(3-methylbut-3-enyl) f lavone] (1), norartocarpetin Fang et al. (2008)
(5,7,2 ,4 -tetrahydroxyf lavone) (2), and oxyresveratrol [trans-2,4,3 ,5 -tetrahydroxystilbene] (3)
Jackfruit Oxyresveratrol Ethyl acetate Oxyresveratrol Li et al. (2020)
Fruit Steroids Petroleum ether and Artoheterophoid (1, 18.1 mg), trichiliasterone B (2, 9.7 mg), 1-methoxy-androstan-1,4-dien-3,16-dione Liu et al. (2021)
ethyl acetate (3, 11.5 mg), K10–0216 KA (4, 8.6 mg), K10–0216 KB (5, 23.6 mg), (Z)-1,2-dehydrogugglsterone
(6, 29.7 mg), 1-methoxy- pregnan-17-(S)-1,4-dien-3,16-dione (7, 32.5 mg) and
1-methoxy-pregnan-17(R)-1,4- dien-3,16-dione (8, 53.5 mg)
Fruit Prenylated coumarins Petroleum ether and New prenylated coumarin (1, 9.8 mg), tanizin (2, 16.3 mg), anisocoumarin A (3, 12.8 mg), fipsomin Tao et al. (2022)
ethyl acetate (4, 53.9 mg), 6-(1ξ ,2ξ ,3-trihydroxy-3-methylbutyl)-7-hydroxy-2H-1- benzopyran- 2-one (5, 22.7 mg),
phellodenol C (6, 32.6 mg) and isophellodenol C (7, 74.8 mg)
Pulp Odour-active compounds Dichloromethane Ethyl 2-methylpropanoate (1), butane-2,3-dione (2), methyl 3-methylbutanoate (3), ethyl butanoate Grimm and Steinhaus
(4), ethyl 2-methylbutanoate (5), ethyl 3-methylbutanoate (6), butyl acetateb (7), hexanal (8), (2019)
3-methylbutyl acetate (10), butan-1-ol (11), methyl hexanoate (12), 3-methylbutan-1-ol (13),
2-methylbutan-1-ol (14), ethyl hexanoate (15), octanal (16), 3-hydroxybutan-2-one (17), 1-octen-3-one
(18), 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline (19), nonanal (21), acetic acid (22), 3-(methylsulfanyl)propanal (23), decanal
(24), 3-isobutyl-2-methoxypyrazine (25), (2E)-non-2-enal (26), (2E,6Z)-nona-2,6-dienal (27), butanoic
acid (29), phenylacetaldehyde (30), 3-methylbutanoic acid (31), hexanoic acid (37), 2-methoxyphenol
(38), ethyl 3-phenylpropanoate (39), 2-phenylethanol (40), γ-octalactone (41),
4-hydroxy-2,5-dimethylfuran-3(2H)-one (42), 4-methylphenol (43), ethyl (2E)-3-phenylprop-2-enoate
(44), 3-hydroxy-4,5-dimethylfuran-2(5H)-one (46), 2-phenylacetic acid (47), vanillin (48)
Monosaccharide Water Glucose (Glc), xylose (Xyl), arabinose (Ara), rhamnose (Rha), galactose (Gal), galacturonic acid (GalA) Zhu et al. (2017)
Amino acid – Asparagic acid (Asp), Threonine (Thr), Serine (Ser), Glutamic acid (Glu), Proline (Pro), Alanine (Ala), Zhu et al. (2017)
(polysaccharides) Cysteine (Cys), Valine (Val), Methionine (Met), Isoleucine (Ile), Leucine (Leu), Tyrosine (Tyr),
Phenylalanine (Phe), Histidine (His), Lysine (Lys), Arginine (Arg)
Jackfruit Phenolic compounds – 25-Hydroxycycloart-23-en-3-one (HY), Artocarpin (AR), Dadahol A (DA), Morachalcone A (MA), Yao et al. (2016)
Artoheterophyllin B (AB), Cycloheterophyllin (CY), and Moracin C (MC)

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Table 3. Continued
Plant part Class Extraction solvent Specific compounds Ref

Peel Organic acid 90% methanol Naphthalenedicarboxylic acid-hexose, Quinic acid, Malic acid, Quinic acid isomers, Citric acid, Zhang et al. (2017a)
[5-glucopyranosyloxy-2-oxo-2,3-dihydro-1H-indol-3-yl]acetic acid, Resorcylic acid-O-hexoside,
Hydroxycaproic acid-O-hexoside
Glycosides 90% methanol Digitoxosylhexoside, Benzyl-pentosylhexoside, Pentyl-pentosylhexoside, Pentyl-pentosylhexoside
isomer I, Pentyl-pentosylhexoside isomer II, Benzylacetylpentosylhexoside,
Pentyldipentosylglucuronidehexoside, Pentylacetylpentosylhexoside
Oxylipins 90% methanol 9,12,13-Trihydroxyoctadecadienoic acid, 9-Hydroxy-10,12,15-octadecatrienoic acid,
9-Hydroxy-10,12-octadecadienoic acid
Phenolic acids 90% methanol Cis 3-Caffeoylquinic acid, Trans 3-Caffeoylquinic acid, Esculetin-O-hexoside, Esculetin-C-hexoside,
3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acidmethyl ester-C-dihexoside, Esculetin-hexoylpentoside, Feruloylglucoside,
Cis 4-Caffeoylquinic acid, Caffeoylglucoside, Cis 5-Caffeoylquinic acid, Trans 5-Caffeoylquinic acid,
Trans 4-Caffeoylquinic acid
Flavonoids 90% methanol Procyanidin B, (Epi)catechin-Orhamnoside, Dihydromyricetin, (Epi)catechin, Phloretin-C-dihexoside,
Dihydroquercetin, Prenylmethylf luorone, Prenyl-O-tetrahydroxy9,10-dihydrophenanthrene,
Prenyl-O-naringenin, Butenylprenylnaringenin, Morachalcone A, Morachalcone A isome r,
Chlorophorin, Pentenylisoliquiritigenin, Prenylgenistein, Pentenylnaringenin,
Hexenyl-5,7,4 -Trihydroxyf lavan, Pentenyl-Oisoliquiritigenin
Amino acids, peptides, 90% methanol Tryptophan, [2-Oxo-2-[(tetrahydro-2-furanylmethyl) amino] ethoxy] acetic acid,
and derivatives Hydroxy-1-isoquinolinonediglucuronide, Damascenine
Seed Organic acidsa Methanol Oxalic (771.83), Aconitic (747.03), Citric (9832.67), Pyruvic (59.32), Malic (4417.61), Quinic (691.22), Fernandes et al. (2017)
Shikimic (12.95), Acetic (84.28), Fumaric (562.21)
Amino acidsa Methanol Threonine (435.2), Valine (327.97), Isoleucine (168.83), Leucine (467.82), Tryptophan (102.99),
Phenylalanine (240.43), Lysine (271.63), Histidine (136.98), Aspartic acid (273.47), Glutamic acid
(723.7), Asparagine (917.8), Glutamine (3,008.65), Serine (336.46), Glycine (172.63), Alanine (273.4),
Proline (2780.31), Arginine (1313.86), Cysteine (543.09), Ornithine (36.92), Tyrosine (546.8)
Fatty acidsa Methanol Dodecanoic (C12:0)(12.69), Tridecanoic (C13:0)(1.7), Tetradecanoic (C14:0)(73.55), cis-10-Pentadecenoic
(C15:1n-5c)(3.43), Pentadecanoic (C15:0)(56.48), cis-9-Hexadecenoic (C16:1n-7c)(61.98), Hexadecanoic
(C16:0)(1701.49), cis-10-Heptadecenoic (C17:1 n-7c)(20.46), Heptadecanoic (C17:0)(47.56),
cis-9,12-Octadecadienoic (C18:2n-6c)(948.78), cis-9-Octadecenoic (C18:1n-9c)(299.23),
trans-9-Octadecenoic (C18:1n-9 t)(40.93), Octadecanoic (C18:0)(436.37), cis-9,12,15-Octadecatrienoic
(C18:3n-3c)(6.08), Eicosanoic (C20:0)(153.23), Heneicosanoic (C21:0)(44.92), Docosanoic (C22:0)(203.53),
Tricosanoic (C23:0)(46.25), Tetracosanoic (C24:0)(150.6)
Phenolic compounds Methanol 3-Caffeoylquinic acid, Feruloylglucaric acid isom, Feruloylglucaric acid isom, Feruloylglucaric acid
isom, Feruloylglucaric acid isom, 5-Caffeoylquinic acid, Caffeoylquinic acid isom, Feruloylglucaric
acid isom, Feruloylsinapic acid isomm, Feruloylsinapic acid isom, 4-p-Coumaroylquinic acid,
5-p-Coumaroylquinic acid, 4-Feruloylquinic acid, 5-Feruloylquinic acid, p-Coumaroyl derivative,
Feruloyl derivative, Sinapoyl derivative, Feruloyl derivative
Kernel Carotenoids Acetone β-Carotene (5.6 ± 0.3 μg/g), β-carotene-5,6-epoxide (3.1 ± 0.3 μg/g), α-Carotene (1.7 ± 0.1 μg/g), Chandrika et al. (2005)
β-Zeacarotene (3.1 ± 0.3 μg/g), α-Zeacarotene (3.5 ± 0.2 μg/g), Crocetin (2.1 ± 0.1 μg/g)

a This is the sum of seed kernel and seed membrane, unit is mg/kg dry matter.
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Figure 2. Outline the therapeutic potentials of the jackfruit.

or wheat f lour in the daily diet (Rao et al., 2021). According to the bound phenol has higher inhibitory activity, even higher than
Sydney University’s Glycaemic Index Research Service, porridge standard acarbose. For in vivo, 50 male Wistar rats introducing
made by green jackfruit is 365, when carbohydrates per serving diabetes by a single streptozotocin (STZ) injection were used;
are 15 g, the glycaemic index (GI) is 65, and the GL is only 10. then, they were orally administered 400 mg/kg free and bound
As comparison, the risotto rice has 69 GI and 31 GL (Anonymous, phenols extract and 5 mg/kg metformin. Fasting blood glucose
2012). levels decreased after 14 days of administration compared with
A study explored the α-glucosidase activity inhibitory effect diabetic rats. After 28 days of administration, there was no sig-
of methanolic extractions from different parts of jackfruit (peel, nificant weight difference between rats with phenolic (both free
seed, pulp, and f lake) with the 0–20 mg/ml concentration. The and bound) treatment and normal rats, while the diabetic control
peel extract demonstrated the highest inhibition effects (IC50 : group lost weight from 167.48 ± 4.11 to 120.67 ± 6.10 g. There
0.05 ± 0.00 mg DM/ml), followed by the seed (IC50 : 1.79 ± 0.15 mg was significant increase in liver glycogen concentration, HOMA-
DM/ml), pulp (IC50 : 6.81 ± 0.52 mg DM/ml), and f lake (IC50 : mg β, hexokinase activity, and glucose transporter 2, while the con-
10.52 ± 0.73 DM/ml) extraction, while the peel extract also showed centration of MDA, glucose-6-phosphatase activity, antioxidant
the highest total phenolic content, which is 48.04 ± 4.57 mg enzyme activities of SOD, CAT, and GPx, and levels of IL-6, TNF-
GAE/ml. This suggests that there is an association between the α, and NF-κB decreased.
inhibition effect of α-glucosidase and the total phenolic content Ajiboye conducted the studies on the ethanolic extract of
of the extracts (Zhang et al., 2017). jackfruit stem bark, to analyse the anti-diabetic ability in alloxan-
In the context of diabetes, medicinal plants should possess induced diabetic rats. The diabetes rats received the treatment of
the ability to inhibit the enzymes α-amylase and α-glucosidase. 50, 100, 150 mg/kg body weight ethanol extract (Ajiboye et al.,
In the study conducted by Ajiboye et al. (2016), it was observed 2017). The outcome demonstrated that after 3-week treatment,
that the ethanolic extract of A. heterophyllus stem bark, which con- the blood sugar decreased significantly compared with the
tains polyphenolic compounds, demonstrated a concentration- diabetic rats (308.12 ± 1.10 mg/dl); the results were 94.30 ± 1.10,
dependent inhibition of α-amylase and α-glucosidase actions in 88.40 ± 1.12, and 84.20 ± 1.46, respectively. The insulin and HOMA-
vitro; the IC50 is 4.18 ± 0.01 and 3.53 ± 0.03 mg/ml, respectively. β levels decreased in alloxan-induced diabetic rats (50.48 ± 0.28
These findings suggest that the extract has the potential to regu- and 4.71 ± 0.16) compared with the normal rats (143.44 ± 1.50
late carbohydrate metabolism by inhibiting the enzymes respon- and 81.93 ± 2.20), while the HOMA-IR increased in diabetic rats
sible for the breakdown of complex carbohydrates into simpler (5.36 ± 0.03) compared with the normal rats (4.16 ± 0.01). All the
sugars. treatment groups showed an increase in insulin and HOMA-β and
In another research conducted by Ajiboye et al. (2020), they a decrease in HOMA-IR. In another study (Ajiboye et al., 2018),
conducted both in vivo and in vitro assays to determine the acetone compared with the normal rats, the alloxan-induced diabetic rats
extract of jackfruit stem bark potential for antidiabetic ability. showed significant body weight loss. Haematological parameter
For in vitro, α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibitory activity were determination, serum lipid profiles, atherogenic and coronary
determined. The outcome showed that both free and bound phe- indices, and even liver and kidney function indices also showed
nols have inhibitory effects in a dose-dependent manner. Notably, significant (p < .05) abnormalities. Notably, all these abnormal
 International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 2025, Vol. 60, No. 1 | 13

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Figure 3. Antidiabetic mechanistic action of jackfruit.

symptoms were reverted to normal after different doses of insulin, total protein content, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol
ethanol extract of A. heterophyllus stem bark treatment and there (HDL-C), and protein.
is dose dependency, as 150 mg/kg body weight, which exhibited Figure 3 exhibits the mechanism of jackfruit in antidiabetics.
no significant (p > .05) difference with nondiabetic rats.
Earlier, Kotowaroo et al. (2006) investigated the α-amylase
inhibitory activity of aqueous leaf extracts of A. heterophyllus Antioxidant potential of jackfruit
compared with six other traditional medicinal plants. Only the Oxidative stress is a by-product that causes a variety of dis-
extract from A. heterophyllus exhibited the significant inhibition eases. Antioxidants, including natural antioxidants and synthetic
of α-amylase activity in rat plasma. When the concentration antioxidants, are effective in preventing the production of free
of 1,000 μg/ml, the inhibitory activity reached the highest radicals (Caleja et al., 2017). Phenolic compounds exhibit numer-
value (27.20 ± 5.00%). Although this assay tested the different ous benefits for the human body, including but not least inhibit-
concentrations of A. heterophyllus extraction, there is no dose ing reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, transferring electrons
dependency been observed. to free radicals, activating antioxidant enzymes, and alleviating
Another study by Chackrewarthy et al. (2010) explored the oxidative stress (Cheng et al., 2024). Jackfruit peel, pulp, and
impact of ethyl acetate (EA) fraction from jackfruit leaf on gly- seeds contain abundant phenolic compounds that provide its
caemic responses through normoglycemic rats and STZ-induced antioxidant potential, showcasing its ability to combat oxidative
diabetic rats. For normoglycemic rats, reduction in serum glucose stress–related conditions. Additionally, jackfruit is a source of
is 18.9%, 26.4%, and 35.9% for rats with 10 mg/kg, 20 mg/kg carotenoids, particularly beta-carotene, contributing to its vibrant
extracts and 0.6 mg/kg glibenclamide, respectively. After 5 weeks colour (Maoka, 2020) and playing a crucial role in preventing
of treatment, diabetic rats with jackfruit leaf extracts (20 mg/kg) oxidative damage to lipids and proteins (Swapnil et al., 2021).
had 39% less serum glucose, 23% lower serum total cholesterol Jackfruit is rich in antioxidants, and including jackfruit in the diet
and 40% lower serum TG levels, and 11% higher body weight. This may be associated with a reduced risk of chronic diseases, which
study confirmed that the EA fraction of jackfruit has the potential is consistent with the broader health-promoting effects of a plant-
for future diabetic treatment. based diet.
Omar et al. (2011) investigated the hyperglycaemic and hyper- Zhang et al. (2017) used the methanolic extraction from dif-
lipidaemic effects of ethanol (JFEE) and n-butanol (JFBE) extracts ferent parts of jackfruit, including peel, pulp, seed, and f lake,
from jackfruit leaves in STZ-diabetic rats. The administration to explore the antioxidant capacity by DPPH and ABTS assays.
of JFEE or JFBE to diabetic rats significantly reduced fasting The outcome is that peel has the highest antioxidant capac-
blood glucose, lipid peroxide–glycosylated haemoglobin A1C, ity; the IC50 of DPPH is 1.25 ± 0.14 mg/ml, while that of pulp,
triglycerides, total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol f lake, and seed are all over 10 mg/ml. The IC50 of ABTS is
(LDL-C), very-low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (VLDL-C), 0.23 ± 0.02 mg/ml; that of pulp, f lake, and seed is 5.70 ± 0.37,
and LDL/high-density lipoprotein (HDL) ratio while increasing 8.21 ± 0.25, and 7.62 ± 0.13 mg/ml, respectively.
14 | Ye et al.

Ajiboye et al. (2016) explore the antioxidant ability from the increased to 79.4 ± 2.25%, 86.99 ± 1.36% and 95.09 ± 2.13%,
ethanolic extract of jackfruit stem bark by DPPH, FRAP, hydroxyl respectively. That of superoxide anion radical scavenging abilities
radical scavenging, and Fe2+ -chelating ability with different sam- were 42.68 ± 2.36%, 49.98 ± 2.78%, and 54.68 ± 2.98%, respectively.
ple concentrations (1–5 mg/ml). The results demonstrated that The outcome of DPPH was 2.18 ± 0.29%, 4.14 ± 1.71%, and
all four assays show a dose-dependent tendency and a higher 7.09 ± 0.27%, separately, and the reducing power ability is very low.
standard control group. The highest value of each assay is when Zhang et al. (2021a) obtained nonextractable polyphenols from
the concentration of sample is 5 mg/ml. However, there are no the dietary fibre of jackfruit pulp by alkaline, acidic, and enzy-
specific data shown in the paper, but the values are around 85%, matic hydrolysis and conducted in vitro antioxidant activity. The
85%, 95%, and 70% for DPPH, FRAP, hydroxyl radical scavenging, alkaline extract exhibited superior ABTS scavenging, around nine
and Fe2+ -chelating ability, respectively. and four times higher than that of acidic and enzymatic extracts.
Jagtap et al. (2010) conducted an in vitro analysis of the Same tendency was observed in peroxyl radical–scavenging and
antioxidant activity of jackfruit pulp. Their findings indicated that oxygen radical–scavenging capacities results.
the methanolic extract had promising DPPH radical scavenging In a separate study, Calderón-Chiu et al. (2021) observed
activity with an IC50 of 0.4 mg/ml. for FRAP, 5 mg/ml concentration that the A. heterophyllus leaf protein demonstrated notable

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showed 1.7 mM TEAC/g for methanolic and 1.4 mM TEAC/g for DPPH and ABTS radical–scavenging activities. Interestingly,
water extract; for DMPD, the IC50 was as follows: 3.43 mg/ml when hydrolysed with pancreatin and pepsin, the leaf protein
for methanolic extract, 3.6 mg/ml for ethanolic extract, and concentrate exhibited varying radical quenching activities, with
3.9 mg/ml for water extract. pancreatin hydrolysis showing superior effects. The values for
Likewise, Loizzo et al. (2010) investigated the antioxidant prop- DPPH+ and ABTS+ were 72.38% at 0.1 mg/ml and 98.20% at
erties of Artocarpus heterophyllus leaf total water extraction, and 0.8 mg/ml, respectively. When the proteolysis time is 240 min,
aqueous and ethyl acetate fractions. For assays, DPPH, FRAP, ABTS, the IC50 reached the highest; for pancreatin, the IC50 of ABTS and
and Fe2+ -chelating activity had been determined. Total water DPPH are 0.206 ± 0.005 and 0.025 ± 0.003 mg/ml, respectively.
extract has the highest phenolic content, which is 523.2 ± 1.1 mg Conclusively, jackfruit, rich in f lavonoids, phenolic acids, and
catechin per gram dry extract. Different antioxidant assays have carotenoids, exhibits significant antioxidant potential, with vari-
different patterns for each fraction; for DPPH and Fe2+ -chelating ations observed in different parts such as pulp, leaves, and stem
assays, the ethyl acetate fraction has the highest IC50 , which bark. Extraction methods inf luence antioxidant efficacy, high-
are 235.8 ± 2.9 and 251.8 ± 3.3 μg/ml, respectively. Total water lighting the diverse health-promoting properties of distinct jack-
extract has the highest value in FRAP and ABTS assays, which are fruit components.
565.8 ± 2.5 μM Fe (II)/g and 34.8 ± 1.03 Trolox equivalent value.
A subsequent investigation by Jagtap et al. (2011) checked the Anticancer action
antioxidant activity of jackfruit extract-based wine (JFW) and Cancer, a complex and multifaceted disease, poses a significant
observed an increase in the DPPH radical–scavenging activity of global health challenge, and exploring effective strategies for its
the JFW from 28% to 69% when concentration was increased management is crucial. Plant polyphenols, bioactive compounds
from 100 to 500 μl, while the absorbance value of FRAP was found in fruits, vegetables, and herbs, have emerged as promising
from 0.123 ± 0.041 and 0.316 ± 0.004 for 100 and 300 μl of JFW. agents for anticancer effects by modulating cell cycle signalling,
N, N-dimethyl-p-phenylenediamine (DMPD)–scavenging capacity neutralising carcinogenic agents, activating antioxidant enzymes,
showed 32.60 ± 2.19% at 10 μl and 78.45 ± 0.05% at 50 μl, and nitric inducing apoptosis, and arresting the cell cycle (Briguglio et al.,
oxide (NO) exhibited the highest 62.46 ± 0.45% at 500 μl of JFW. 2020).
Daud et al. (2017) conducted the antioxidant potential of jack- Zheng et al. (2014) examined the antiproliferative effect of
fruit in different fractions like rind and rachis with three differ- 33 compounds present in jackfruit wood extract through three
ent extraction techniques: soxhlet, percolation, and maceration. cancer cell lines (MCF-7, SMMC-7721, and NCI-H460 cells). They
Throughout the three antioxidant assays, the rind extracts con- found that artocarpin and cudraf lavone C exhibited a stronger
sistently exhibited stronger antioxidant efficacy than the rachis, inhibitory effect on cancer cell growth, in the SMMC-7721 cell
while the maceration showed higher antioxidant efficacy among line, the IC50 is 15.85 and 12.06 μM, respectively. In the NCI-H460
the three different extraction methods. There was the outcome cell line, cudraf lavone C (IC50 5.19 μM) exhibited higher cytotox-
from rind extracted by maceration, 94.4 ± 0.1% DPPH inhibition icity. Liu et al. (2020) reported that 12 prenylated chromones iso-
rate, 26.4 ± 0.7 μM TE/ml of FRAP, and 59.0 ± 1.0% β-carotene lated from jackfruit exhibited significant antiproliferative effects
bleaching. against various cancer cell lines (MCF-7 cell line, SMMC-7721 cell
In a study conducted by Zhu et al. (2017), the water-soluble line, HL-60 cell line, SW480 cell line, and A-549 cell line), with IC50
polysaccharide extracted from A. heterophyllus fruit pulp was values ranging from 0.36 ± 0.02 to 22.09 ± 0.16 μM.
found to exhibit notable DPPH and OH activities. When the Morrison et al. (2021) enriched 84% artocarpin from methanolic
concentration of polysaccharides is from 0.25 to 4 mg/ml, extraction of jackfruit wood pulp, which exhibited the irreversible
the scavenging abilities of DPPH were from 21.82 to 69.64%. inhibition kinetics against P450 CYP2C enzymes, with an IC50
The OH-scavenging abilities of 1 mg/ml concentration are value of 0.46 μg/ml by in vitro analysis. Through the AOM/DSS
68.30%. These two assays are all dose dependent. However, colitis–induced cancer mice model, the mice with jackfruit extract
an observed decrease in reducing activity was noted with treatment exhibited a threefold reduction in Cyp2c37 gene expres-
increasing extract concentrations may be because they utilised sion. Likewise, Sun et al. (2017) reported that artocarpin present
polysaccharides instead of polyphenols. In another study by in jackfruit exhibited a dose-dependent manner in exhibiting
Zhu et al. (2019), the antioxidant potential of A. heterophyllus potent cytotoxicity against human colon cancer cells and the IC50
fruit pulp polysaccharides were assessed through in vitro saliva, values at around 15 μmol/L artocarpin induced apoptosis and
gastric, and intestinal digestion; the outcome exhibited that autophagy, which has been supported by poly(ADP-ribose) poly-
OH-scavenging activities were time dependent that after the merase (PARP) cleavage and the up-regulation of LC3B expression.
digestion of intestine for 1, 2, and 4 hr, the value continuously In addition, artocarpin induced G1 phase cell cycle arrest. In the
 International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 2025, Vol. 60, No. 1 | 15

mice model, oral administration of artocarpin for 16 weeks signif- development of novel cancer therapies. Further research is war-
icantly increased the survival rate and reduced the multiplicity of ranted to fully elucidate the mechanisms of action and clinical
colonic neoplasms by 56%. efficacy of these compounds.
One of the promising phytochemicals in jackfruit, brosimone-I,
induced cell cycle, G1 cycle, apoptosis, cell growth inhibition, ER
stress, and cytotoxicity (Zhao et al., 2019), which was determined Obesity and associated complications
through in vitro in human colon cell line, HCT116 and CCD- Obesity stands as a major contributor to a spectrum of health
841CoN. Brosimone-I, in HCT116 cell line, in suppressing cell issues, with a particularly pronounced connection to cardiovascu-
viability with IC50 about 14 μM, increased the percentage of cells lar complications. The increased adiposity associated with obesity
in the G1 phase in a dose-dependent manner, exhibited the cell often leads to an unfavourable lipid profile, characterised by
apoptotic response, increased the level of phosphorylated AMPK, elevated levels of triglycerides, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol
and induced cytotoxicity by increasing the cytosolic Ca2+ level and (LDL-C), and reduced levels of HDL-C, collectively known as
ER stress. dyslipidaemia. This dyslipidaemia, coupled with the chronic
Through human breast cells T47D, artocarpin showed the low-grade inf lammation that accompanies excess adipose

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induction of cell apoptosis (Arung et al., 2010a). Different tissue, contributes to the development of atherosclerosis (Bays
concentrations of artocarpin (5.7, 11.5, 20, and 28.7 μM) were et al., 2024). Atherosclerosis, characterised by the plaque build-
dissolved into dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and incubated for 24 hr up in the arteries, leads to narrowed and hardened arteries,
to analyse the cell viability. The outcomes showed that the IC50 raising the risk of cardiovascular events such as heart attacks
is 12.6 μM. Based on this result, cell and nuclear morphology, and strokes (Lusis, 2000). Large-scale prospective research has
sub-G1 apoptosis, and the apoptotic signalling pathway were suggested that hypertension, dyslipidaemia, diabetes, and other
conducted with the concentrations of 5.7, 12.6, and 20 μM. comorbidities play a major role in mediating the relationship
The cell morphology changed with the 12.6 μM treatment, between obesity and cardiovascular disease (Powell-Wiley et al.,
and the percentage of cell in sub-G1 increased with increased 2021).
concentration of artocarpin; the percentages were 0.89%, 25.71%, Studies have shown that jackfruit has potential benefits for
and 82.86%, respectively. The cleaved-caspase 3 and 8 increased lipid profile management and weight management. As a low-fat
with the concentration increase, and the caspase 10 decreased. fruit that is rich in dietary fibre, jackfruit contributes to a feeling of
Jackfruit pulp extract also demonstrated antiproliferative fullness and promotes weight control by reducing calorie intake
activity, according to the research by Ruiz-Montañez et al. (2015). (Parihar et al., 2021). The dietary fibre content also plays a key
Two maturity stages of jackfruit were used, and three solvents role in regulating blood cholesterol levels. Additionally, jackfruit
(acetone, methanol, and hexane) were used to extract and contains carotenoids, which help to prevent chronic degenerative
partition. Methanol–hexane commercial jackfruit extract has diseases such as cardiovascular disease (Ranasinghe et al., 2019).
significant antimutagenicity activities, which exhibit a dose- More research is needed in the future to fully understand the
dependent manner and a revision rate achieved by 500 ng AFB1 mechanism of jackfruit on lipid profiles and weight management
and chosen for further fraction by HPLC. Four fractions were through animal model and clinical trials.
obtained: F1, F2, F3, and F4. Subfraction F1 (IC50 = 49.2 μg/ml) Similarly, Rao et al. (2021) found that replacing rice or wheat
showed the highest antiproliferative activity in the cell line f lour with green jackfruit f lour in daily meals significantly
M12.C3.F6. Cancer cell lines PC-3, NCI-H460, and/or A549 were reduced plasma glucose levels in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM)
inhibited from proliferating by bioactive substances, artocarmitin patients. Those supplemented with jackfruit f lour exhibited a
B, artocarpin, and cudraf lavone C, found in A. heterophyllus leaves notable decrease in HbA1c at Week 12, in contrast to a slight
(Wang et al., 2017). increase in the placebo group (−2.73 mmol/mol (−0.25%) versus
In a study conducted by Braz et al. (2016), observed that admin- 0.22 mmol/mol (0.02%), p = .006). Fasting and postprandial glucose
istration of ArtinM at a dose of 50 μg/kg resulted in a reduc- levels were significantly lower in the jackfruit f lour group at week
tion in the number of preneoplastic lesions and a decrease in 12 (p = .001). Continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) indicated
proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA)–positive cells in DEN reduced blood glucose levels in the jackfruit f lour group, but
(diethyl-nitrosamine)-induced Wistar rats. In addition, these rats a general decrease was observed in both groups, potentially
decreased the proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), increased inf luenced by a CGM placebo effect.
nuclear p21 and p27 staining, heightened the expression of p53 Koh et al. (2023) carried out a study to compare SCOBY jack-
and p21, and upregulated the p42/44 MAPK pathway, which are fruit drinks made by pulp and leaves with orlistat for weight
involved in apoptosis and stress response. Additionally, there management in high-fat diet–fed obese mice. The jackfruit drink
is increased expression of TNFα and IFNγ genes, indicating an significantly reduced body weight (18.5%–20.2%) without negative
inf lammatory response. effects on blood composition or inf lammation. Gene expression
Similar findings were also observed by Carvalho et al. (2011) related to metabolism and inf lammation in adipose tissues was
who demonstrated by human myelocytic leukaemia cell lines also reduced. These drinks also positively inf luenced gut micro-
NB4, K562, and U937. NB4 showed the highest intensity of Art- biota composition.
inM binding, which may be the result of higher levels of N- Zhang et al. (2021d) used 16S rRNA and shotgun metagenomic
acetylglucosaminyltransferase V transcripts, IC50 of NB4, K562, sequencing to study the effects of jackfruit seed–sourced resistant
and U937 cells were 10 (±1), 14 (±1), and 84 (±1.5) μg/ml. The starch (JSRS) on mice gut microbes and hyperlipidaemia. The
mechanism is ArtinM treatment induced reactive oxygen species findings indicated that a 10% JSRS diet did not have a significantly
generation and autophagy, which is due to ArtinM recognising the preventive effect on body weight and serum lipid levels. In a 16s
trimannosyl core of N-glycans that have a β1,6-GlcNAc branch rRNA high-throughput sequencing analysis, adding JSRS would
connected to α1,6-mannose. correct the dysbiosis of intestine caused by high-fat diet. High-
These findings suggest that jackfruit constituents possess a throughput 16s rRNA sequencing and an in vitro experiment
variety of anticancer properties and may hold potential for the showed that Bifidobacterium pseudolongum is the dominant species
16 | Ye et al.

in the mouse gut, and it could grow by using JSRS as the primary the FPJ treatment, the thymus and spleen indexes increased
carbon source. to 2.27 ± 0.15 mg/g and 5.33 ± 0.12 mg/g, respectively. It also
Aulia et al. (2019) evaluated the impact of jackfruit peel extract alleviated the pathological damage symptom that the model
on the lipid profile of rats subjected to a high-fat diet. Using an group mice have, including fewer goblet cells and mucins.
experimental post-test-only control group design, male white Treatment of FPJ led to a significant increase in cytokines and
Wistar rats were divided into negative control, positive control, immunoglobulins, including IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-2/6/17, IgA/M/G.
and treatment groups receiving jackfruit extract at doses of Hao et al. (2020) explore the immunomodulatory effects of
500 mg/200 gBW/day and 750 mg/200 gBW/day for 14 days. The oligopeptides derived from jackfruit pulp and seeds (JOPs) through
study revealed significant differences in cholesterol, triglyceride, intragastric administration to female BALB/c mice with different
LDL, and HDL parameters (p < .05) with dose-dependent but was concentrations (0.20, 0.40, and 0.80 g per kg BW). The results
less effective than simvastatin. Overall, both doses of jackfruit exhibited that JOPs did not inf luence the body weight and thymus
peel extract were found to decrease the lipid profile in rats fed a index but has the spleen index significantly increased. 0.40, and
high-fat diet. 0.80 g per kg BW treatment significantly enhanced the ConA-
Supplementation of jackfruit seed powder (JSP) effectively pre- stimulated proliferation of splenic lymphocytes and the footpad

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vents excessive body weight gain and bulimia induced by high- thickness of mice. JOPs enhanced humoral immunity through
sugar diets (HSDs) in mice (Goswami et al., 2021). Six-week-old two assays, IgM-plaque-forming cell (IgM-PFC) test and serum
Swiss albino male mice were used in the experiment, the HSD haemolysin level. The outcomes exhibited that at doses of 0.40
addition increased the food intake, and this was reversed by JSP and 0.80 g per kg BW, JOPs increased IgM-PFC by 27.67% and
(HSD is 42.50 ± 4.57 g, HSD + JSP is 36.00 ± 1.73 g), and the body 24.11%, while HC50 values increased by 13.18% and 16.76%,
weight of mice with JSP treatment is lower than the HSD group, respectively. Compared with the vehicle group, there were carbon
which are 33.25 ± 0.75 g and 41.75 ± 3.94 g, respectively. The blood clearance index growths of 16.10%, 29.03%, and 32.21%, while
sugar also decreased with JSP addition (221.83 ± 20.94 mg/dl), the phagocytic rate was increased by 23.93%, 50.61%, and 42.54%
compared with the HSD group (333.25 ± 24.43 mg/dl), although for 0.20, 0.40, and 0.80 g per kg BW, respectively. 0.40 and 0.80 g
it is not as same as normal control (187.40 ± 10.85 mg/dl). In per kg BW treatment significantly improved the activity of NK
addition, JSP significantly reduced the serum total cholesterol (TC) cells by 55.53% and 57.37%, respectively. The value of CD3+ ,
and triglyceride (TG) levels. CD4+ CD25+ /CD4+ , and CD3+ CD4+ significantly increased with
In summary, jackfruit has great potential in antidiabetic and 0.40 and 0.80 g per kg BW JOP treatment. In addition, IL-1α, IL-10,
antiobesity areas, especially the jackfruit seed f lour (JSF) and TFN-α, serum IgM, IgA, and SIgA levels increased with the IFN-γ
starch that have been the commercial products in market. Further level decreased. These results indicate that JOP treatment might
research would be focus on the clinical trial and commercial be a good way to address immune dysfunction.
product development. Additionally, ArtinM, a lectin isolated from jackfruit seeds, has
shown the potential in modulating immune responses. Lean-
Immunomodulatory effects dro Peixoto Ferreira de Souza et al. (Ramos et al., 2016) inves-
Plant polyphenols, a diverse group of bioactive compounds found tigated the immunostimulatory effects of ArtinM against Tox-
in fruits, vegetables, tea, and other plant-based foods, have oplasma gondii-induced toxoplasmosis by using female B57BL/6
immunomodulatory effects (Scalbert et al., 2005). Polyphenols mice. The study revealed that ArtinM treatment at different con-
possess the ability to modulate the immune system, affecting centrations significantly enhanced the viability of bone marrow-
both innate and adaptive immune responses. Studies have derived macrophages. Moreover, ArtinM stimulated the produc-
demonstrated that plant polyphenols can enhance the activity tion of nitric oxide (NO) in macrophages and modulated the
of immune cells such as macrophages, natural killer cells, and production of interleukin-10 (IL-10) and interleukin-12 (IL-12),
T lymphocytes, thereby improving defence mechanisms against while ArtinM treatment significantly increased the survival rate
infections and diseases (Mamun et al., 2024). of infected mice compared to nontreated mice.
In addition, plant polyphenols regulate cytokine production Ruas et al. (2018) explored the effects of ArtinM lectin
and interfere with the regulation of immune cells and gene from jackfruit seeds on peripheral blood cells of patients with
expression to exhibit the anti-inf lammatory property (Yahfoufi paracoccidioidomycosis (PCM) and the healthy individuals’ blood
et al., 2018). The immunomodulatory effects of polyphenols have cells that infected by fungal yeasts (Paracoccidioides brasiliensis) in
implications for various health conditions, including autoimmune vitro. After 18-hr treatments with ArtinM, neutrophils infected
disorders, allergies, and inf lammatory diseases. Furthermore, with P. brasiliensis were observed TNF-α production increment.
the antioxidant properties of plant polyphenols play a role ArtinM can also stimulate TNF- α and IL-8 in neutrophils from
in reducing oxidative stress, contributing to overall immune patients with PCM, and the IL-8 level was even eight times
system health (Rudrapal et al., 2022). While the mechanisms higher than the unstimulated cells. Notably, the stimulation of
underlying the immunomodulatory effects of plant polyphenols ArtinM did not rely on Dectin-1, which is a β-glucan receptor
are complex, more and more research highlights their potential that participates in the cell response of fungal recognition.
as natural agents to support and regulate immune function, such In addition, ArtinM enhanced the dextran internalisation of
as f lavonoids (García-Lafuente et al., 2009). neutrophils and increased the killing capacity of neutrophils and
Jackfruit has gained attention because of its potential macrophages.
immunomodulatory properties, which are attributed to its
rich content of bioactive compounds such as polyphenols and
peptides. Studies have explored the immunomodulatory effects Antimicrobial property
of jackfruit components, revealing their ability to modulate Microorganisms have a significant impact on health; from a
immune responses and enhance defence mechanisms. Ma et al. negative aspect, microorganisms lead to various diseases through
(2021) analysed the cofermented collagen peptide–jackfruit juice direct infection or through body immune response to their
(FPJ) on immune response in immunosuppressed mice. After presence.
 International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 2025, Vol. 60, No. 1 | 17

Vázquez-González et al. (2020a) investigated the antifungal compounds, suggesting their potential applications in the
potential of jackfruit leaf extracts using hexane, ethanol, pharmaceutical and food industries.
ethyl acetate, acetone, methanol, and water solvents. Two
milligrams per millilitre showed the highest percentages of Antiviral property
inhibition. Ethanolic extract against Colletotrichum gloeosporioides
Viruses are infectious agents that rely on host cells to replicate.
with 83.78 ± 1.25% inhibition rate and methanolic extracts has
Researchers have investigated the antiviral potential of jackfruit
66.45 ± 5.92% inhibition rate against Penicillium italicum. Using 80%
concerning specific viruses.
ethanol to explore the antifungal effects of different extraction
Fu et al. (2020) evaluated the antiretroviral activity of preny-
methods, the outcomes exhibited that high hydrostatic pressure
lated compounds derived from ripe jackfruit pulps against human
has the highest inhibition rate; for C. gloeosporioides, 5 mg/ml has
immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) reverse transcriptase. Twelve
the highest inhibition percentage, which is 55.41 ± 2.44%. For P.
prenylated chromones showed significant anti-HIV activities with
italicum, 2 mg/ml has the highest value (46.49 ± 6.49%).
EC50 values ranging from 0.09 to 9.72 μM, especially for the
In another study by Loizzo et al. (2010), total water extract,
artocarheterones A (0.09 μM) and cnidimol D (0.26 μM) that might
ethyl acetate, and aqueous fraction of leaf extracts were evalu-
be the oxidised isopentenyl group connected to C-6.

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ated. All the samples can inhibit the E. coli, Listeria monocytogenes,
Jackfruit leaf extracts with different solvents (ethanol 80%,
Salmonella typhimurium, Salmonella enterica, Enterococcus faecalis, and
hexane, dichloromethane, and methanol) had been explored for
Staphylococcus aureus. In addition, total water extract exhibited the
their antiviral effect (Hafid et al., 2017). The dichloromethane
highest inhibitory activity against S. aureus (15 ± 1 mm). That of
extract exhibited strong anti-HCV activity with an IC50 value of
ethyl acetate fraction is against S. enterica (13 ± 1 mm), while for
1.5 ± 0.6 μg/ml; the mechanism is that these extracts kill the viral
the aqueous fraction, there is a significant inhibition against L.
and target host cells by time-of-addition assay.
monocytogenes (15 ± 1 mm) and E. faecalis (13 ± 1 mm).
Another study (de Sousa et al., 2020) explored the antiher-
Septama and Panichayupakaranant (2015) explore the antibac-
pesvirus effect for different processes (dry and fresh) of jackfruit
terial effects of jackfruit heartwood extract. Four compounds
leaves with different extract solvents (methanol, ethanol, and
were purified. The first one is cycloartocarpin, which has mod-
hexane). Fresh leaves extraction, even in high concentrations of
erate antibacterial activities with MIC and MBC values of 35.9 to
1,000 μg/ml, caused less than 10% haemolysis, while dry leaves
143.6 μM. The second is artocarpin, and it exhibited the strongest
caused 85% haemolysis at 1,000 μg/ml. Fresh ethanolic extract
antibacterial activities against Streptococcus mutans, S. pyogenes,
showed highest inhibition percentage (IP) (76.01%) against equine
Bacillus subtilis, S. aureus, and S. epidermidis with MICs and MBCs of
alfa herpesvirus 1 (EHV-1), dry methanolic extract has the highest
4.4–17.8 and 8.9–17.8 μM. Artocarpanone showed strong antibac-
inhibition ability against alfa herpesvirus 1 (SuHV-1), with the
terial activity against S. mutans, S. pyogenes, and B. subtilis with
IP value of 94.38%, and fresh methanolic extract exhibited the
MIC values of 25.8 μM and MBCs of 51.6–103.2 μM. The last one is
highest IP (99.2%) against bovine alfa herpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1).
cyanomaclurin, and it showed strong antibacterial activity against
In an in vitro study by Permanasari et al. (2021), the antivi-
S. mutans and E. coli; the MIC values of Compound 4 were 6.8 and
ral potential of dichloromethane extracts from A. heterophyllus
27.2 μM, and MBCs were 54.4 and 54.4 μM.
leaves was investigated, focusing on four fractions and seven
Additionally, jackfruit seed extracts showed antibacterial
subfractions. The researchers conducted a comprehensive assess-
efficacy (Eve et al., 2020). Ethanolic and hexane extraction
ment, including virucidal activity testing and examination of viral
has the inhibition ability against methicillin-resistant S. aureus
adsorption. Notably, subfraction FR3T3 demonstrated remarkable
(MRSA), methicillin-susceptible S. aureus (MSSA), and multidrug-
anti-HCV activity in Huh7it-1 cells with the least toxicity, display-
resistant P. aeruginosa (MDR PA). There is no dose dependency; the
ing an IC50 of 4.69 ± 0.95 μg/ml. Mode-of-action analysis revealed
500 mg/ml has no significant difference with the 1,000 mg/ml.
that FR3T3 primarily targeted postviral entry stages, inhibiting
The mean inhibition zone diameters of ethanolic against MRSA,
events such as HCV NS3 protein expression and HCV RNA repli-
MSSA, and MDR PA were 15.0 ± 1.0, 15.0 ± 2.0, and 11.0 ± 1.0
cation, with minimal impact on the viral entry stage. Intriguingly,
of 1,000 mg/ml concentration. That of hexane extract were
when the dichloromethane leaf extract (1.5 μg/ml) was combined
16.5 ± 0.5, 16.0 ± 1.0, and 9.0 ± 1.0, respectively. The MIC of
with various antiviral drugs, including ribavirin, cyclosporin, or
ethanolic and hexane against MRSA, MSSA, and MDR PA were 62.5,
simeprevir, synergistic effects were observed. This study sheds
31.25, and 125 and 125, 62.5, and 125 mg/ml, respectively. That of
light on the potential of A. heterophyllus leaf extracts, particularly
MBC were 250, 125, and >500 and 250, 250, and >500 mg/ml.
subfraction FR3T3, as a promising candidate for antiviral inter-
Additionally, Septama et al. (2017) investigated the interac-
ventions against HCV, and highlights the synergistic effects when
tion between artocarpanone, a compound from jackfruit, and
used in combination with existing antiviral drugs. Further studies
tetracycline, ampicillin, and norf loxacin. The MIC value of arto-
are needed to confirm the efficacy of this extract in clinical
carpanone against E. coli, P. aeruginosa, and MRSA were 7.8, 500,
settings, in order to develop therapeutic agents that could be
and 125 μg/ml, respectively. Interaction between artocarpanone
effectively used in the treatment of HCV.
(125 μg/ml) and norf loxacin (0.9 μg/ml) has the additive effect
against P. aeruginosa, 125 μg/ml. Artocarpanone (3.9 μg/ml) exhib-
ited an additive effect on the antibacterial activity of tetracy- Wound healing
cline (1.9 μg/ml) against E. coli. Notably, the interaction between Polyphenols, abundant in various plant sources, including A.
artocarpanone (31.2 μg/ml) and tetracycline (31.2 μg/ml) and heterophyllus, are a crucial factor in wound healing (Zhao et al.,
ampicillin (15.6 μg/ml) showed additive effects against MRSA, 2023). These bioactive compounds exhibit antioxidant, anti-
while the interaction between artocarpanone and artocarpanone inf lammatory, and antimicrobial properties, contributing to their
(3.9 μg/ml) exhibited synergistic effects. beneficial effects on the wound-healing process. Jackfruit, known
These findings collectively underscore the antibacterial for its rich polyphenolic content, may offer unique advantages
and antifungal potential of different jackfruit extracts and in wound healing. Specific polyphenols found in jackfruit, such
18 | Ye et al.

as f lavonoids and tannins, have been associated with wound- gori, and jangan gori (Yudhistira, 2022). In addition, jackfruit can be
healing properties. Flavonoids, one of the families of polyphenols, used as meat alternative in Asian-style curry (Khan et al., 2023b).
possess anti-inf lammatory, angiogenesis, re-epithelialisation, and Jackfruit leaves are employed for wrapping and steaming food
antioxidant effects contributing to wound-healing properties items. Leaves also have a positive effect in activating women’s and
(Zulkef li et al., 2023). animals’ milk, while it is a source to treat syphilis and vermifuge.
Previous research found that the methanolic bark extract of Furthermore, leaves position a role in the wound-healing area,
A. heterophyllus has a comparable effect to standard (Betadine) such as leaf ash for ulcer wounds (Balbach & Boarim, 1992; Jagtap
ointment for the excision model with rats (Raghuvanshi et al., & Bapat, 2010).
2010). After 16 days of treatment, the negative control animals The heartwood of jackfruit is used as dye to colour robes of
group showed 10.66 ± 5.33 of wound area whereas the Betadine- monks, and they redye the robe instead of washing. This kind of
treated group showed 0.1 ± 0.200 wound areas and the extracts robe has an antifungal property (Jagtap & Bapat, 2010).
treated exhibited 3.9 ± 1.137 wound areas. The p-value is <.001,
which means there is a significant difference between the control Current product and potential development
and the extract treatment group. Another study explores the Jackfruit (A. heterophyllus Lam.) has gained prominence in various

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wound-healing effect of the jackfruit leaf ethanolic extract gel food applications due to its diverse and versatile nutritional com-
(JLEEG) after tooth extraction by using a diabetic rat model. The position. The fruit, seeds, and leaves of jackfruit are utilised in a
result, 15%, was thought to be the most beneficial concentration range of culinary contexts. The nutritional richness of jackfruit,
for reducing inf lammation and speeding up the healing process including its protein, dietary fibre, vitamins, and minerals, con-
of tooth extraction wounds in diabetes rats (Amin1 & Pamasja, tributes to its appeal in food applications (Ranasinghe et al., 2019).
2021). Jackfruit also offers versatile applications in processed foods,
White male rats were used to determine the ethanolic extract leveraging its various parts for culinary innovation.
of jackfruit leaves, with 1%, 2%, and 3% concentrations. The
positive control is brand X ointment (Maria Erista et al., 2024). General food and nonfood applications
Unfortunately, the concentration of 1% and 2% did not show Jackfruit seeds, rich in protein, are utilised in the production of
significant change on wound area recovery (from 1 to 0.3 cm) f lour and can be incorporated into baked goods, including bread
while 3% concentration showed a less significant change (from and cookies, providing a nutrient-dense and gluten-free option,
1 to 0.2 cm). but, for achieving gluten-free option, further improvement in
Another study used the Sprague–Dawley rats to explore the sensory value is needed. The technique of making f lour from
activity of ethanolic extract from jackfruit leaves on burn wounds jackfruit seeds involves drying and grinding into f lour and storing
showed different results (Solihah et al., 2024). Medical standard, them in hermetically sealed containers (Akter, 2018). The JSF has
Lanakeloid cream, treatment was used as a positive control. Dif- great potential in the bakery. A combination of JSF and wheat
ferent concentrations of extract, 94, 188, 376 mg/kg body weight, f lour increases the nutritional value of paste (Abraham & Jaya-
were the test group. The outcome was presented as burn wound muthunagai, 2014). The colour and texture of bread and biscuit
area (cm2 ), recovery on day 14th (%), recovery rate each day (%), recipes with 10% and 20% JSF were better. The ash and crude
and time recovery (day). All the parameters showed that the leaf fibre content of biscuits manufactured with JSF was higher, but
extract had a significant effect on burn wound recovery, with the carbohydrate content was lower (Butool & Butool, 2015). By
dose dependency. The highest doses, 376 mg/kg BW, reached the combining JSF and wheat f lour in varying amounts for toasted
100% recovery on 14th, compared with the Lanakeloid cream bread, it indicates that using JSF in place of bread is the best choice
89.91 ± 5.18%. (Hossain et al., 2014). Latest research demonstrated that cookies
However, further research is warranted to elucidate the spe- made by JSF and wheat f lour with a 25:75 ratio maintained com-
cific mechanisms and identify the key polyphenolic compounds parable quality to the control sample (100% wheat f lour) over the
responsible for the observed effects. Nonetheless, the wound- 15-day period and most preferred acceptability. However, 50% and
healing perspective of polyphenols, particularly in the context 100% JSF had slight differences in texture and taste as compared
of jackfruit, underscores the potential therapeutic applications to the control sample and 100% jackfruit cookie had received
of plant-derived compounds in promoting efficient and effective neutral ratings in the hedonic sensory test, suggesting that full
wound recovery. replacement of wheat with JSF might affect texture and f lavour,
which impacted consumer satisfaction (Nordin et al., 2024). The
use of JSF in cookies not only lowers waste from jackfruit seeds
Current and potential application in product but also lowers baking costs, according to recent research on
development the development of JSF and its usage in cookie manufactur-
Traditional use of jackfruit ing (Binti Nordin et al., 2024). Jackfruit seeds contain a notable
Medical use is one of the traditional applications for jackfruit, amount of starch and protein. Recent research has highlighted the
including the treatment of inf lammation, diarrhoea, and diabetes potential of jackfruit seed starch in the pharmaceutical industry,
mellitus. The following research revealed that jackfruit contains such as pharmaceutical biopolymeric raw materials (Nayak et al.,
numerous bioactive compounds, such as f lavonoids, stilbenoids, 2022).
aryl benzofurans, and lectin jacalin, which bring the biological Additionally, young jackfruit, with its mild taste and ability
activity to jackfruit (Tripathi et al., 2023). to absorb seasonings, is employed in the creation of processed
Jackfruit seeds, rich in protein, are often cooked or roasted and savoury products like canned curries, soups, and ready-to-eat
consumed as a snack or incorporated into savoury dishes (Khan meals, contributing to the growing market for convenient and
et al., 2023). The seeds are dried to create seed f lour, which has a plant-based food options (Khan et al., 2023a). The culinary ver-
higher nutraceutical value and can be used in various meals, such satility of jackfruit, showcased in a range of processed foods,
as yoghurt, sweets, ice cream, and marmalades (Fabil et al., 2024). highlights its potential as a sustainable and nutritious ingredient
Young jackfruit is used in cooking a variety of dishes in central in the evolving landscape of plant-based and alternative protein
Java (Indonesia), including sayur lodeh, sayur megana, oseng-oseng products. This would be discussed more specifically later.
Table 4. Summary of jackfruit’s healthy benefits.

Property Part Compounds Extraction Concentration Assay Key findings Ref

solvent

Antibacterial Heartwoods Cycloartocarpin (1), Ethyl acetate Purified Disc diffusion method Cycloartocarpin: moderate antibacterial activities Septama and
artocarpin (2), compound with MIC and MBC values of 35.9–143.6 μM; Panichayu-
artocarpanone (3), and Artocarpin: exhibited the strongest antibacterial pakaranant
cyanomaclurin (4) activities against Streptococcus mutans, S. pyogenes, (2015)
B. subtilis, S. aureus, and S. epidermidis with MICs
and MBCs of 4.4–17.8 and 8.9–17.8 μM,
respectively;
artocarpanone: strong antibacterial activity
against S. mutans, S. pyogenes, and B. subtilis with
MIC values of 25.8 μM, and MBCs of 51.6–103.2 μM;
cyanomaclurin: strong antibacterial activity
against S. mutans and E. coli with MIC values of 6.8
and 27.2 μM, and MBCs of 54.4 and 54.4 μM,
respectively
Antibacterial Seeds Tannins, f lavonoids, Ethanol and 500 and In vitro, microbial cultures Ethanolic and hexane extraction has the Eve et al. (2020)
reducing sugars, cardiac hexane 1,000 mg/ml inhibition ability against methicillin-resistant S.
glycosides, saponins, and aureus (MRSA), methicillin-susceptible S. aureus
steroids (MSSA), and multidrug-resistant P. aeruginosa (MDR
PA). There is no dose dependency, the 500 mg/ml
has no significant difference with the
1,000 mg/ml. Mean inhibition zone diameters of
ethanolic against MRSA, MSSA, and MDR PA were
15.0 ± 1.0, 15.0 ± 2.0 and 11.0 ± 1.0 of 1,000 mg/ml
concentration. That of hexane extract were
16.5 ± 0.5, 16.0 ± 1.0 and 9.0 ± 1.0, respectively. The
MIC of ethanolic and hexane against MRSA, MSSA,
and MDR PA were 62.5, 31.25, 125, and 125, 62.5,
125 mg/ml, respectively. That of MBC were 250,
125, >500 and 250, 250, >500 mg/ml
Antibacterial Heartwoods Artocarpanone Ethyl acetate 31.25 μg/ml In vitro, microbial cultures The MIC value of artocarpanone against E. coli, P. Septama et al.
aeruginosa, and MRSA were 7.8, 500, and 125 μg/ml, (2017)
respectively. Interaction between artocarpanone
and norf loxacin has an additive effect against P.
aeruginosa, 125 μg/ml. Artocarpanone (3.9 μg/ml)
exhibited an additive effect on the antibacterial
activity of tetracycline (1.9 μg/ml) against E. coli.
Notably, the interaction between artocarpanone
(31.2 μg and tetracycline (31.2 μg/ml) and
ampicillin (15.6 μg/ml) showed additive effects
against MRSA, while the interaction between
artocarpanone and artocarpanone (3.9 μg/ml)
exhibited synergistic effects
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 20

Table 4. Continued
|

Property Part Compounds Extraction Concentration Assay Key findings Ref

solvent

Antibacterial Leaves Phenolic contents Water and ethyl NA Disc diffusion assay, minimum All samples are able to inhibit E. coli, Listeria Loizzo et al.
Ye et al.

acetate inhibition concentrations (MICs) monocytogenes, Salmonella typhimurium, Salmonella (2010)

enterica, Enterococcus faecalis, and S. aureus
Antibrowning Wood NA 95% ethanol 0.03% and 0.05% Fresh-cut apple 0.03% or 0.05% of Artocarpus heterophyllus extract Zheng et al.
with 0.5% ascorbic acid did not undergo any (2008)
substantial browning reaction after storage at
room temperature for 24 hr
Anticancer Wood Phenolic compounds 95% ethanol 10, 25, and Microculture tetrazolium Artoheterophyllins I, artocarpin, cycloartocarpin, Zheng et al.
50 μM technique for cell viability and cudraf lavone C significantly reduced the cell (2014)
(MCF-7, H460, and SMMC-7721 viability of these cell lines
human cancer cell lines) Artocarpin and cudraf lavone C resulted in more
potent cytotoxicity than the positive control,
5-f luorouracil (5-Fu), in the SMMC-7721 cell line,
with IC50 values of 15.85 and 12.06 μM
Cudraflavone C exhibited more potent
cytotoxicity than 5-Fu in NCI-H460 cell line, with
an IC50 value of 5.19 μM
Artocarpin and cudraf lavone C have anticancer
potential via MAPK pathways
Anticancer Leaf 2 -O-β-D-xylosylvitexin 80% ethanol 0–400 μM Human HepG2 heptoma cancer 2 -O-β-D-xylosylvitexin had no significant Wen et al. (2017)
cells and human MCF-7 breast cytotoxicities to HepG2 and MCF-7 cell
cancer cells
Antidiabetic Leaves Starch Water 125–2,000 μg/ml In vitro, α-amylase Aqueous leaf extract significantly (p < .05) Kotowaroo et al.
inhibited α-amylase activity in rat plasma. The (2006)
highest inhibitory activity (27.20 ± 5.00%) was
observed at a concentration of 1,000 μg/ml. No
dose dependency
Antidiabetic Stem bark Phenolic compounds 80% acetone 0–100 μg/ml In vivo (Wistar male rats Significant (p < .05) increases in the inhibitory Ajiboye et al.
introduce diabetes by effects of both free and bound phenol against (2020a)
streptozotocin injection) and in α-amylase and α-glucosidase in a
vitro (α-amylase and concentration-dependent manner. The bound
α-glucosidase inhibitory assays) phenol has higher inhibitory activity, even higher
that standard acarbose.—
for in vivo experiment, fasting blood glucose levels,
body weight, liver glycogen, concentration of
insulin, HOMA-IR, HOMA-β, SOD, CAT, GPx, MDA,
Carbohydrate Metabolism Enzymes, Glucose
Transporter 2 were analysed. All these parameters
the diabetic rats with phenol extract from the
stem bark of A heterophyllus were trending
towards the normal rats. The bound phenol has
better effects compared to the free phenols, and
even better than the standard medicine (5 mg/kg
metformin)

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Table 4. Continued
Property Part Compounds Extraction Concentration Assay Key findings Ref
solvent

Antidiabetic Leaves NA Ethyl acetate 10 and 20 mg/kg In vivo, treptozotocin In normoglycemic rats, 20 mg/kg of the EA Chackrewarthy
(STZ)-induced diabetic rat model fraction resulted in a significant (p < .05) reduction et al. (2010)
in the fasting blood glucose concentration and a
significant improvement in glucose tolerance
(p < .05), compared to the controls
In STZ-induced diabetic rats, chronic
administration of the EA fraction of A.
heterophyllus leaves daily for 5 weeks resulted in a
significant lowering of serum glucose, cholesterol,
and triglyceride (TG) levels. Compared to control
diabetic rats, the extract-treated rats had 39% less
serum glucose, 23% lower serum total cholesterol,
and 40% lower serum TG levels and 11% higher
body weight at the end of the fifth week
Antidiabetic Stem bark NA Ethanol 50, 100, In vivo, male Wistar rats induced Diabetic control rats showed significant (p < .05) Ajiboye et al.
150 mg/kg diabetes by alloxan of 150 mg/kg weight reduction, abnormal haematological (2018)
body weight parameters, high serum lipids (except high-density
lipoprotein) concentrations, increased creatinine,
bilirubin, and urea levels with a decrease in
albumin level when compared with nondiabetic
control rats. All these alterations were reverted to
normal after being administered with different
doses of ethanol extract of A. heterophyllus stem
bark, most especially at 150 mg/kg body weight,
which exhibited no significant (p > .05) difference
with nondiabetic rats
Antidiabetic Stem bark NA Ethanol 50, 100, and In vivo, male Wistar rats induced The blood sugar decrease significantly compared Ajiboye et al.
150 mg/kg diabetes by alloxan of 150 mg/kg with the diabetic rats (308.12 ± 1.10 mg/dL), the (2017)
body weight results were 94.30 ± 1.10, 88.40 ± 1.12, and
84.20 ± 1.46, respectively. The insulin and HOMA-β
levels decreased in alloxan-induced diabetic rats
(50.48 ± 0.28 and 4.71 ± 0.16) compared with the
normal rats (143.44 ± 1.50 and 81.93 ± 2.20), while
the HOMA-IR increased in diabetic rats
(5.36 ± 0.03) comparing the normal rats
(4.16 ± 0.01). All the treatment groups showed an
increase of insulin and HOMA-β and a decrease of
HOMA-IR

(Continued)
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Table 4. Continued
Property Part Compounds Extraction Concentration Assay Key findings Ref
Ye et al.

solvent

Antidiabetic Leaf Isoquercitrin Ethanol (EE), 0.2, 0.4, and In vivo, male Wistar rats induced Jackfruit leaf EE and BE extraction have shown Omar et al.
n-butanol (BE), 0.6 mg/ml diabetes by streptozotocin with appreciable results in decreasing FBG, lipid (2011)
water (WE), 60 mg/kg peroxides, HbA1C, TC, LDL-C, and TG levels and
chloroform (CE), increasing insulin, HDL-C, and protein content.
and ethyl
acetate (EAE)
extract
Antidiabetic Peel Phenolic compounds 90% methanol 0–20 mg/ml a-Glucosidase inhibitory activity Peel extract demonstrated the highest inhibition Zhang et al.
effects (IC50: 0.05 ± 0.00 mg DM/ml), followed by (2017b)
the seed (IC50: 1.79 ± 0.15 mg DM/ml), pulp (IC50:
6.81 ± 0.52 mg DM/ml), and f lake (IC50: mg
10.52 ± 0.73 DM/ml) extraction
Antidiabetic Stem bark Phenolic compounds 70% ethanol 1–5 mg/ml α-Amylase and α-glucosidase The IC50 of α-amylase and α-glucosidase are Ajiboye et al.
inhibition capacity 4.18 ± 0.01 and 3.53 ± 0.03 mg/ml, respectively (2016b)
Antidiabetic Seeds Ethanolic extract Ethanol 100 mg/kg BW In vivo Wistar albino rats with Reduce blood sugar levels with a dose of extract Manurung et al.
per day and gestational diabetes mellitus 400 mg/kg BW (2023)
400 mg/kg BW induced by streptozotocin, blood
per day sugar level, HOMA-IR check,
insulin check, MDA check, and
interleukin-6 check
Antidiabetic Na Flour NA 30 g per day A randomised, double-blind, Those supplemented with jackfruit f lour exhibited Rao et al. (2021)
placebo-controlled study a notable decrease in HbA1c at week 12, in
contrast to a slight increase in the placebo group
(−2.73 mmol/mol (−0.25%) versus 0.22 mmol/mol
(0.02%), p = .006). Fasting and postprandial glucose
levels were significantly lower in the jackfruit
f lour group at week 12 (p = .001)
Antidiabetic Seeds Starch NA 10% jackfruit In vivo 4-week-old C57BL/6 J male 10% JSRS diet did not have a significantly Zhang et al.
seed starch with mice preventive effect on body weight and serum lipid (2021f)
normal/high-fat levels. In a 16 s rRNA high-throughput sequencing
diet analysis, adding JSRS would correct the dysbiosis
of intestine caused by a high-fat diet.
High-throughput 16 s rRNA sequencing and in
vitro experiment showed that Bifidobacterium
Pseudolongum is the dominant species in the mice
gut and it could grow by using JSRS as the primary
carbon source
Antidiabetic Peel NA NA 500 mg and In vivo, male white Wistar rats Dose-dependent, but not as efficient as Aulia et al.
750 mg/200gBW/day simvastatin. Significant differences in cholesterol, (2019)
triglyceride, and LDL and HDL parameters (p < .05)

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Table 4. Continued
Property Part Compounds Extraction Concentration Assay Key findings Ref
solvent

Antidiabetic Seeds NA NA 20% (wt/wt) In vivo, 6-week-old Swiss albino A high-sugar diet was reversed by the addition of Goswami et al.
male mice jackfruit seed powder, the body weight of mice (2021)
with JSP treatment is lower than the HSD group,
which are 33.25 ± 0.75 g and 41.75 ± 3.94 g,
respectively. The blood sugar also decreased with
JSP addition (221.83 ± 20.94 mg/dL), compared
with the HSD group (333.25 ± 24.43 mg/dL),
although it is not as same as normal control
(187.40 ± 10.85 mg/dL). In addition, JSP
significantly reduced the serum total cholesterol
(TC) and triglyceride (TG) levels
Antifungal Leaves Phenolic compound Hexane, ethanol, 0.5, 2, and In vitro, mycelial growth Two milligrams per millilitre showed the highest Vázquez–
ethyl acetate, 5 mg/ml percentages of inhibition. Ethanolic extract González et al.
acetone, (83.78 ± 1.25%) against Colletotrichum (2020b)
methanol, water gloeosporioides and methanolic extracts
(66.45 ± 5.92%) against Penicillium italicum
Antifungal Leaves Phenolic compound 80% ethanol 0.5, 2, and In vitro, mycelial growth High hydrostatic pressure has the highest Vázquez–
5 mg/ml inhibition ratel for C. gloeosporioides, 5 mg/ml has González et al.
the highest inhibition percentage, which is (2020c)
55.41 ± 2.44%. For P. italicum, 2 mg/ml has the
highest value 46.49 ± 6.49%
Anti-HCV Leaves NA n-Hexane, 100 mg/ml In vitro, virucidal activity test, Subfraction FR3T3 as possessing the most robust Permanasari
dichloromethane viral adsorption examination, anti-HCV activity with an IC50 value of et al. (2021)
and pretreatment of cells with 4.7 ± 1.0 μg/ml
the drug
Antiherpesvirus Leaves Phenolic compounds Ethanol, fraction 10 mg/ml In vitro, three animal alpha Fresh leaf extraction, even in high concentrations de Sousa et al.
with herpesviruses of 1,000 μg/ml, caused less than 10% hemolysis, (2020)
fractionated while dry leaves caused 85% hemolysis at the
with hexane, 1,000 μg/ml. Fresh ethanolic extract showed
chloroform, highest inhibition percentage (IP) (76.01%) against
ethyl acetate, equine alfa herpesvirus 1 (EHV-1), dry methanolic
and methanol extract has the highest inhibition ability against
alfa herpesvirus 1 (SuHV-1), with the IP value of
94.38% and fresh methanolic extract exhibited the
highest IP (99.2%) against bovine alfa herpesvirus
1 (BoHV-1)

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Table 4. Continued
Ye et al.

Property Part Compounds Extraction Concentration Assay Key findings Ref

solvent

Anti-HIV Fruit Prenylated Chromones Petroleum ether NA In vitro, MTT Twelve prenylated chromones showed significant Fu et al. (2020)
and ethyl anti-HIV activities with EC50 values ranging from
acetate 0.09 to 9.72 μM, especially for the
artocarheterones A (0.09 μM) and cnidimol D
(0.26 μM) that might be the oxidised isopentenyl
group connected to C-6
Anti-HIV Fruits New prenylated 90% ethanol Purified Anti-HIV-1 reverse transcriptase Anti-HIV-1 reverse transcriptase (RT) activities Tao et al. (2022)
coumarin 1, tanizin (2), compound (RT) activities in the light of the possessing EC50 values in the range of
anisocoumarin A (3), inhibition assay for the 0.18–9.12 μM
fipsomin (4), cytopathic effects of HIV-1 (EC50)
6-(1ξ ,2ξ ,3-trihydroxy-3-
methylbutyl)-7-hydroxy-
2H-1- benzopyran- 2-one
(5), phellodenol C (6) and
isophellodenol C (7)
Anti- Stems and Prenylated chromones Methanol NA In vitro, RAW 264.7 cells A total of 12 compounds exhibited significant Liu et al. (2020b)
inflammatory leaves and f lavonoids inhibitory activities against NO production,
showing IC50 values in the range of 0.48 ± 0.05 to
19.87 ± 0.21 μM
Anti- Fruits Artocarpesin (1), Methanol 0–100 μM MTT assay with RAW 264.7 cells, Artocarpin (1) suppressed the LPS-induced Fang et al.
inf lammatory norartocarpetin (2), and Measurement of nitric production of nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin (2008c)
oxyresveratrol (3) oxide/nitrite and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) through the downregulation of inducible
E2 (PGE2), ROS production nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase 2
(COX-2) protein expressions
Anti- Fruits Steroids 90% ethanol NA In vitro by measuring the Remarkable inhibitory effects against NO Liu et al. (2021c)
inf lammatory inhibitory effect against NO production with the IC50 values in the range of
production induced by 0.72 ± 0.07 to 5.93 ± 0.12 μM
lipopolysaccharide in mouse
macrophage RAW 264.7 cells.
Anti- Fruits new prenylated 90% ethanol Purified In vitro by measuring the Notable inhibitory effects, the IC50 values in the Tao et al. (2022)
inf lammatory coumarin 1, tanizin (2), compound inhibitory effect against NO range of 0.58 ± 0.06 to 6.29 ± 0.12 μM
anisocoumarin A (3), production induced by
fipsomin (4), lipopolysaccharide in mouse
6-(1ξ ,2ξ ,3-trihydroxy-3- macrophage RAW 264.7 cells.
methylbutyl)-7-hydroxy-
2H-1- benzopyran- 2-one
(5), phellodenol C (6) and
isophellodenol C (7)

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Table 4. Continued
Property Part Compounds Extraction Concentration Assay Key findings Ref
solvent

Anti- Jackfruit Moracin C (MC) NA Commercial In vitro, RAW 264.7 cells with MC significantly inhibited LPS-activated ROS and Yao et al. (2016)
inf lammatory compound nitrite assay, cell viability assay, NO release without marked cytotoxicity,
ROS measurement, cytokine effectively reduced LPS-stimulated up-regulation
quantification, RT-PCR, Western of mRNA and protein expression of inducible
blot analysis nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2
(COX-2), and several pro-inf lammatory cytokines
(interleukin-1β [IL-1β], interleukin-6 [IL-6], and
tumour necrosis factor α [TNF-α]). The
anti-inf lammatory effect of MC was associated
with the activation of the mitogen-activated
protein kinases (MAPKs) and nuclear factor-κB
(NF-κB) pathways, especially reducing the nuclear
translocation of NF-κB p65 subunit as revealed by
nuclear separation experiment and confocal
microscopy
Anti- NA Flavonoids: NA NA In vitro by determining their Dihydroisocycloartomunin significantly inhibited Wei et al. (2005)
inf lammatory cycloartomunin (1), inhibitory effects on the chemical the release of β-glucuronidase and histamine from
cyclomorusin (2), mediators released from mast rat peritoneal mast cells stimulated with
dihydrocycloartomunin cells, neutrophils, and P-methoxy-N-methylphenethylamine
(3), dihydroisocycloarto- macrophages. Artocarpanone significantly inhibited the release
munin (4), cudraf lavone of lysozyme from rat neutrophils stimulated with
A (5), cyclocommunin (6), formyl-Met-Leu-Phe (fMLP)
and artomunoxanthone Cycloheterohyllin, artonins B, and artocarpanone
(7), and cycloheterohyllin significantly inhibited superoxide anion formation
(8), artonins A (9) and B in fMLP-stimulated rat neutrophils, while
(10), artocarpanone (11), cyclomorusin, dihydrocycloartomunin,
artocarpanone A (12), cudraf lavone A, and cyclocommunin evoked the
and heterof lavanones A stimulation of superoxide anion generation
(13), B (14), and C (15) Artocarpanone exhibited significant inhibitory
effect on NO production and iNOS protein
expression in RAW 264.7 cells
Anti- Spine, skin and Ethanolic extract Ethanol 100, 200 μg/ml In vitro by assessing the extent of Percentage inhibition of COX-1 (71.9%) and COX-2 Meera et al.
inf lammatory rind COX inhibition, human RBC (70.7%) was the highest with spine extract (2018)
membrane stabilisation, and egg
albumin denaturation. The in vivo
anti-inf lammatory activity was
screened by the method of
carrageenan-induced paw
oedema in Wistar albino rats.
Anti- Pulp Polysaccharides Water Purified, 50, 100, In vivo, male SD rats Alleviated inf lammatory injury in the small Li et al. (2024)
inf lammatory and 200 mg/kg intestine and maintained cytokine homeostasis by
inhibiting the activation of the TLR4/MAPK
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Table 4. Continued
Property Part Compounds Extraction Concentration Assay Key findings Ref
solvent
Ye et al.

Anti- Seed Flour 50% ethanol NA In vitro, simulated Fjs-D affects cell viability when the concentration Spada et al.
inf lammatory gastrointestinal digestion, in vivo, is 300 μg ml−1 (p > .05) and showed 58% reduction (2023)
Cell culture and MTT assay, of NF-κB activation
nuclear factor-κB activation, and
TNF-α levels
Anti- Pulp Phenolic compounds 95% ethanol 5–20 μg/ml In vivo, zebrafish model, embryo The NO inhibitory rates of five jackfruit extracts at Pu et al. (2023)
inf lammatory acute toxicity test, tail 250 μg/ml were 78.44% (T5), 77.68% (M1), 71.29%
amputation of zebrafish larvae (M7), 67.81% (M3), and 55.10% (M2). T5 extract at
doses of 5, 10, and 20 μg/ml significantly reduced
the number of neutrophils transplanted to the tail
of transgenic zebrafish embryos in a
dose-dependent manner
Anti- Stem bark Phenolic compounds 80% acetone 400 mg/kg NA Diabetic rats administered the polyphenolic-rich Ajiboye et al.
inf lammatory extract of A heterophyllus stem bark have lower (2020)
IL-6, TNF-α, and NF-κB levels, compared to the
diabetic rats control group
Antimutagenic Pulp β-Carotene and other Methanol, 0.5–500 mg/ml S. Typhimurium tester strains TA98 Methanol-hexane commercial jackfruit extract Ruiz-Montañez
carotenoids hexane, or and TA100 has significant antimutagenicity activities, which et al. (2015)
acetone has a dose-dependent manner and a revision rate
achieved by 500 ng AFB1 and chosen for the
further fraction by HPLC
Anti-obesity Pulp, leaves NA NA Orlistat In vivo, mice model High-fat diet–fed obese mice treated with SCOBY Koh et al. (2023)
(10 mg/kg), pulp jackfruit beverages showed great improvement in
and leaves weight management control and significant body
beverage weight loss (18.5%–20.2%) compared to a
(2 ml/kg) commercial anti-obesity drug, Orlistat (11.3%),
without adverse reaction
Antioxidant Pulp Phenolic compounds 95% ethanol 0.3125–5 mg/ml DPPH, ABTS, FRAP Extraction from Thailand 5 jackfruit has the Pu et al. (2023)
highest antioxidant capacity among the total five
jackfruit cultivars for three assays, ABTS, DPPH,
and FRAP
Antioxidant Peel Phenolic compounds 90% methanol 156.25 μg/ml– DPPH, ABTS Peel has the highest antioxidant capacity, the IC 50 Zhang et al.
10 mg/ml of DPPH is 1.25 ± 0.14 mg/ml, while that of pulp, (2017c)
f lake, and seed are all over 10 mg/ml. The IC50 of
ABTS is 0.23 ± 0.02 mg/ml, that of pulp, f lake, and
seed are 5.70 ± 0.37 mg/ml, 8.21 ± 0.25 mg/ml,
7.62 ± 0.13 mg/ml, respectively
Antioxidant Stem bark Phenolic compounds 70% ethanol 1–5 mg/ml DPPH, FRAP, hydroxyl radical All four assays show a dose-dependent tendency, Ajiboye et al.
scavenging and Fe2+-chelating and a higher standard control group. The highest (2016)
ability value of each assay is when the concentration of
sample is 5 mg/ml

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Table 4. Continued
Property Part Compounds Extraction Concentration Assay Key findings Ref
solvent

Antioxidant Stem bark Phenolic compounds 80% acetone 0–100 μg/ml FRAP, DPPH, hydrogen peroxide Dose-dependent, the bound phenols showed Ajiboye et al.
scavenging higher antioxidant ability than free phenol (2020)
Antioxidant Pulp Phenolic compounds Acetone, 1–5 mg/ml DPPH, FRAP, DMPD (N, Water and ethanol are the best solvents to extract Jagtap et al.
methanol, N-dimethyl-p-phenylendiamine) the phenolic and f lavonoids from jackfruit pulp. (2010)
ethanol, and For DPPH, IC50 value was from 0.4 to 0.7 mg/ml
water for methanolic extract; for FRAP, 5 mg/ml
concentration showed 1.7 mM TEAC/g for
methanolic and 1.4 mM TEAC/g for water extract;
for DMPD, IC50 were as follows: 3.43 mg/ml for
methanolic extract, 3.6 mg/ml for ethanolic
extract and 3.9 mg/ml for water extract
Antioxidant Leaves Phenolic contents Water and ethyl 25–400 μg/ml DPPH, FRAP, ABTS, Fe2+ chelating IC 50 of DPPH and Fe2+ chelating activity are Loizzo et al.
acetate (DPPH), 1 μg/ml activity 73.5 ± 1.8 to 235.8 ± 2.9 μg/ml and 222.6 ± 2.5 to (2010)
(FRAP) 251.8 ± 3.3 μg/ml, respectively. The FRAP is from
72.0 ± 2.9 to 565.8 ± 2.5 μM Fe (II)/g. The outcome
of ABTS is from 5.9 ± 0.09 to 34.8 ± 1.03 Trolox
value
Antioxidant Pulp Polysaccharides Water 0–4 mg/ml DPPH, OH, reducing power The concentration of polysaccharides is from 0.25 Zhu et al. (2017)
to 4 mg/ml; the scavenging abilities of DPPH were
from 21.82% to 69.64%. The OH scavenging
abilities of 1 mg/ml concentration is 68.30%. These
two assays are all dose-dependent. However, an
observed decrease in reducing activity was noted
with increasing extract concentrations
Antioxidant NA Wine NA 100–500 and DPPH, FRAP, DMPD (N, DPPH radical–scavenging activity from 28% to 69% Jagtap et al.
10–50 μl N-dimethyl-p-phenylendiamine) when the concentration was increased from 100 to (2011)
and NO 500 μl, while the absorbance value of FRAP was
from 0.123 ± 0.041 and 0.316 ± 0.004 for 100 and
300 μl. DMPD scavenging capacity showed
32.60 ± 2.19% at 10 μl and 78.45 ± 0.05% at 50 μl,
and NO exhibited the highest 62.46 ± 0.45% at
500 μl
Antioxidant Rind and rachis Phenolic contents 70% ethanol 1.0 mg of DPPH, FRAP, β-carotene bleaching Three different extraction methods, maceration, Daud et al.
samples into percolation, and Soxhlet, were used. For rind, the (2017)
1.0 ml 70% DPPH range from 38.0 ± 0.1 to 94.4 ± 0.1%, FRAP is
ethanol range from 15.6 ± 0.2 to 26.4 ± 0.7 μM Trolox
equivalent/ml and 20.0 ± 0.5 to 59.0 ± 1.0% of
beta-carotene bleaching

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Ye et al.

Table 4. Continued
Property Part Compounds Extraction Concentration Assay Key findings Ref
solvent

Antioxidant Pulp Polysaccharides Water NA DPPH, FRAP, hydroxyl radical and After the digestion of intestine for 1, 2, and 4 hr, Zhu et al. (2019)
superoxide anion scavenging the OH scavenging activities’ value continuously
activity increased to 79.4 ± 2.25%, 86.99 ± 1.36% and
95.09 ± 2.13%, respectively. That of superoxide
anion radical–scavenging abilities were
42.68 ± 2.36%, 49.98 ± 2.78% and 54.68 ± 2.98%,
respectively. The outcome of DPPH was
2.18 ± 0.29%, 4.14 ± 1.71% and 7.09 ± 0.27%,
separately, and the reducing power ability is very
low
Antioxidant Pulp Polyphenols Alkaline, acid, ABTS, ORAC, PSC The alkaline extract exhibited superior ABTS Zhang et al.
and enzymatic scavenging, around 9 and 4 times higher than that (2021e)
hydrolysis of acidic and enzymatic extracts. Same tendency
in peroxyl radical scavenging and oxygen radical
scavenging capacities
Antioxidant Leaf Protein Alkaline DPPH DPPH, ABTS ABTS+ for H-Pep and H-Pan was 85.97% in Calderón-Chiu
condition 0.015–0.1 mg/ml, 1 mg/ml and 98.20% in 0.8 mg/ml, while the et al. (2021)
ABTS radical scavenging activity by DPPH+ was 64.88
0.3–1 mg/ml and 72.38% in 0.1 mg/ml, respectively
Antioxidant Seeds Petites NA purified ABTS From the crude trypsin protein hydrolysates to Chai et al. (2021)
fraction SCX-F12, there is 11.8-fold increase in the
radical-scavenging potential
Antioxidant Leaf NA Ethanol (EE), 0.2, 0.4, and DPPH, ferrous ion (Fe++) The scavenging rates of JFEE having the highest Omar et al.
n-butanol (BE), 0.6 mg/ml chelating activity value to DPPH· were 21, 32, and 51% at (2011)
water (WE), concentrations of 0.2, 0.4, and 0.6 mg/ml,
chloroform (CE), respectively. The percentages were 65, 76, and 77%
and ethyl in the case of JFBE (highest one) at concentrations
acetate (EAE) of 0.2, 0.4, and 0.6 mg/ml, respectively
extract
Antioxidant Pulp β-C arotene and other Methanol, NA ABTS, DPPH Methanol and hexane commercial extraction had Ruiz-Montañez
carotenoids hexane or done the further fraction by HPLC and obtained et al. (2015)
acetone four fractions: F1, F2, F3, and F4. Subfraction F1
showed the highest DPPH (42.18 ± 1.43%) and
ABTS (33.42 ± 0.33%) scavenging ability

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Table 4. Continued
Property Part Compounds Extraction Concentration Assay Key findings Ref
solvent

Antioxidant Leaf 2 -O-β-D-xylosylvitexin 80% ethanol DPPH 0–120 μM; ORAC, DPPH, OH For ORAC, the ORAC-f luorescein is Wen et al. (2017)
OH 0–2.0 mM 5.75 ± 0.50 μmol TE/μmol, and the
ORAC-pyrogallol red is 0.55 ± 0.07; for DPPH, the
IC50 is 68.88 ± 1.30 μM and the IC 50 of hydroxyl
radical is 1.72 ± 0.10 mM
Antioxidant Leaf 2 -O-β-D-xylosylvitexin 80% ethanol 0–400 μM HepG2 cells for cellular Dose-dependent, better cellular antioxidant Wen et al. (2017)
antioxidant activity assay activity than the aglycone, apigenin
Antioxidant Fruit Polysaccharides Water 25–250 μg/ml DPPH, FRAP DPPH, the activity of the highest WSP Wiater et al.
concentration (250 μg/ml) corresponded to (2020)
16.2 μg/ml of Trolox, while in the case of the FRAP
method, it was equivalent to 48.4 μg/ml of
ascorbic acid
Antiproliferative Stems and Prenylated chromones Methanol NA MTT assay for five human A total of 12 compounds displayed significant Liu et al. (2020c)
leaves and f lavonoids tumour cell lines, namely, breast inhibitory effects against various human cancer
cancer MCF-7 cell line, human cell lines with IC50 values ranging from 0.36 ± 0.02
hepatocarcinoma SMMC-7721 to 22.09 ± 0.16 μM
cell line, human myeloid
leukaemia HL-60 cell line, human
pancreatic carcinoma SW480 cell
line, and lung cancer A-549 cell
line
Antiproliferative Wood Artocarpin n-hexane and NA CYP P450 enzyme assays, human Irreversibly inhibited the activity of human Morrison et al.
methanol colon adenocarcinoma cell line cytochrome P450 CYP2C9. In vitro evaluations on (2021)
HCT116 (ATCC, CCL-247), and heterologously expressed microsomes, revealed
normal cell line CCD-18Co (ATCC, irreversible inhibitory kinetics with an IC50 value
CRL-1459), azoxymethane and of 0.46 μg/ml. Time- and concentration-dependent
dextran sulphate sodium cytotoxicity was observed on human cancerous
(AOM/DSS) colitis-induced cancer HCT116 cells with an IC50 value of 4.23 mg/L in
mice model 72 hr. AOM/DSS induced the mice revealed that
the enriched extract suppressed tumour
multiplicity, reduced the protein expression of
proliferating cell nuclear antigen, and attenuated
the gene expression of proinf lammatory cytokines
(Il-6 and Ifn-γ) and protumorigenic markers (Pcna,
Axin2, Vegf, and Myc)

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Table 4. Continued
Property Part Compounds Extraction Concentration Assay Key findings Ref
Ye et al.

solvent

Antiproliferative Wood Artocarpin 95% ethanol 0–25 μM for cell Human colon cell lines Artocarpin has a dose-dependent manner in Sun et al. (2017)
line assays (CCD-18Co, DLD1, HCT116, exhibiting potent cytotoxicity against human
HCT15, HT29, and SW480) and colon cancer cells and the IC50 values at around
mouse colitis–associated colon 15 μmol/L. artocarpin induced apoptosis and
carcinogenesis model autophagy, which has been supported by PARP
cleavage and the up-regulation of LC3B
expression. In addition, artocarpin induced G1
phase cell cycle arrest. In the mice model, oral
administration of artocarpin for 16 weeks
significantly increased the survival rate and
reduced the multiplicity of colonic neoplasms by
56%
Antiproliferative Wood Brosimone I NA 0–30 μM (cell Cell culture (HCT116 and Brosimone-I, in the HCT116 cell line, in Zhao et al. (2019)
viability), CCD-841CoN), cell cycle analysis, suppressing cell viability with IC50 about 14 μM,
0–25 μM (cell apoptosis assay increased the percentage of cells in the G1 phase
growth in a dose-dependent manner, exhibited the cell
inhibition), apoptotic response, increased the level of
phosphorylated AMPK, and induced cytotoxicity
by increasing the cytosolic Ca2+ level and ER
stress
Antiproliferative Wood Artocarpin NA 5.7, 11.5, 20, and Cell culture (T47D cells) The outcomes showed the IC50 is 12.6 μM. Based Arung et al.
28.7 μM on this result, cell and nuclear morphology, (2010)
sub-G1 apoptosis, and the apoptotic signalling
pathway were conducted with the concentrations
of 5.7, 12.6, and 20 μM. The cell morphology
changed with the 12.6 μM treatment, and the
percent of cell in sub-G1 increased with the
concentration of artocarpin increased, the
percentages were 0.89%, 25.71%, and 82.86%,
respectively. The cleaved-caspase 3 and 8
increased with the concentration increase and the
caspase 10 decreased. Negligible changes in
mitochondrial membrane potential (ψm) due to
artocarpin treatment
Antiproliferative Pulp β-carotene and other Methanol, 3.125–100 μg/ml, MTT assay (cancer cell line Methanol and hexane commercial extraction had Ruiz-Montañez
carotenoids hexane, or 12.5–100 μg/ml, M12.C3.F6) done the further fraction by HPLC and obtained 4 et al. (2015)
acetone 50–400 μg/ml fractions: F1, F2, F3, F4. Subfraction F1
(IC50 = 49.2 μg/ml) showed the highest
antiproliferative activity in the cell line

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Table 4. Continued
Property Part Compounds Extraction Concentration Assay Key findings Ref
solvent

Antiproliferative Stem and leaves Prenylated chromones Petroleum ether In vitro, MTT assay for five Twelve compounds exhibited antiproliferative Liu et al. (2020)
and f lavonoids and ethyl human cancer cell lines activity with IC50 values ranging from 0.36 ± 0.02
acetate to 22.09 ± 0.16 μM
Antiproliferative Leaf Phenolic compounds 95% ethanol NA MTT assay (PC-3, NCI-H460, and Artocarmitin B, artocarpin, and cudraflavone C Wang et al.
A549 cancer cell lines) exhibited cytotoxicity against the A549 cells (2017)
Antiproliferative Fruit Polysaccharides Water NA Neutral red (NR) uptake assay, The cells of both HT29 and SW620 human colon Wiater et al.
MTT assay, and tumour lines did not show signs of viability loss in (2020)
May–Grünwald–Giemsa (MGG) the NR uptake test after culture with A.
Staining heterophyllus WSP at concentration values up to
250 μg/ml. The viability did not drop below 94%.
No morphological changes in the cells of both
lines after incubation with the WSP at a
concentration of 250 μg/ml
Antiproliferative Seeds ArtinM 10 mM PBS 50 μg/kg In vivo, administered Reduction in the number of preneoplastic lesions Braz et al. (2016)
diethyl-nitrosamine (DEN) in and a decrease in proliferating cell nuclear
Wistar rats; histological analysis, antigen (PCNA)–positive cells in DEN
western blotting, and RT-PCR (diethyl-nitrosamine)-induced Wistar rats.
Decreased the proliferating cell nuclear antigen
(PCNA), increased nuclear p21, and p27 staining,
heightened expression of p53 and p21, and
upregulated the p42/44 MAPK pathway; increased
expression of TNFα and IFNγ genes, indicating an
inf lammatory response
Antiproliferative Seeds ArtinM NA 0 to 100 μg/ml Myelocytic leukaemia cells (NB4, NB4, K562, and U937 cells IC50 of 10 (±1), 14 (±1),
Carvalho et al.
K562, and U937), MTT assay, and 84 (±1.5) μg/ml (2011)
assessment of apoptosis,
mitochondrial membrane
potential (m), f low cytometry,
and morphology, accumulation of
ROS, Western blot,
electrophoretic analysis, binding
and competition binding assay,
f luorescence microscopy, and
real-time PCR
Antitumour Pulp Phenolic compounds 95% ethanol 0.75, 1.00, 1.25, CCK-8 assay in HeLa cells T5 had the strongest inhibitory effect on cell Pu et al. (2023)
1.50, and proliferation, and the inhibition rate was 80.31% at
1.75 mg/ml a concentration of 1.75 mg/ml, followed by M3
(72.10%), M7 (57.52%), M2 (51.26%), and M1
(37.15%)

(Continued)
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Table 4. Continued
Property Part Compounds Extraction Concentration Assay Key findings Ref
solvent

Antiviral Leaves NA Ethanol 80%, 100 mg/ml In vitro, MTT The dichloromethane extract exhibited strong Hafid et al.
hexane, anti-HCV activity with an inhibitory concentration (2017)
dichloromethane, (IC50 ) value of (1.5 ± 0.6) μg/ml
and methanol
Gut microbiota Pulp Polysaccharides Water 50, 100, and In vivo, mice model, DNA The outcome showed that the treatment of Zhu et al. (2021)
modulation 200 mg/kg BW extraction, 16S rRNA gene polysaccharides would stimulate the faecal gut
amplification, and sequencing, microbiota composition, increased the OTU
Bioinformatics analysis of gut numbers of faecal bacteria, cause higher variation
microbiota profiles, SCFA in intestinal bacteria, cause significant differences
production in bacterial communities, modulated the
composition of gut microbiota, and increase the
concentrations of acetic acid, propionic acid,
n-butyric acid, and total SCFAs in mouse faeces
Gut microbiota Peel Polysaccharides Water NA In vitro upper digestion and faecal The PJPs could reach the colon intact. The Li et al. (2023)
modulation fermentation molecular decreased during the faecal
fermentation, as degraded during the faecal
fermentation, which was caused by microbes in
the intestine and also released the
oligosaccharides. For α-diversity, the Chao and
Shannon indexes of PJP group are lower than the
control, which indicates that microbiota richness
and diversity are lower. After 48-hr fermentation,
the total SCFAs of PJP (25.843 ± 1.036 mmol/L) are
higher than the control group
(11.142 ± 1.558 mmol/L) that demonstrated that
PJP increases the amount of SCFAs and has the
potential to be a prebiotic
Gut microbiota Pulp, leaves NA NA Orlistat In vivo, mice model COBY jackfruit beverages had altered the gut Koh et al. (2023)
modulation (10 mg/kg), pulp microbiota composition with the enhanced
and leaves growth of beneficial gut microbes in those treated
beverage mice relative to all control groups.
(2 ml/kg)

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Table 4. Continued
Property Part Compounds Extraction Concentration Assay Key findings Ref
solvent

Immunomodu- Fruit and seeds Oligopeptides NA 0.20, 0.40, and In vivo, 200 female BALB/c mice The results exhibited that JOPs did not inf luence Hao et al. (2020)
latory 0.80 g per kg BW the body weight and thymus index but has the
spleen index significantly increased. 0.40, and
0.80 g per kg BW treatment significant enhance
the ConA-stimulated proliferation of splenic
lymphocytes and the footpad thickness of mice.
JOPs enhanced humoral immunity through two
assays, IgM-plaque-forming cell (IgM-PFC) test,
and serum hemolysin level. Carbon clearance
index growths, the phagocytic rate was increased.
0.40 and 0.80 g per kg BW treatment significantly
improved the activity of NK cells. The value of
CD3+, CD4 + CD25+/CD4+ and
CD3 + CD4 + significantly increased with 0.40 and
0.80 g per kg BW JOP treatment. In addition, IL-1α,
IL-10, TFN-α, serum IgM, IgA, and SIgA levels
increased as the IFN-γ level decreased
Immunomodu- Seeds ArtinM NA 1.0; 0.33; 0.11; In vivo, female inbred C57BL/6 Synadenium carinatum Latex (ScLL) or ScLL plus Ramos et al.
latory 0.037; 0.012; mice ArtinM treatment induced production of (2016)
0.004; 0.00013; pro-inf lammatory and anti-inf lammatory
and cytokines, showing differential but
0.00004 μg/ml complementary profiles
for MTT, 1 μg for
survival analysis
Immunomodu- Seeds ArtinM NA 2.5 or 5 μg/ml In vitro, paracoccidioidomycosis ArtinM increased neutrophils infected with P. Ruas et al. (2018)
latory patient peripheral blood cell brasiliensis was observed TNF-α production,
stimulated TNF- α and IL-8 in neutrophils from
patients with PCM, and IL-8 level even eight times
higher than the unstimulated cells. Stimulation of
ArtinM not reply on the Dectin-1, ArtinM
enhanced the dextran internalisation of
neutrophils and increased killing capacity of
neutrophils and macrophages
Immunomodu- Leaf Isophytol, squalene, and NA 1% of the feed In vivo, straight-run day-old In immunised chickens, jackfruit leaf powder Raja et al. (2020)
latory cyclotrisiloxane broiler chicks of “Cobb” strain significantly boosted growth and immunity,
performing as well as levamisole (a standard
immune-boosting drug). In immunosuppressed
chickens, jackfruit leaf powder worked better than
the untreated group, improving immunity and
growth
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Table 4. Continued
Property Part Compounds Extraction Concentration Assay Key findings Ref
solvent

Immunomodu- Pulp NA Water 10 ml/kg BW In vivo, female 8-week-old Thymus and spleen indexes increased to Ma et al. (2021)
latory specific pathogen-free (SPF) 2.27 ± 0.15 mg/g and 5.33 ± 0.12 mg/g, respectively.
BALB/c mice Alleviated the pathological damage symptom that
model group mice have, including fewer goblet
cells and mucins. Treatment of FPJ led to a
significant increase in cytokines and
immunoglobulins, including IFN-γ, TNF-α,
IL-2/6/17, IgA/M/G
Tyrosinase Wood Morachalcone A Methanol 100, 50, 25, and Tyrosinase inhibitory assay IC50 is 0.013 ± 0.002 μM, which is 3,000 times Nguyen et al.
inhibitory 10 μg/ml more active than a positive-control kojic acid. (2012)
activity
Wound healing Bark NA Methanol 5% wt/wt In vivo, male albino mice model After 16 days of treatment, the negative-control Raghuvanshi
animal group showed 10.66 ± 5.33 of wound area, et al. (2010)
whereas the betadine-treated group showed
0.1 ± 0.200 wound areas and the extracts treated
exhibited 3.9 ± 1.137 wound areas. When
compared with the controls, the activity of extract
was found to be highly significant (p < .001)
Wound healing Leaves NA Ethanol 5%, 10%, and In vivo, diabetic mice model Fifteen percent was thought to be the most Amin1 and
15% beneficial concentration for reducing Pamasja (2021)
inf lammation and speeding up the healing
process of tooth extraction wounds in diabetes
rats
Wound healing Leaves NA Ethanol 94, 188, and In vivo, Sprague–Dawley rats. 376 mg/kg BW had the quickest burn healing time Solihah et al.,
376 mg/kg body and the highest percentage of recovery, even better 2024
weight than the medical standard: Lanakeloid cream
Wound healing Leaves NA Ethanol 1%, 2%, and 3% In vivo, white male rats Only 3% extract showed less significant change in Maria Erista
extract wound area et al. (2024)

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 International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 2025, Vol. 60, No. 1 | 35

Starch is the primary storage carbohydrate in plants and is pectin has been fabricated into nanoparticles with emulsifying
globally produced at an annual rate between 88.1 and 97.7 mil- capabilities (Jin et al., 2019).
lion tons in 2020 (Vilpoux & Junior, 2023). It finds extensive
industrial applications in the production of various products, Plant-based products
including food, textiles, paper, adhesives, and pharmaceuticals. The f leshy arils are commonly employed as a meat substitute in
Starch exhibits properties such as thickening, gelling, and film vegetarian and vegan dishes owing to their fibrous texture and
formation. The extracted starch from jackfruit seeds is utilised as ability to absorb f lavours (Hamid et al., 2020).
a super-disintegrant in the formulation of fast-dissolving tablets Hamid et al. (2020) utilised the jackfruit by-product (rinds, rags,
(FDTs) (Tripathi et al., 2023). The FDT technology allows tablets and seeds) to make a meat analogue with wheat gluten, starch,
to dissipate or disintegrate in the mouth without requiring the vegetable oil, and soy protein. A seven-point hedonic scale was
consumption of additional water. The key principle behind FDT used to evaluate four different formulations; the outcome is 58%
development is the utilisation of super-disintegrants, which pro- jackfruit by-products, and 20% vital wheat gluten reached the
mote rapid tablet disintegration upon placement on the tongue, highest value of overall acceptability (5.14 ± 1.17).
consequently liberating the drug into the saliva. Orodispersable Mishal et al. (2022) found that the formulation of 26% jackfruit,

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tablets are designed to dissolve or disintegrate quickly through 26% soy protein, 3% meat f lavour, and 4.3% wheat gluten received
the use of superdisintegrants (Chiranjib & Bhowmik, 2009). the highest score through a nine-point hedonic scale. Taikerd and
Jackfruit waste can be utilised to produce several significant Leelawat (2023) explored the potential of young jackfruit to make
bioproducts, including biofuels, functional meals, animal feed, chicken meat analogue with wheat gluten and soy protein isolate.
biomaterials, bakery products, medications, and food additives. Seven formulae were created with different ratios of jackfruit,
Fruit wastes might be transformed by biotransformation into wheat gluten, and soybean isolate; according to the sensory evalu-
useful goods (Aswin et al., 2022; Muzaffar et al., 2022; Pathak et al., ation, 40.64% young jackfruit, 20.32% wheat gluten, and 1.35% soy
2022). protein isolate obtained the highest overall acceptability score.
The fruit pulp can be utilised to create homemade and com- de Jesus González-Regalado et al. (2024) conducted the steam-
mercial jams. The pulp of ripe jackfruit is used to produce dehy- ing (121 ◦ C, 5–15 min) and boiling (90–100 ◦ C for 5–15 min) effects
drated jackfruit, which is a healthy snack food. It has a chewy for the core, cortex, and perianth of young jackfruit. The results
texture, a sweet and sour f lavour, and a colour ranging from demonstrated that all jackfruit sections exhibited similar texture
golden yellow to orange (Diamante, 2009). parameters to meat references under the above treatment.
Jackfruit products can be enhanced in taste by incorporat- Aizul Azri Azizan et al. (Azizan et al., 2024) used peeled unripe
ing synthetic f lavouring agents like ethyl or n-butyl ester of jackfruit with konjac tofu and seasoning to make nugget ana-
4-hydroxybutyric acid. Fermented beverages, particularly fruit logue. Twenty-five percent unripe jackfruit and 75% konjac-tofu
wine, and vinegar, can be produced using biotechnology and was the best formulation with a high sensory evaluation score
food processing methods from ripe jackfruit. Jackfruit wine, with based on a nine-point hedonic scale, 7.28 ± 1.578 of appearance,
an alcohol content of 7%–8% (vol/vol), is consumed by people 6.48 ± 1.502 of aroma, 6.14 ± 1.852 of taste, and 6.52 ± 1.717 of
living in eastern hilly regions of India (Sekar & Mariappan, 2007). texture, and the overall acceptance is 6.72 ± 1.4. The outcome of
Jackfruit wine also can be produced using temperature-controlled this research confirmed that unripe jackfruit nuggets would be
fermentation (Baidya et al., 2016). Fermented fruit retains its developed as a new and healthy convenience food product as
vitamin C content and offers a significant amount of this powerful meat alternatives for vegan and vegetarian consumers.
antioxidant (Gupta et al., 2023). To sum up, jackfruit, even its by-products, has a significant
Jackfruit chips can be prepared by slicing the bulbs, blanching potential as a meat alternative. The unique texture and nutri-
them, and then drying and deep-frying them. The chips retain the tional profile make it an excellent plant-based food, which would
natural colour, f lavour, and texture of jackfruit and are high in satisfy the requirement of people with specific dietary require-
vitamin E, y-oryzanol, and phytosterols (Gupta, 2021; Molla et al., ments.
2008).
Jackfruit leather, made from dried fruit pulp sheets, has a sweet Commercial potential
taste and a soft, rubbery texture. It can be consumed as a snack Genetic engineering
and used as an ingredient in ice cream, biscuits, cakes, and other Genetic variability means the genetic difference within or
baked goods (Kumar et al., 2020). These various food applications between populations, which is essential for plant selection.
of jackfruit highlight its versatility and the potential to utilise Jackfruit contains an abundant genetic diversity because of
different parts of the fruit to create a range of nutritious and propagation of seeds, which benefits the conservation and
f lavourful dishes. breeding when understanding genetic diversity combined with
As a significantly underestimated tropical fruit, jackfruit holds population structure (Bhaskaran et al., 2025). The research based
enormous applications in other fields. Jacalin, a typical lectin on the jackfruit cultivated in both Kenya and Uganda showed that
extracted from jackfruit seeds and showing high affinity to the significant genetic variability exists, which would be utilised in
Thomsen–Friedenreich disaccharide antigen (Galβ1-3GalNAc) developing high-yielding varieties for jackfruit breeders (Ojwang
(Swami et al., 2012), raises the hope for a new drug delivery et al., 2022). Another research conducted in India (Debnath &
strategy to attack colon cancer (Arya et al., 2019; Cruz-Casillas Deb, 2022) presented that yield, fruit productivity, fruit stalk
et al., 2021). Jackfruit pectin could be used to prepare a bio- length, and fruit core weight had a high genotypic coefficient of
nanocomposite that is a potential material for bone healing variation, heritability, and genetic advance; all these parameters
(Kalse & Swami, 2022). Jackfruit seed starch has been explored represented that these traits were inf luenced by genetic factors
in microcapsules, fast-dissolving tablets, packaging film, food rather than environmental factors. In the past decades, using
colour, and other areas. Additionally, the waste of jackfruit, such superior clone selection for developing cultivars in jackfruit
as peel and latex, can be utilised as an attractive source for cultivation countries has made big progress. For example, “Golden
sustainable products. Even in the cosmetic industry, jackfruit Nugget,” “Black Gold,” “Honey Gold,” “Lemon Gold,” “Cheena,”
36 | Ye et al.

“Chompa Gob,” “Galaxy,” “Nahen Kapa,” etc., were cultivars seed is technically not waste as it contains 60%–80% starch (Zhang
reported from Australia (Mitra, 2020). Therefore, continuing and et al., 2021) and has commercial products seed f lour and starch.
firmly applying this genetic engineering way to develop jackfruit Effective utilisation of jackfruit waste would build a sustainable
with superior traits will still be a major direction for future development system and is also a future direction.
development and provide fundamental support for jackfruit
commercialisation.
Conclusion
Intelligent system in cultivation, storage, and transport In conclusion, jackfruit is a tropical fruit rich in minerals, vita-
The potential threat of extreme weather would cause damage of mins, amino acids, protein, and dietary fibre, as well as phyto-
crops, which brings reduced yield and quality and affects the farm chemicals, with great potential for promoting health and pre-
and related profit. An Internet of Things (IoT) cultivation system venting disease. It is important to note that the content and
could be one of the solutions. Chang et al. (2021) developed an variety of bioactive ingredients in jackfruit vary during matu-
IoT-enabled greenhouse system for lettuce. The greenhouse has rity and different parts, highlighting the need to consider matu-
the environmental sensing modules to monitor the temperature, rity when unlocking its full potential. The existing literature

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humidity, CO2 , light intensity, and daily light integral, while during reveals a wide range of pharmacological properties, including
the growth of lettuce, some parameters were recorded, including anti-inf lammatory, antioxidant, antidiabetic, anticancer, obesity,
net photosynthesis rate, transpiration rate, number of leaves (LN), antimicrobial, immunomodulatory, antiviral, and wound healing.
contour area of the leaves (LA), and dry weight. Three models, Further preclinical and clinical studies are necessary to fully grasp
fuzzy logic (FL), neural-fuzzy (NF), and neural network (NN), were the mechanisms behind its multiple potential. Considering the
trained based on the data mentioned above. NN model used to current shift towards plant-based diets and the growing interest
predict the dry weight, which is consistent with the result of the in sustainable food sources, combined with the unique f lavour
experiment; FL performed well in the net photosynthesis rate and and special texture of jackfruit, makes it a meat substitute in
transpiration rate, while NF achieved the prediction of harvest a variety of culinary applications. The relevant applications of
and plant quality. Another research (Ramírez-Pérez et al., 2018) jackfruit in food and nonfood industries are also explored, and the
was conducted in cucumber mineral absorption in leaf, stem, potential for commercialisation of jackfruit is brief ly discussed.
fruit, and root, the differences between experimental results and From the large literature and research explored and discussed,
model-simulated data for N, P, and K were 10%, 11%, and 0.11%, the biggest fruit in the world could be considered as a treasure
respectively. Currently, digital management in jackfruit is still trove of bioactive compounds with high value, which brings great
lacking and this would improve the efficiency and precision of benefits to human health.
jackfruit cultivation.
Time–temperature indicators (TTIs) are an innovative tool
in food packaging, which provide the temperature information Data availability
through monitoring, recording, and translating. It is a reliable
Data available on request from the authors.
device in monitoring and optimising spoilage of certain chilled
foods (Koutsoumanis & Gougouli, 2015). Adiani et al. (2021)
developed a colourimetric TTI based on phenol oxidation and Author contributions
used in pineapple, pomegranate, and jackfruit to monitor the
Shujun Ye (Conceptualization, Writing—original draft, Investiga-
microbial spoilage. A good correlation (R2 ≥ 0.7) was observed
tion), Ali Imran (Writing—review & editing, Supervision), Osman
between TTI colour change and microbial growth in all three
Tuncay Agar (Writing—review & editing, Supervision), Dakshina
tested fruits and the microbial count with an error of ±1 Log10 CFU
Yadav (Writing—review & editing, Resources, Project adminis-
g−1 . In addition, a consumer attitude towards TTI was conducted
tration, Validation), Chelsea Moore (Resources, Project adminis-
in Europeans (Pennanen et al., 2015); the outcome showed that
tration, Validation), and Hafiz A.R. Suleria (Conceptualization,
consumers appreciated and understood TTI technology, although
Investigation, Resources, Writing—review & editing, Supervision,
not all requirements of consumers were met. TTI could be used to
Funding acquisition, Project administration, Validation)
establish an efficient, transparent, and traceable supply chain to
simplify the process of jackfruit from farm to restaurant/market.
This not only ensures a stable and reliable supply but also
Funding
improves supply efficiency and product quality. In addition, it
reduces the risks associated with supply and demand imbalances H.S. is the recipient of an “Australian Research Council - Discovery
and prevents price f luctuations due to supply and demand issues. Early Career Award” (ARC-DECRA—DE220100055) funded by the
Australian Government. This research was funded by the Uni-
Sustainable applications versity of Melbourne under the “McKenzie Fellowship Scheme”
Around 60% of ripe jackfruit is inedible, including peel, core, and (Grant No. UoM-18/21), the “Future Food Hallmark Research Ini-
f lake (Ranasinghe et al., 2019). Incorrect disposal of this waste tiative Funds (Grant No. UoM-21/23),” and “Collaborative Research
would cause environmental issues; thus, utilisation of this waste Development Grant (Grant No. UoM-21/23)” funded by the Faculty
is essential. The application of peel includes pectin, activated of Science, the University of Melbourne, Australia. Moreover, H.S.
carbon, adsorbent, and bio-hydrogen production (Kalse & Swami, also holds the grant (ID TA108561) from AgriFutures, Australia on
2022). In addition, peel contains high levels of carbohydrate, pro- jackfruit.
tein, and fibre, making it suitable for animal feed (Pathak et al.,
2022), while the core and f lake parts have potential in livestock
as well (Subburamu et al., 1992). The peel and core parts could be
Conflicts of interest
used to extract pectin, which is a better way to utilise them (Lal The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
et al., 2021). Flake through microbial fermentation to obtain value- interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
added products has been confirmed (Suo et al., 2024). Jackfruit inf luence the work reported in this paper.
 International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 2025, Vol. 60, No. 1 | 37

Acknowledgements superoxide dismutase and interleukin-1β levels in wound heal-

ing after tooth extraction in diabetic rats. In Proceedings of the
We extend our sincere appreciation to the AgriFutures, Australia,
1st Jenderal Soedirman International Medical Conference in conjunc-
for supporting our study by funding the Project on Jackfruit (ID
tion with the 5th Annual Scientific Meeting (Temilnas) Consortium of
TA108561). We would like to express sincere gratitude to both
Biomedical Science Indonesia (JIMC 2020), (pp. 164–169). [Link]
the Department of Agriculture and Fisheries (Northern Territory
org/10.5220/0010489501640169
Government) and the Seaforest team for their invaluable support
Anonymous (2012). The International Glycemic Index (GI) Database. The
and contributions to this work. We would also like to thank the
University of Sydney.
Master/PhD students and postdoctoral researchers of the Dr. Hafiz
Arung, E. T., Shimizu, K., & Kondo, R. (2007). Structure–activity
Suleria group from the School of Agriculture, Food and Ecosystem
relationship of prenyl-substituted polyphenols from Artocarpus
Sciences, Faculty of Science (the University of Melbourne) for their
heterophyllus as inhibitors of melanin biosynthesis in cultured
incredible support.
melanoma cells. Chemistry & Biodiversity, 4, 2166–2171. [Link]
org/10.1002/cbdv.200790173
Arung, E. T., Wicaksono, B. D., Handoko, Y. A., Kusuma, I. W., Shimizu,
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