What is wood?

• Wood is a porous and it is an organic fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and
roots of trees and other woody plants
• It has been used for thousands of years for both fuel and as a construction material.
Natural wood
• Comes from trees and is separated into (2) two categories:
1) Softwood
2) Hardwood
Manufactured wood
• Is made-up of multiple types of man-made wood. It uses natural wood as its raw
material.
Softwoods
• Come from evergreen/needle bearing trees.
• These are called conifers because many of them bare cones.
• Softwoods grow faster than hardwoods, so they are cheaper, they are also easier
• to work with as they are softer than hardwoods.
• They are often used as building material; in addition they are used to make
manufactured woods.
Types of Softwood
➢ Pine:
o Pine is a soft, white or pale-
yellow wood which is light
weight, straight grained and
lacks figure. It's resistant to
shrinking and swelling. With
age pine wood gets heavier,
harder and darker in color.

➢ Cedar:
o Cedar is a knotty softwood
which has a red-brown color
with light streaks. It's
resistant to shrinking and
swelling. Cedar stands up to
moisture, resisting rot and
resisting insect damage
better than other woods.
 ➢ Cypress:
o Cypress tends to be a light,
yellowish brown. Cypress
trees are conifers, but unlike
most softwoods, these are
deciduous trees that shed
leaves like hardwoods.
Cypress is very easy to work
with but tends to have a
horrid odor. It is considered
one of the harder softwoods.

Hardwood
• Hardwood comes from deciduous/broadleaved trees.
• They are generally slow growing which tends to make them harder and more
expensive.
• Hardwoods can be distinguished by the structure of the wood grain. They are
generally more durable and denser than softwoods.
• Hardwoods are often used in high-quality furniture, decks and flooring.

Types of Hardwood
➢ Mahogany
o Mahogany that comes from
the Caribbean is thought to
be the hardest, strongest and
best quality of all its species.
It is an easy to work wood
which is reddish brown in
color. This wood is very
expensive.

➢ Teak
o Teak is a yellow to dark brown
hardwood which is extremely
heavy, strong and durable. It
carves well, but because of
its high value, is often used as
a veneer.
 ➢ Mora
o Mora is a very heavy and very
hard wood. It has outstanding
strength properties, and is
particularly resistant to wear.
Mora heartwood varies from
chocolate-brown to reddish
brown, the grain is straight to
commonly interlocked.

Manufactured Wood
• Manufactured wood refers to timber sheets which are produced by gluing wood
layers or wood fibers together.
• These have been developed mainly for industrial production as they can be made in
very large sheets of consistent quality.
• Manufactured wood is available in many thicknesses, their inexpensiveness often
results in them being used instead of real woods. Manufactured boards are often
covered with a thin layer of real wood which is called a veneer, this improves their
appearance.

Types of Manufactured Wood

➢ MDF
o MDF or Medium Density
Fiberboard is a smooth, even
surface, easily machined and
painted or veneered board.
Also available in water- and
fire-resistant forms.

➢ Plywood:
o A very strong board which is
constructed of layers of
veneer or piles which are
glued at 90 degrees to each
other. Interior and exterior
grades are available. Plywood
is very strong and is often
used in construction, it is
 available in multiple
thicknesses.

➢ Particle board
o Made from chips of wood
glued together. Usually
veneered covered in plastic
laminate. It is often used for
kitchen and bedroom
furniture

➢ Oriented Strand Board

o Oriented Strand Board is a
widely used, versatile
structural wood panel. Made
from waterproof heat-cured
adhesives and rectangular
shaped wood strands that are
arranged in cross- oriented
layers, OSB is an engineered
wood panel that shares many
of the strength and
performance characteristics
of plywood.

➢ Blockboard
o Blockboard is made up of a
core of softwood strips. The
strips are placed edge to edge
and sandwiched between
veneers of hardwood. The
sandwich is then glued under
high pressure. Blockboard is
not suitable for exterior use, it
is often used to make
shelves, doors, paneling and
partitions.
Lumber Production
Lumber
• Is wood that has been processed into beams and planks, a stage in the process of
wood production.
• May be supplied either rough-sawn or surfaced on one or more of its faces.
• Mainly used for structural purposes but has many other uses as well. It is classified
more commonly as a softwood than as a hardwood, because 80% of lumber comes
from softwood.

Lumber Manufacturing
• Logs stored in piles or ponds.
• Pulled into mill by a chain device called a Jack-ladder.
• Bark is removed.
• The Sawyer determines best way to cut log and cuts it into a slab with the head saw.
• Log is then cut into desired lengths by trimmer saws.
• Other saws are used to cut boards to desired widths.

Defects in Wood
• Two major classes of defects, natural & defects after falling into the tree.
• Natural includes abrasions, fire damage, growth defects, insects and animal damage.
• Growth defects include knots, shakes, and pitch pockets.

➢ Knots
• are the result of branches & limbs.
• branches that grew on the young tree that eventually got embedded within the
growing trunk.
• The vascular cambium in the branch and the trunk are one in the same the branch
grows continuously along with the trunk.
➢ Tight knots
▪ during periods of cambial activity, new wood is added as a continuous
layer over branch and trunk, tightly fixing the knot in the wood of the
trunk.
➢ Loose knots
▪ a dead branch that losses its bark and is not firmly fixed; a knot not held
tightly in place by growth, shape or position.
➢ Shakes
o Are grain separation parallel to the rings.
 ➢ Pitch pockets
o Occur along the rings and usually contain resin. (Common in fir, pines &
spruces.
Tight knots

Loose knots

Shakes

Pitch pockets

Physical Properties of Wood

Wood is a naturally occurring material widely used in construction, furniture making, and
various industries due to its unique characteristics. Its physical properties, including color,
luster, odor, taste, density, and hardness, influence its functionality, durability, and aesthetic
appeal in different applications.

• Color
Wood exhibits a wide range of colors, from white to dark brown, making it a key
factor in furniture and decor selection. The color of wood can change due to exposure
to light, aging, and environmental conditions. The grain pattern and viewing angle can
also affect how the color appears, giving wood a dynamic and natural look.

• Luster
Luster refers to the ability of wood to reflect light, affecting its shine and overall
aesthetic appeal. Some woods, like mahogany and maple, have a naturally high
luster that enhances their appearance, making them ideal for decorative
applications. Luster is often enhanced through polishing and finishing techniques to
achieve a more refined and attractive look.

• Odor and Taste

Many types of wood produce distinct odors that can be pleasant or strong,
depending on the species. For example, sandalwood and rosewood have a pleasant
aroma, making them popular for carvings and scented products. The scent of wood
is usually strongest when freshly cut and fades over time. While taste is rarely
considered, it is relevant in applications like wooden utensils or food storage
materials.

• Density of Wood
Density is an important property that affects the strength, weight, and
durability of wood. It is defined as mass per unit volume and varies between different
species. High-density wood, such as oak and teak, are strong and durable, making
them suitable for heavy-duty applications, while low-density woods, such as pine
and balsa, are lightweight and easier to work with. Density also influences the wood’s
moisture absorption and shrinkage behavior.

• Hardness
Hardness determines wood’s ability to resist wear, scratches, and impacts. It
is an essential factor in selecting wood for flooring, furniture, and construction
materials. Hardwoods like oak, teak, and maple are known for their durability and
resistance to damage, while softer woods like pine and cedar are easier to cut, carve,
 and shape. The Janka hardness test is commonly used to measure wood hardness
and its resistance to denting and wear.

Mechanical Properties of Wood

Wood's mechanical properties determine its ability to withstand forces that may alter its
shape and size. These properties depend on factors such as force magnitude, application
direction, moisture content, and density. Wood exhibits different strength characteristics
depending on whether the force is applied parallel (axial direction) or across (transverse
direction) the grain.

• Tensile and Compressive Strength

Wood’s resistance to pulling forces, while compressive strength refers to its
ability to withstand pushing forces. Wood is stronger along the grain than across it,
making grain orientation crucial in structural applications.

• Shear Strength
Measures wood’s ability to resist sliding forces between layers. It is higher
along the grain and lower across the grain, which affects its performance in joints and
fasteners.

• Cleavage
Refers to the ease with which wood splits along the grain. Some woods split
more easily due to weaker fiber bonding, which influences their suitability for
applications like firewood or veneer production.

• Static Bending Strength

Measures wood’s ability to resist bending forces without breaking. This
property is crucial for beams, flooring, and furniture structures that experience load-
bearing stress.

• Impact Bending and Toughness

Refer to wood’s ability to absorb shock without breaking. This property is
essential for applications requiring durability against sudden forces, such as tool
handles and sports equipment.

• Modulus of Elasticity
 Measures wood’s stiffness and resistance to deformation under stress. A
higher modulus indicates a stiffer material, which is preferred in structural
components like beams and columns.
• Modulus of Rupture
Determines wood’s ultimate bending strength before breaking. It is a critical
factor in designing load-bearing wooden structures.

Different Processes of Wood

Wood undergoes several processes before it is ready for use in construction, furniture
making, and other applications. These processes ensure that the wood is durable, properly
shaped, and free from defects.

1. Logging
Logging is the first step in wood processing, where trees are cut down and transported
to sawmills. This process involves felling, limbing, bucking and skidding. Sustainable
logging practices are essential to prevent deforestation and environmental damage.

2. Seasoning
Seasoning is the process of reducing the moisture content of wood to prevent
warping, cracking, and decay. There are two main types of seasoning:
• Air Drying: Logs are stacked in a well-ventilated area and left to dry naturally over
several months.
• Kiln Drying: Wood is placed in a controlled chamber where temperature and
humidity are adjusted to speed up the drying process. Proper seasoning improves
wood stability, strength, and resistance to pests and fungi.

3. Sawing
Sawing converts log into usable lumber. Different sawing methods produce different
types of wood cuts:
• Plain Sawing: The simplest method, producing wide boards with varied grain
patterns.
• Quarter Sawing: Produces more stable wood with straight grain lines, reducing
warping.
• Rift Sawing: Creates highly uniform grain patterns, often used for premium
furniture. Sawing determines the wood’s appearance, grain structure, and
resistance to distortion.

4. Planing
 Planing smooths and shapes the wood by removing rough edges and imperfections.
This process creates a uniform thickness and a refined surface, making the wood
easier to work with in construction and carpentry.

5. Wood Preservation
Wood preservation enhances durability by treating wood with chemicals that protect
against insects, fungi, and moisture. Common preservation techniques include:
• Pressure Treatment: Wood is placed in a chamber where preservatives are
forced deep into its fibers.
• Surface Coating: Protective finishes like varnishes and sealants are applied to
repel water and pests.
• Chemical Impregnation: Special solutions are absorbed into the wood to
increase resistance to decay. These methods significantly extend the lifespan of
wood used in outdoor structures and furniture.

6. Finishing
Finishing enhances the appearance and durability of wood by applying coatings like
stains, paints, or varnishes. This process includes:
• Sanding: Smooths the surface for better adhesion of finishes.
• Staining: Enhances the wood’s natural color while providing some protection.
• Varnishing/Painting: Adds a protective layer against moisture, wear, and UV
damage. Finishing improves the aesthetic appeal of wood while protecting it from
environmental elements.

Test for Wood (ASTM Standard)

ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) has developed numerous standards for
testing wood, encompassing mechanical properties, physical characteristics, and even
chemical properties. These standards ensure wood products meet safety, performance, and
durability requirements for various applications.

1. ASTM D143 — Standard Test Methods for Small Clear Specimens of Timber
o Purpose: Tests the mechanical properties of small, clear, straight-grained
wood samples. This standard outlines methods for testing small, clear wood
specimens to assess mechanical and physical properties under controlled
conditions. The results help compare species, establish strength functions,
and understand factors affecting wood properties.
o Key Tests:
▪ Bending strength
▪ Compression parallel and perpendicular to grain
▪ Shear strength
▪ Hardness
 ▪ Toughness
▪ Cleavage resistance

❖ Static Bending Test (ASTM D143)

Purpose: Measures the bending or flexural strength of wood, determining its
Modulus of Elasticity (MOE) and Modulus of Rupture (MOR).
Method: A wooden beam is loaded at the center (3-point or 4-point bending) until
failure. The deflection and load are recorded to calculate the stress-strain
response.
Key Results:
o Modulus of Rupture (MOR): Maximum stress a wood sample can handle
before breaking.
o Modulus of Elasticity (MOE): Measures wood’s stiffness or resistance to
deformation
Procedure:
1. Insert the bending device in the UTM.
2. Measure the width and depth of the wooden beam.
3. Adjust the support for the required distance and clamp to the lower table.
4. Fix the transverse test pan at the lower side of the lower crosshead.
5. Fix it on the rollers of the transverse test brackets such that the load comes
at the center and measure the length of the span of the beam between the
supports for central loading.
6. Adjust the load pointer to zero by lifting the lower table. While applying the
load, the deflection corresponding to each load is found from the Vernier
scale on the UTM.
7. Note down the maximum deflection and the maximum load.

❖ Compression Perpendicular to Grain Test (ASTM D143)

Purpose: Measures the compressive strength when the load is applied
perpendicular to the grain.
Method: The wood sample is loaded in compression across the grain until
deformation or failure occurs.
Key Results:
o Bearing Capacity: Wood's resistance to deformation under perpendicular
loads.
o Design Consideration: Helps in determining the load-bearing capacity of
structural supports and beams.
Procedure:
Measure the dimensions of the wooden sample using a Vernier caliper.
1. Place the wooden sample in the universal testing machine such that the
grain fibers are parallel to the applied compressive load.
2. Start loading the sample in compression.
3. Using the peak load and contact area, calculate the compressive strength
of the timber.
 4. Repeat the above procedure by orienting the sample in such a way that the
grain fibers are parallel to the applied load.

2. ASTM D1037 — Standard Test Methods for Evaluating Properties of Wood-Base

Fiber and Particle Panel Materials
o Purpose: Assesses the strength, durability, and water resistance of wood
panels and composites. These test methods outline procedures for evaluating
the mechanical and physical properties of wood-based fiber and particle
panel materials, like particleboard, MDF, hardboard, and OSB. The tests
provide data for comparing materials, assessing the effects of raw materials,
processing, treatments, and environmental factors, as well as for
manufacturing control, product development, and specification acceptance.

Part A covers general test methods, including static bending, fastener holding,
hardness, impact resistance, moisture behavior, and shear properties. Part B
focuses on acceptance and specification tests for hardboard, measuring
properties like thickness, modulus of rupture, tensile strength, and moisture
content.
o Key Tests:
▪ Tensile strength
▪ Compression strength
▪ Shear strength
▪ Hardness
▪ Water absorption and thickness swelling
❖ Compression Parallel to Grain Test (ASTM D1037)
Purpose: Determines the compressive strength of wood when the load is applied
along the grain direction.
Method: A wooden specimen is placed in a Universal Testing Machine (UTM), and
the load is applied until the sample fails.
Key Results:
o Compressive Strength: Maximum stress the wood can withstand along the
grain without failing.
o Failure Patterns: Cracks along the grain, buckling, or crushing

3. ASTM D4442-20 – Standard Test Methods for Direct Moisture Content

Measurement of Wood and Wood-Based Materials
o Purpose: This outlines methods for determining MC with varying levels of
precision. Method A (Primary Oven-Drying) is the most accurate and precise,
suitable for research or calibration, as it carefully accounts for factors like
specimen hygroscopicity and oven variability. Method B (Secondary Oven-
Drying) offers a simpler, quicker alternative with lower precision, better suited
for less critical applications.

❖ Dry Weight Method:

 The Oven Test is the most reliable way to determine the moisture content of wood.
This method involves weighing a wood sample, drying it in an oven, and then
weighing it again. The moisture content is calculated by comparing the initial and
final weights, providing an accurate measurement of the wood's water content.

Uses of Wood in Construction

Wood as a Building Material
Considering wood as a building material presents a significant advantage in terms of
sustainability. Compared to other traditional building materials like concrete or metals,
wood stands out with its unique renewable nature.

Through responsible forestry management programs, trees can be harvested and replanted,
ensuring a continuous supply without causing significant harm to our precious ecosystems.
The energy efficiency of wood is another notable benefit that underlines its superiority over
steel and plastic. The inherent cellular structure of wood grants it high insulation properties.
This implies that structures built with wood require less energy for heating and cooling, thus
contributing to a substantial reduction in the carbon footprint.

What are the Uses of Wood in Building Construction?

Wood is used extensively in construction due to its versatility and beneficial properties. Its
uses include:

➢ Structural Components
Wood is commonly used for structural elements such as beams, rafters, and joists.
Its strength and resilience make it suitable for load-bearing applications.

➢ Flooring
Hardwood floors are popular for their durability, aesthetic appeal, and easy
maintenance. They can significantly enhance the value of a home or commercial
space.
➢ Walls and Partitions
Wood is used for framing and creating partitions in interior spaces due to its
lightweight and easy handling.

➢ Roofing
Wooden shingles or shakes are often used in roofing for their attractive appearance
and insulative properties.

➢ Doors and Windows

Due to its workability, wood is a preferred material for doors and windows, offering
excellent insulation and visual appeal.
 ➢ Furniture and Cabinetry
Wood’s diverse range of species, each offering unique colors and grain patterns, is
ideal for crafting furniture, cabinets, and other interior fixtures.

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