What is Encoding?

Encoding is defined as the creation and conversion of a message

or information into coded form. Coding is a program that
facilitates a particular piece of information to be in a format issued
by certain protocols. Every type of information has a certain type
of codes created for it. All of this work is done by the encoder. An
encoder either can be a person who sends the message or a trained
system.
What is Decoding?
Decoding is defined as the understanding and interpretation of the
message formed by the encoder. This process is carried out by a
decoder, i.e. either a person or any system that converts the coded
message into a simpler form and interprets it. This completes the
purpose of communication, i.e. both sender and receiver get the
message.
Comparison Table Between Encoding and Decoding

Parameters of
Encoding Decoding
Comparison

Encoding is referred to as creating or coding a message in an Decoding is referred to as interpreting the

Definition
understandable form. coded message.

Input The applied signal or message is the input. Coded binary data is the input.

The message in understandable form is the

Output The generated data in the coded form is the output.
output.
 It is utilized in microprocessors, memory
Usage It is utilized in Emails, videos etc.
cards etc.

The encoder (sender or any software) used is installed at the The decoder or receiver is there at the
Installation
transmitting end. receiving end.

It is complex as it involves the

Complexity It is a simpler process.
interpretation of the codes.

What is multiplexing?
Multiplexing, or muxing, is a way of sending multiple signals or streams of
information over a communications link at the same time in the form of a
single, complex signal.

What is demultiplexing?

Demultiplexing refers to the step in processing where you’d use the barcode
information in order to know which sequences came from which samples after they
had all be sequenced together.

What Is the OSI Model

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model describes seven layers that
computer systems use to communicate over a network. It was the first
standard model for network communications, adopted by all major computer
and telecommunication companies in the early 1980s

OSI Model Explained: The OSI 7 Layers

We’ll describe OSI layers “top down” from the application layer that directly
serves the end user, down to the physical layer.
7. Application Layer
The application layer is used by end-user software such as web browsers and
email clients. It provides protocols that allow software to send and receive
information and present meaningful data to users. A few examples of
application layer protocols are the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File
Transfer Protocol (FTP), Post Office Protocol (POP), Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol (SMTP), and Domain Name System (DNS).
6. Presentation Layer
The presentation layer prepares data for the application layer. It defines how
two devices should encode, encrypt, and compress data so it is received
correctly on the other end. The presentation layer takes any data transmitted
by the application layer and prepares it for transmission over the session
layer.

5. Session Layer
The session layer creates communication channels, called sessions, between
devices. It is responsible for opening sessions, ensuring they remain open and
functional while data is being transferred, and closing them when
communication ends. The session layer can also set checkpoints during a data
transfer—if the session is interrupted, devices can resume data transfer from
the last checkpoint.

4. Transport Layer
The transport layer takes data transferred in the session layer and breaks it
into “segments” on the transmitting end. It is responsible for reassembling the
segments on the receiving end, turning it back into data that can be used by
the session layer. The transport layer carries out flow control, sending data at
a rate that matches the connection speed of the receiving device, and error
control, checking if data was received incorrectly and if not, requesting it
again.

3. Network Layer
The network layer has two main functions. One is breaking up segments into
network packets, and reassembling the packets on the receiving end. The
other is routing packets by discovering the best path across a physical
network. The network layer uses network addresses (typically Internet
Protocol addresses) to route packets to a destination node.

2. Data Link Layer

The data link layer establishes and terminates a connection between two
physically-connected nodes on a network. It breaks up packets into frames
and sends them from source to destination. This layer is composed of two
parts—Logical Link Control (LLC), which identifies network protocols,
performs error checking and synchronizes frames, and Media Access Control
(MAC) which uses MAC addresses to connect devices and define
permissions to transmit and receive data.

1. Physical Layer
The physical layer is responsible for the physical cable or wireless connection
between network nodes. It defines the connector, the electrical cable or
wireless technology connecting the devices, and is responsible for
transmission of the raw data, which is simply a series of 0s and 1s, while
taking care of bit rate control.

Advantages of OSI Model

The OSI model helps users and operators of computer networks:
Determine the required hardware and software to build their network.
Understand and communicate the process followed by components
communicating across a network.
Perform troubleshooting, by identifying which network layer is causing an
issue and focusing efforts on that layer.

The OSI model helps network device manufacturers and networking software
vendors:

Create devices and software that can communicate with products from any
other vendor, allowing open interoperability
Define which parts of the network their products should work with.
Communicate to users at which network layers their product operates – for
example, only at the application layer, or across the stack.

TCP/IP model
The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.
 The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport layer,
network layer, data link layer and physical layer.
The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface,
internetworking, and transport functions that correspond to the first four layers
of the OSI model and these four layers are represented in TCP/IP model by a
single layer called the application layer.
TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of
them provides specific functionality.

Network Access Layer

 A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.
 A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer
defined in the OSI reference model.
 It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
 This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two
devices on the same network.
 The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into
frames transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical
addresses.
 The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame
relay.

Internet Layer
An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.
An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any
network, and they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take.

Following are the protocols used in this layer are:

IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant part of the
entire TCP/IP suite.

Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:

IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP
addresses. The IP addresses are used by the internet and higher layers to identify the
device and to provide internetwork routing.

Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the data is to be

transmitted.

Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the data from the
transport layer protocol. An IP protocol ensures that the data is sent and received
securely, it encapsulates the data into message known as IP datagram.

Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP datagram
by data link layer protocol is known as Maximum Transmission unit (MTU). If the
size of IP datagram is greater than the MTU unit, then the IP protocol splits the
datagram into smaller units so that they can travel over the local network.
Fragmentation can be done by the sender or intermediate router. At the receiver side,
all the fragments are reassembled to form an original message.

Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as LAN, MAN,
WAN, it is known as direct delivery. When source and destination are on the distant
network, then the IP datagram is sent indirectly. This can be accomplished by routing
the IP datagram through various devices such as routers.

Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of
data which is being sent over the network.

The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and
Transmission control protocol.

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of transmission.

It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the error.

User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports the error to
the sender that user datagram has been damaged.
UDP consists of the following fields:
Source port address: The source port address is the address of the application program
that has created the message.
Destination port address: The destination port address is the address of the application
program that receives the message.
Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user datagram in bytes.
Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection.

UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only checksum; it does not
contain any ID of a data segment.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

It provides a full transport layer services to applications.

It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active for the
duration of the transmission.

TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged frames.
Therefore, it ensures all the segments must be received and acknowledged before the
transmission is considered to be completed and a virtual circuit is discarded.

At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units known as
segment, and each segment contains a sequence number which is required for
reordering the frames to form an original message.

At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them based on
sequence numbers.

Application Layer
An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.

It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.

This layer allows the user to interact with the application.

When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another application
layer, it forwards its data to the transport layer.
There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application cannot be
placed inside the application layer except those who interact with the communication
system. For example: text editor cannot be considered in application layer while web
browser using HTTP protocol to interact with the network where HTTP protocol is
an application layer protocol.

Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:

HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to
access the data over the world wide web. It transfers the data in the form of plain text,
audio, video. It is known as a Hypertext transfer protocol as it has the efficiency to use
in a hypertext environment where there are rapid jumps from one document to
another.

SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework

used for managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite.

SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that
supports the e-mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used
to send the data to another e-mail address.

DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the
connection of a host to the internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use the names
instead of addresses. Therefore, the system that maps the name to the address is
known as Domain Name System.

TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection

between the local computer and remote computer in such a way that the local terminal
appears to be a terminal at the remote system.

FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used
for transmitting the files from one computer to another computer.
IP address definition

An IP address is a unique address that identifies a device on the internet or a local

network. IP stands for "Internet Protocol," which is the set of rules governing the
format of data sent via the internet or local network.
What is an IP Address?
An IP address is a string of numbers separated by periods. IP addresses are expressed
as a set of four numbers — an example address might be [Link]. Each number
in the set can range from 0 to 255. So, the full IP addressing range goes from [Link]
to [Link].

IP addresses are not random. They are mathematically produced and allocated by
the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), a division of the Internet
Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). ICANN is a non-profit
organization that was established in the United States in 1998 to help maintain the
security of the internet and allow it to be usable by all. Each time anyone registers a
domain on the internet, they go through a domain name registrar, who pays a small
fee to ICANN to register the domain.

Watch this video to learn what IP address is, why IP address is important and how to
protect it from hackers:

Version of IP address
Two types of IP addresses are 1)IPV4 and 2) IPV6.

IPV4
IPv4 was the first version of IP. It was deployed for production in the
ARPANET in 1983. Today it is the most widely used IP version. It is used to
identify devices on a network using an addressing system.
The IPv4 uses a 32-bit address scheme allowing to store 2^32 addresses,
which is more than 4 billion addresses. To date, it is considered the primary
Internet Protocol and carries 94% of Internet traffic.

IPV6
It is the most recent version of the Internet Protocol. Internet Engineer
Taskforce initiated it in early 1994. The design and development of that suite
is now called IPv6.
This new IP address version is being deployed to fulfill the need for more
Internet addresses. It was aimed to resolve issues which are associated with
IPv4. With 128-bit address space, it allows 340 undecillion unique address
space.

DNS
An application layer protocol defines how the application processes running on
different systems, pass the messages to each other.

DNS stands for Domain Name System.

DNS is a directory service that provides a mapping between the name of a host on the
network and its numerical address.

DNS is required for the functioning of the internet.

Each node in a tree has a domain name, and a full domain name is a sequence of
symbols specified by dots.

DNS is a service that translates the domain name into IP addresses. This allows the
users of networks to utilize user-friendly names when looking for other hosts instead
of remembering the IP addresses.

For example, suppose the FTP site at EduSoft had an IP address of [Link],
most people would reach this site by specifying [Link]. Therefore, the
domain name is more reliable than IP address.

DNS is a TCP/IP protocol used on different platforms. The domain name space is
divided into three different sections: generic domains, country domains, and inverse
domain.

What is Noise?
Noise is unwanted electrical or electromagnetic energy that degrades the quality of
signals and data. Noise occurs in digital and analog systems, and can affect files and
communications of all types, including text, programs, images, audio, and telemetry.

Types of Noises in Network?

There are four types of noise in communication system or networking.
These noises can be thermal noise, induced noise, crosstalk, and impulse
noise.

Thermal Noise: Due to random originally sent by TX

Induced Noise: Comes from sources like Motors and Appliances

Crosstalk: Effect of one wire on another.

Impulse Noise: Spike (A signal with high energy in a very short period of
time power lines, lightening etc.

What is Thermal Noise in Networking?

The thermal noise is generated due to the random motion of electrons in a wire.
Thermal noise is always present in the electrical equipment and is directly
proportional to the temperature of the wires.

It is also known as Johnson-Nyquist noise, Johnson noise, or Nyquist noise.

How to remove Thermal Noise?

Elimination of thermal noise is impossible; however, reducing the temperature or
resistance in electrical circuits can reduce the thermal noise.

Short Questions:

What causes a noise in a network?

Sources that carry electricity – for example, motors, fluorescent lights and
AC power cables.

Effect of noise in communication system?

The noise produced unwanted signals which causes errors or transmission
impairments. These unwanted signals can be overcome by taking
precautions.

Types of noise in computer networking / communication?

There are 4 types of noise in computer networking.
1. Thermal noise
2. Induced noise
3. Cross talk
4. Impulse

How to determine noise levels in networking?

High SNR means the signal is less corrupted by noise, and low SNR means
the signal is more corrupted by the noise. Therefore, a larger SNR makes it
easier for the receiver to extract the transmitted signal from the
background noise.

What is signal to noise ratio in networking?

The ratio of the average signal power to the average noise power is called
signal-to-noise ratio or SNR.

What is noise floor in networking?

The Noise Floor are unwanted signals within the range of transmission.
The noise floor could be sources which includes includes thermal noise,
atmospheric noise and noise from components used to make the
measurement system.

How does noise affect communication in networking?

Noise creates transmission impairments causes errors while transmission.
It could be either on sending end or on receiving end. Low signal of WiFi,
noise in telephone lines are most common examples.

Why we prefer digital signal over analog signals?

Analog signals are more prone to noise and disturbance, while digital
signals are more secure and accurate for data communication.

What is a spike in noise term?

Spike is a signal with high energy in a very short period of time that comes
from power lines, lightening etc,

The Different Types of Communication Medium Used in Networks

In data communication terminology, a transmission medium is a physical path

between the transmitter and the receiver i.e. it is the channel through which
data is sent from one place to another. Transmission Media is broadly
classified into the following types:

1. Guided Media:
It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being
transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical
links.
Features:
 High Speed
 Secure
 Used for comparatively shorter distances
There are 3 major types of Guided Media:
(i) Twisted Pair Cable –
It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other.
Generally, several such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They
are the most widely used Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of two types:
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around one another.
This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend
on a physical shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.

Advantages:
⇢ Least expensive
⇢ Easy to install
⇢ High-speed capacity
⇢ Susceptible to external interference
⇢ Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
⇢ Short distance transmission due to attenuation
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):
This type of cable consists of a special jacket (a copper braid covering or a
foil shield) to block external interference. It is used in fast-data-rate
Ethernet and in voice and data channels of telephone lines.

Advantages:
⇢ Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
⇢ Eliminates crosstalk
⇢ Comparatively faster
⇢ Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
⇢ More expensive
⇢ Bulky
(ii) Coaxial Cable –
It has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC or
Teflon and 2 parallel conductors each having a separate insulated protection
cover. The coaxial cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband
mode(dedicated cable bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is
split into separate ranges). Cable TVs and analog television networks widely
use Coaxial cables.

Advantages:
 High Bandwidth
 Better noise Immunity
 Easy to install and expand
 Inexpensive
Disadvantages:
 Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network
(iii) Optical Fiber Cable –
It uses the concept of reflection of light through a core made up of glass or
plastic. The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called
the cladding. It is used for the transmission of large volumes of data.
The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength
Division Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely unidirectional and
bidirectional mode.
Advantages:
 Increased capacity and bandwidth
 Lightweight
 Less signal attenuation
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference
 Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages:
 Difficult to install and maintain
 High cost
 Fragile
(iv) Stripline
Stripline is a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) transmission line medium
invented by Robert M. Barrett of the Air Force Cambridge Research Centre in
the 1950s. Stripline is the earliest form of the planar transmission line. It uses
a conducting material to transmit high-frequency waves it is also called a
waveguide. This conducting material is sandwiched between two layers of the
ground plane which are usually shorted to provide EMI immunity.
(v) Microstripline
In this, the conducting material is separated from the ground plane by a layer
of dielectric.
2. Unguided Media:
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media. No
physical medium is required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
Features:
 The signal is broadcasted through air
 Less Secure
 Used for larger distances
There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media:
(i) Radio waves –
These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending
and receiving antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz.
AM and FM radios and cordless phones use Radio waves for transmission.

Further Categorized as (i) Terrestrial and (ii) Satellite.

(ii) Microwaves –
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need
to be properly aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is
directly proportional to the height of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz –
300GHz. These are majorly used for mobile phone communication and
television distribution.

(iii) Infrared –
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot
penetrate through obstacles. This prevents interference between systems.
Frequency Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is used in TV remotes, wireless
mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.

What is a router?
A router is a device that connects two or more packet-switched networks or
subnetworks. It serves two primary functions: managing traffic between these
networks by forwarding data packets to their intended IP addresses, and allowing
multiple devices to use the same Internet connection.

Digital Signal

A digital signal is a signal that represents data as a sequence of discrete values. A

digital signal can only take on one value from a finite set of possible values at a given
time. With digital signals, the physical quantity representing the information can be
many things:

 Variable electric current or voltage

 Phase or polarization of an electromagnetic field
 Acoustic pressure
 The magnetization of a magnetic storage media

Analog Signal

 An analog signal is time-varying and generally bound to a range (e.g. +12V to -
12V), but there is an infinite number of values within that continuous range. An
analog signal uses a given property of the medium to convey the signal’s
information, such as electricity moving through a wire. In an electrical signal,
the voltage, current, or frequency of the signal may be varied to represent the
information. Analog signals are often calculated responses to changes in light,
sound, temperature, position, pressure, or other physical phenomena.