Deviance is a violation of established cultural, contextual, or social norms, whether folkways,

mores, or codified law (William Graham Sumner). It is an action that is likely to generate or has
generated reactions to the actor by or from specific audiences.

Characteristics of Deviance

▪ Deviance is Universal, but there are no universal forms or deviance.

▪ Deviance is a social definition. It is not a quality of the act; it is how we define it. It is
not the act; it is how we label it.
▪ Social groups make rules and enforce them, rules are socially constructed, and social
groups utilize social control to ensure that people follow it.
▪ Deviance is relative.

Essential Ideas to consider in Deviance:

 An act can be criminal and deviant
 An act can be deviant but not criminal.
 behavior or conditions that harm others
 Something offends God or is a violation of certain religious principles that makes it
deviant.
 It deviates criminal code.

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2 Fundamental Approaches to the Explanation of Deviance

1. The cause is within the deviant; the goal was to discover individual characteristics
contributing to becoming involved in deviant behavior. In short, this first approach
concerned with explaining the deviant utilizing biological and psychological positivism.

2. The other approach stressed the importance of social factors as a cause of deviance.
The goal was to explain both the existence of deviant behaviors and its distribution in
society.
Two Fruitful definitions of Deviance

• The Normative Definition. Deviance can take place in secret, an act or condition that
nobody knows about except the violator. This definition presumes that this observer
capable of seeing any actions, even if they are secret, and making an accurate judgment
about their deviant status in a given society.
• The Reactive Definitions. It argues that the key characteristics of deviance may be
found in actual, concrete instances of an adverse reaction to behavior. To qualify as
deviance, the action must be observed and generate condemnation or punishment for
the actor or individual.
Two views in Deviance:

• Objectivist conception defines deviance as norm-violating behavior; norms serve as an

objective standard by which deviant behavior may be discovered (Ward et., al 1994)

• Subjectivist conception defines deviance as an act that has been labeled “deviance” by a
social audience.

Sociological Theory
A particular phenomenon can be explained through a set of general propositions called
Sociological theory. Sociological theories often have exceptions since they are never perfect.
There is an essential difference between subjective theories of deviance and objective theories
of deviance.
Objectivist theories
Deviance is about the characteristics/qualities of an act of a person. There is something about
a human or their behavior that makes them deviant.
E.g., homicide is considered to be deviant simply because it is always treated as such;

Objectivist Theories
Some objectivist theories include Merton’s anomie, differential association, strain, etc. The
problem is that there are ongoing inconsistencies embedded into each of these theories’ logic
The appealing thing about these theories is that they seem like common sense; they take a
pragmatic view of the world. But what if deviance may have nothing to do with a
characteristic/quality of a person/act? What if it is just a matter of interpretation or perception?
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Subjectivism
Subjectivists believe that deviance is a subjective perception of human beings, rather than an
objective characteristic/quality. Nothing is inherently deviant; it is all about the labels that are
applied to it
Example – homicide is not inherently deviant; we know this because killing is accepted and
celebrated in many contexts (war, euthanasia, etc.)
We bring different kinds of understanding of the same act, depending on the context
• Deviance is a perception/interpretation applied to the phenomenon – but how to do the
phenomena come to be interpreted as deviant?
How would a subjective approach examine/explain drinking and driving?
Years ago, drinking and driving were not seen as deviant – everybody did it. Over time, drinking
and driving have become more and more of a problem – if you do it, you are shamed, charged,
punished, etc.
On the institutional level, one of the reasons for this is MADD, which has changed many
peoples’ perceptions of drinking and driving

How would a subjective approach examine/explain tattooing?

Years ago, tattoos were seen as deviant. Nowadays, nobody cares if people have tattoos. This
is simply because perceptions have changed over time
Subjectivist Theories
Examples of subjective theories include labeling theory, conflict theory, etc. The most profound
critique of subjectivist theories is this – is nothing truly deviant? This is a difficult concept to
understand for many people
When we deem things like child abuse to be deviant, that is just a matter of perception/opinion
(that almost all people agree with)
Blending Subjective and Objective Approaches
• Deviance is something that violates social norms (i.e., an objectivist assertion) but those
norms are socially constructed (i.e., a subjectivist assertion)
• When you combine these two theories, you get an approach that fulfills both areas in a “hybrid”
approach

Why is there a need to study deviance?

According to Schoeflin (2011), although deviance has a negative connotation,

sociologists recognize that deviance is not necessarily bad since some of the deviant activities
in the past fostered social change.

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According to Becker (1963), Deviant behavior cannot be answered straightforwardly, whether
an act is labeled deviant or not depends on many factors, including location, audience, and the
individual committing the act.

Deviant behavior is a kind of behavior which does not conform to social expectation. It is a
behavior that is regarded as wrongdoings that generate negative reactions in persons who
witness or hear about it.

FUNCTIONALISM

What is the function of deviance in our

society? Sociologists who are
subscribed to the belief of Structural
Functionalism, finds this a question.

Emile Durkheim proposes that

deviance is a necessary part of a
successful society; its functional
aspect is it challenges people’s
present views (1893). When deviance
is punished, it gives the idea that
norms are indeed present in society.

For the structural-functionalist,

deviance serves two primary roles in
creating social stability:
1. It tells members of society by laying out patterns of acceptable and unacceptable behavior
through recognizing the punishments of deviant acts, which then create norms that tell the
people how to behave.
2. The boundaries between populations are created by social parameters, which enable an
“us-versus-them” mentality to the varied groups in society. The normativity of the majority
is allowed, at the expense of the minority marked as deviant.

A. SUBCULTURAL THEORY

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What is Subcultural theory?

The groups that have different values from the primary culture are called subcultures.
Subcultural theorists argue that deviance is the result of whole groups breaking off from society
who have deviant values (subcultures) and deviance is a result of these individuals conforming
to the values and norms of the subculture to which they belong.

Compared to Social Control theorists, it is the pull of the peer group that encourages
individuals to commit a crime, rather than the lack of attachment to the family or other
mainstream institutions.

Status Frustration emerges because of Deviant Subcultures

According to the author – Albert Cohen, working-class subcultures emerge because they are
denied status in society. Just like Merton, Cohen argued that working-class boys strove to
emulate middle-class values and aspirations but lacked the means to achieve success. This
led to status frustration: a sense of personal failure and inadequacy. Cohen argued that
many boys react to this by rejecting socially acceptable values and patterns of acceptable
behavior. Because several boys are going through the same experiences, they end up banding
together and forming delinquent subcultures.

This delinquent subculture reverses the norms and values of mainstream culture, offering
positive rewards (status) to those who are the most deviant. The status may be gained by
being malicious, intimidating others, breaking school rules or the law, and generally causing
trouble.

Subcultural Theory 2: Cloward and Ohlin’s three subculture types

Cloward and Ohlin develop Cohen’s subcultural theory further, expanding on it to try and
explain why different types of subcultures emerge in different regions. They suggest that the
‘illegitimate opportunity structure’ affects what type of subculture emerges in response to
status frustration – The varied social circumstances in which working-class youth live give rise
to three types of a delinquent subculture.

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 To further understand the three types of the subculture, please visit this link.

B. DIFFERENTIAL OPPORTUNITY

Cloward and Ohlin combined the theories of Merton and Cohen to explain the different
categories of criminal subcultures identified in the United States of America.

Echoing Merton, they argued that there was a "legitimate opportunity structure" (what Merton
had meant by the socially acceptable means to achieve social goals). Still, they also identified
an alternative "illegitimate opportunity structure," which was available through gang
membership.

If you grew up in a poor neighborhood, there wasn't as much available funding to allow children
to achieve their dreams the proper way (paid internships, bursaries, government funding for
school-related activities, etc.). Therefore, to make money, children in a poverty-stricken area
are more likely to commit a crime (theft, drug dealing, prostitution, etc.)

Cloward and Ohlin stressed that they have differential access to illegitimate means. For
example, some lives in neighborhoods where organized crime is dominant and will get
involved in such crime; others live in neighborhoods rampant with drug use and will start using
drugs themselves.

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 C. SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION THEORY
Social disorganization theory explains the
nature of the rate of crimes in our society
and the differences of the communities.

This theory identifies the characteristics of

communities with high crime rates. It relies
on social control theory to explain why these
characteristics contribute or related to crime.

Social disorganization theory asserts that

crime is most likely to occur in communities
with weak social ties and the absence of
social control. An individual who grows up in a poor neighborhood with high rates of drug use,
violence, teenage delinquency, and deprived parenting is more likely to become a criminal than
an individual from a wealthy neighborhood with an excellent education system and families who
are involved in the community.

Social disorganization theory points to broad social factors as the cause of deviance. A person
isn’t born a criminal but becomes one over time, often based on factors in his or her social
environment.

The residents of high crime communities often lack the skills and resources to assist others
effectively. They are poor, and many are single parents struggling with family responsibilities.
As such, they often face problems in socializing their children against crime and providing them
with a stake in conformity, like the skills to do well in school or the connections to secure a good
job. They may hope to move to a more desirable community as soon as they are able, which
also lowers their investment in the community. And they often do not know their neighbors well,
since people frequently move into and out of the community. Therefore, they are less likely to
intervene in neighborhood affairs—like monitoring the behavior of neighborhood residents and
sanctioning crime.

Finally, these residents are less likely to form or support community organizations, including
educational, religious, and recreational organizations. This is partly a consequence of their
limited resources and lower attachment to the community.

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CONFLICT THEORY

Conflict theory, first purported by Karl Marx,

is a theory that society is in a state of
perpetual conflict because of competition for
limited resources. Conflict theory holds that
social order is maintained by domination and
power (rather than consensus and
conformity). According to conflict theory,
those with wealth and power try to hold on to
it by any means possible, chiefly by
suppressing the poor and powerless. A basic
premise of conflict theory is that individuals
and groups within society will work to
maximize their benefits.

Marx’s version of conflict theory focused on the

conflict between two primary classes. Each
class consists of a group of people bound by
mutual interests and a certain degree of
property ownership. Marx theorized about the
bourgeoisie, a group of people that
represented members of society who hold the
majority of the wealth and means. The
proletariat is the other group: it includes those
considered working-class or poor.

With the rise of capitalism, Marx theorized that

the bourgeoisie, a minority within the
population, would use their influence to
oppress the proletariat, the majority class.
This way of thinking is tied to a typical image associated with theory-based conflict models of
society; adherents to this philosophy tend to believe in a pyramid arrangement in terms of how
goods and services are distributed in society; at the top of the pyramid is a small group of elites
that dictate the terms and conditions to the more significant portion of society because they have
the outsized amount of control over resources and power.

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Uneven distribution within society was predicted to be maintained through ideological coercion;
the bourgeoisie would force acceptance of the current conditions by the proletariat. Conflict
theory assumes that the elite will set up systems of laws, traditions, and other societal structures
to support their dominance further while preventing others from joining their ranks. Marx
theorized that, as the working class and poor were subjected to worsening conditions, a
collective consciousness would raise more awareness about inequality, and this would
potentially result in revolt. If, after the revolt, conditions were adjusted to favor the concerns of
the proletariat, the conflict circle would eventually repeat, but in the opposite direction. The
bourgeoisie would eventually become the aggressor and revolter, grasping for the return of the
structures that formerly maintained their dominance.
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM

Symbolic interactionism is a theoretical approach to understanding the relationship between

humans and society. The basic notion of symbolic interactionism is that human action and
interaction are understandable only through the exchange of meaningful communication or
symbols. In this approach, humans are portrayed as acting, as opposed to being acted upon.

George Herbert Mead- Pioneered the development of a symbolic interaction perspective. He

is the one who argued that “people's selves are social products, but that these selves are also
purposive and creative.”

The Three Basic Premises

Herbert Blumer (1969) set out three basic premises of the perspective:

1. "Humans act toward things on the basis of the meanings they ascribe to those
things."
- Includes everything that a human being may note in their world, including physical
objects, actions, and concepts. Essentially, individuals behave towards objects
and others based on the personal meanings that the individuals have already
given these items.

2. "The meaning of such things is derived from, or arises out of, the social interaction
that one has with others and society."

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 - Arises out of the social interaction that one has with other humans. People interact
with each other by interpreting or defining each other's actions instead of merely
reacting to each other's actions.

3. "These meanings are handled in, and modified through, an interpretative process
used by the person in dealing with the things he/she encounters."
- We naturally talk to ourselves to sort out the meaning of a difficult situation. But
first, we need language. Before we can think, we must be able to interact
symbolically. Emphasis on symbols, negotiated meaning, and social construction
of society brought on attention to the roles people play.

THREE CORE PRINCIPLES

▪ MEANING - are handled in and modified through an interpretative process used by the
person in dealing with things he or she encounters
▪ LANGUAGE- This is the source of meaning. In Mead’s view, social life and
communication between people are possible only when we understand and can use a
universal language.
▪ THOUGHTS- The ability distinctly different from animals in that we can think about things
rather than merely reacting instinctually. An inner conversation with oneself

THE LOOKING GLASS SELF

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In 1902, Charles Horton Cooley developed the social psychological concept of the looking glass
self. The term was first used in his work, Human Nature and the Social Order.

It states that a person’s self grows out of society’s interpersonal interactions and the perceptions
of others. The term refers to people shaping their identity based on the perception of others,
which leads the people to reinforce other people’s perspectives on themselves. People shape
themselves based on what other people perceive and confirm other people’s opinions of
themselves.
Three main components of “looking glass
self.”

For more information about the components,

please click the link.

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Even as a child, people begin to define themselves within the context of their socialization. The
child will then discover that if he/she cries, the symbol of that act will prompt a response from
the people around him/her.

STRAIN THEORY

The Concept of Anomie

The idea of anomie means the lack of usual ethical or social standards. This concept first
emerged in 1893, with French sociologist Emile Durkheim. According to Durkheim, an anomic
society is one in which rules of behavior (values, customs, and norms) have broken down or
become inoperative during periods of rapid social change or social crises such as war or
famine.

The Concept of Strain

Social strain theory was developed by famed American sociologist Robert K. Merton.
“Strain” refers to the discrepancies between culturally defined goals and the institutionalized
means available to achieve these goals.

Strain theory states that social structures may pressure citizens to commit crimes. The strain
may be:
• Structural- refers to the processes at the societal level that filter down and affect how
the individual perceives his or her needs.
• Individual - refers to the frictions and pains experienced by an individual as he or she
looks for ways to satisfy individual needs.

These types of strain can insinuate social structures within society that then pressure citizens
to become criminals.

Robert Merton’s theory of Anomie

Merton argued that in a class-oriented society, opportunities to get to the top are not equally
distributed. He emphasized the importance of two elements in any society:
• Cultural goals (the goals that a culture encourages individuals to achieve)
• Institutionalized means or ways (institutional structure of society that allows them to
achieve legitimately)

Robert Merton claimed that individuals face a gap between their goals (usually finances/money
related) and their current status, and when it happens, strain occurs.
When people experienced strain, there are five modes of adaptation:

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1. Conformity: pursuing socially approved goals and means. The people who believe in
normative means for attaining goals legitimately. They follow the rules of society. They are
called as conformists.
Example: A successful investor or businessman who is economically successful because of
their employment or hard work.

2. Innovation: pursuing the socially approved goals but using the socially unapproved means
to obtain culturally approved goals. These individuals are called innovators.
Example: A broker involved illegally in insider trading. Other examples are drug dealers,
thieves, and prostitutes are also examples of innovators.

3. Ritualism: rejecting the socially approved goals but pursuing the socially approved means
to obtain culturally approved goals The individuals who stop trying to achieve goals but believe
in using legitimate means for attaining goals are called ritualists.
Example: Staying in a dead-end job.

4. Retreatism: rejecting both the cultural goals and the means to obtain it. These individuals
simply avoid both the goals and means established by society without replacing those norms
with their counter-cultural forces. They are called as retreatists.
Example: Severe alcoholics, some homeless people, and hermits

5. Rebellion: rejecting the cultural goals and means but working on something to replace them.
These individuals substitute new goals and new means of attaining those goals to bring about
revolutionary change and create a new society.
Example: American Nazi party, “skinheads,” “hippies” and the Ku Klux Klan

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 DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION

In criminology, differential association is a theory developed by Edwin Sutherland (1883–1950)

proposing that through interaction with others, individuals learn the values, attitudes,
techniques, and motives for criminal behavior. This theory focuses on how individuals learn to
become criminals. Still, it does not concern itself with why they become criminals.

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 The differential association predicts that an individual will choose the criminal path when the
balance of definitions for law-breaking exceeds those for law-abiding. This tendency will be
reinforced if social association provides active people in a person’s life. The earlier in life, an
individual comes under the influence of high-status people within a group, the more likely the
individual is to follow in their footsteps. This does not deny that there may be practical motives
for the crime. If a person is hungry but has no money, there is a temptation to steal. But the
use of “needs” and “values” is equivocal. To some extent, both non-criminal and criminal
individuals are motivated by the need for money and social gain.

Nine Propositions of Differential Association Theory

Sutherland’s theory explains how a person becomes a criminal by presenting these nine
propositions of differential association theory:

To discover the nine propositions, please visit this link.

SOCIAL CONTROL

Sociologists define social control as the way that the norms, rules, laws, and structures of
society regulate human behavior. It is a necessary part of social order, for societies could not
exist without controlling their populations.

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 Social control is achieved through social, economic, and institutional structures. Societies
cannot function without an agreed-upon and enforced social order that makes daily life and a
complex division of labor possible. Without it, chaos and confusion would reign.

Society to exist and progress must exercise precise control over its members since any
marked deviation from the traditional ways is considered a threat to its welfare. Such control
has been termed by sociologists as social control.

Two Types of Social Control

1. Formal means of social control – External sanctions enforced by the government to

prevent the establishment of chaos or anomie in society. Some theorists, such as Émile
Durkheim, refer to this form of control as regulation.
Example: Laws, rules, and regulations formed by Judiciary and Law control (Police)
*FORMAL SANCTIONS- These are ways to recognize and enforce norm violations
officially.
Example: If a student violates her college’s code of conduct, she might be expelled.
Someone who speaks inappropriately to the boss could be fired. Someone who commits
a crime may be arrested or imprisoned. On the positive side, a soldier who saves a life
may receive an official commendation.

2. Informal means of control (Informal sanctions)– Internalization of norms and values

by a process known as socialization, which is defined as “the process by which an
individual, born with behavioral potentialities of enormously wide range, is led to develop
actual behavior which is confined to the narrower range of what is acceptable for him by
the group standards.”
Example: The primary group controlling measures- mores, folkways, traditions, customs,
and traditions

*INFORMAL SANCTIONS- Informal sanctions emerge in face-to-face social

interactions.
Example: wearing flip-flops to an opera or swearing loudly in the church may draw
disapproving looks or even verbal reprimands, whereas behavior that is seen as
positive—such as helping an older man carry grocery bags across the street—may
receive positive informal reactions, such as a smile or pat on the back.

As briefly defined above, the means to enforce social control can be either informal or
formal. Sociologist Edward A. Ross argues that belief systems exert greater control on
human behavior than laws imposed by the government, no matter what form the beliefs
take.

Two Types of Social Control by Karl Mannheim

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 • Direct Social Control- a type of control that exercises upon the individual, which
depends upon by the people’s reaction who are living within the proximity.
Example: Family, neighborhood and paly group

• Indirect Social Control- this is the type of control that is exercised upon an individual
by factors like customs, laws, opinions, which affects the entire social system.
Example: Secondary groups, traditions, customs, etc.

Two Types of Social Control by Kimbell Young

• Positive social control- rewards and incentives have an immense value upon the
activities of a person. All of us desire to be rewarded by the society that we live in. To
do that, we have to follow the mores, practices, and traditions accepted by society.
Example: rewards, fame, respect, and recognition, etc.

• Negative social control- this uses the threat of punishment to prevent an individual
from doing something wrong. Because of the fear of punishment, it prevents people
from violating the socially accepted traditions, customs, ideas, and values.
Example: verbal punishment, defamation, and negative criticism, etc.

Travis Hirschi’s Control Theory (Social Bonds)

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Travis Hirschi argued that criminal
activity occurs when an individual’s
attachment to society is weakened.
This attachment depends on the
strength of social bonds that hold
people to society. According to
Hirschi, four social bonds bind us
together – Attachment;
Commitment; Involvement, and
Belief.

According to this theory, one would

predict the ‘typical delinquent’ to be
young, single, unemployed, and
probably male. Conversely, those
who are married and in work are
less likely to commit a crime – those
who are involved, and part of social institutions are less likely to go astray.

To know more about the four social bonds, please visit this link.

DETERRENCE
Deterrence theory says that people don't commit
crimes because they are afraid of getting caught -
instead of being motivated by some deep moral
sense. According to deterrence theory, people are
most likely to be dissuaded from committing a crime if
the punishment is swift, sure, and severe. For
example, in the candy bar theft, if there is a low
likelihood that you'll get caught or if the punishment for
getting caught is just a warning, deterrence theory
says you'll be more likely to steal it.

Two basic types of deterrence

• General- designed to prevent crime in the general population. Thus, the state’s
punishment of offenders serves as an example for others in the general population who

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 have not yet participated in criminal events. It is meant to make them aware of the
horrors of official sanctions to put them off committing crimes.
Example: application of the death penalty and the use of corporal punishment.

• Specific- designed—by the nature of the proscribed sanctions—to deter only the
individual offender from committing that crime in the future. Proponents of specific
deterrence also believe that punishing offenders severely will make them unwilling to
re-offend in the future.
Example: A drunk driver, for example, would be deterred from drinking and driving
because of the unpleasant experience he or she suffered from being arrested or having
his or her license taken away or his or her car impounded. The state must apply enough
pain to offset the amount of pleasure derived from drinking.

The deterrence theory states that three basic concepts of punishment will influence a potential
offender’s decision to commit a crime. It theorizes that if these characteristics are in place, it
will deter or prevent people from committing crimes. These three concepts are:
• The severity of punishment- It is believed that the more severe a punishment, the
more likely that a rational person will cease from criminal acts. Therefore, to prevent
crime, the criminal must put emphasis on penalties so that citizens will be encouraged
to obey the law. The punishment is too severe is unjust, and punishment that is not
severe enough will not deter criminals from committing crimes.

• The certainty of punishment- simply means making sure that punishment takes place
whenever a criminal act is committed. The theorist, Cesare Beccaria, believes that if
individuals know that specific undesirable actions will be punished, they will refrain from
doing it in the future.

• Celerity of punishment- the punishment must be swift to prevent crime. The closer
the application of punishment is to the commission of the offense, the higher the chance
that offenders will think that crime does not pay.

Deterrence theorists believe that if punishment is severe, precise, and swift, a rational person
will measure the gains and losses before engaging in crime and will be deterred from violating
the law if the loss is higher than the gain. Classical philosophers thought that certainty is more
effective in preventing crimes than the severity of punishment. They rejected torture as a means
of eliciting confessions, and the death penalty as an effective method for punishing murderers
and perpetrators of other serious crimes. Capital punishment is beyond the just powers of the
state.

LABELING

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Labeling theory was created by Howard Becker in 1963. Labeling theory takes the view that
people become criminals when labeled as such and when they accept the label as a personal
identity. Essential concepts in labeling theory include primary and secondary deviance,
retroactive, and prospective labeling, as well as the importance of being stigmatized.

Howard Becker says labels, for example, a deviant drug addict, once he/she is called a drug
addict and the label placed on the individual or group, then their behaviors tend to steer them
towards making the labels fit. It is in the sense of a subconscious self-fulfilling prophecy
mechanism. Therefore, a convict, labeled a criminal, tends to commit more crime. For example,
a drug addict commits more drug usage.

The problem pointed out by Becker then is that people may not very easily break the cycle
because they have a self-concept or view of self-based on labels and don't see themselves
outside of the label and not doing things to maintain the label.

According to this theory, labeling causes deviant behavior. A person might conclude that the
behavior expects of them and respond by engaging in new deviance.

SHAMING

It is defined as social disapproval that has the intention of the effect of invoking remorse in the
person being shamed by others who become aware of the shaming.
Disintegrative shaming or stigmatizations can drive the individual into delinquent or criminal
behavior

John Braithwaite (1989) distinguished two types of shaming (Negative labeling):

1. Disintegrative shaming- wherein crime/criminal acts are defined as bad; the society
then excludes the offender
2. Reintegrative shaming- labels the act but not the person who acted it. “He has done a
bad thing, “not “he is a bad person.”

EFFECTS OF LABELING
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The labeled person develops a self-concept consistent with the deviant label and acquires the
knowledge and the skills of the labeled status. The effects of labeling may snowball once the
person is stigmatized by the label. Meaning, the tendency of the public to believe that one who
commits a crime will always be a criminal.

STIGMA

Stigma- a powerfully negative sort of master status that affects a person’s self-concept, social
identity, and interactions with others. A mark of disgrace associated with a circumstance,
quality, or person.
Example:
❑ People with mental illness are crazy
❑ People with bigger body build are considered violent and dangerous.

TWO TYPES OF DEVIANCE by Edwin Lemert

Sociologist Edwin Lemert expanded on the concepts of labeling theory and identified two types
of deviance that affect identity formation.

• Primary deviance is a violation of norms that do not result in any long-term effects on
the individual’s self-image or interactions with others. Speeding is a deviant act, but
receiving a speeding ticket generally does not make others view you as a wrong person,
nor does it alter your self-concept. Individuals who engage in primary deviance still
maintain a feeling of belonging in society and are likely to continue to conform to norms
in the future.

Example: Tommy is five years old, and his mother has to take him to WH Smith. Now
everyone knows that WH Smith has a pick and mix stand, and Tommy loves his
chocolate. So, when mummy isn’t looking, Tommy takes some chocolate mice and
carries on as nothing happened. Unfortunately, the clerk saw him eat the chocolate, and
he get into trouble with mummy. This is the primary deviance. The clerk doesn’t call the
police because it’s justified as childhood behavior. When Tommy gets older, he will
describe it as a “moment of madness.” No one has labeled Tommy as a thief. It is not
affected his status or how society views Tommy; therefore, according to Lemert, primary
deviance is pointless to study as it does not affect the individual or society.

• Secondary deviance occurs when a person’s self-concept and behavior begin to

change after his or her actions are labeled as deviant by members of society. The person
may begin to take on and fulfill the role of a “deviant” as an act of rebellion against the
society that has labeled that individual as such. For example, consider a high school
student who often cuts class and gets into fights. The student is reprimanded frequently
by teachers and school staff, and soon enough, he develops a reputation as a
“troublemaker.” As a result, the student starts acting out even more and breaking more
rules; he has adopted the “troublemaker” label and embraced this deviant identity.

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 Example: as Tommy gets older, he continues to steal, and at the age of 18, Tommy
steals a car from the local Mercedes dealership. Tommy gets caught and sent to prison
for ten years, but when he comes out, he is still viewed as “that thief.” This makes it hard
for Tommy to get a job, and because he needs money to survive, Tommy joins the
neighborhood gang and once again reverts to crime. This is what we call secondary
deviance – crime caused by a societal reaction.

• Master status or Career deviance - Secondary deviance can be so strong that it

bestows to an individual. A master status is a label that describes the chief characteristic
of an individual. Some people see themselves primarily as doctors, artists, or
grandfathers. Others see themselves as beggars, convicts, or addicts.

Example: Society viewed Tommy as nothing more than a thief, so “thief” became
Tommy’s master status. This puts Tommy in a self-concept crisis because he doesn’t
know how he fits into society anymore – no one likes him, he cannot get a job – therefore
self-fulfilling prophecy occurs, and Tommy fulfills his label. He joins the neighborhood
gang to be around people who accept his master status. Therefore, Tommy reverts to
crime because of his label.

Two types of Labelling

When a person is labeled as deviant, others can adjust the way they view that person’s past
biography and future potential for action. A person’s past actions are reinterpreted, considering
the new deviant behavior.

• Retrospective Labeling- Interpreting someone’s past considering some present

deviance.

Example: Consider all the media coverage that surrounds a mass shooting. When such
a crime occurs, people try to understand the past. Perhaps the shooter was always a
little shy and kept to himself. Many interpretations start to emerge because outside
observers look at the person's past and interpret that past action considering the deviant
behavior.

• Projective labeling- Using a deviant identity to predict future action and projecting by
imagining what he/she might do in the future.

Example: where observers look into the future and theorize the person’s behavior
concerning the deviance, saying, “They acted like this now, so they're always going to
act like that in the future. Next time, they're going to act like negatively.” Even though
nothing has happened yet, these people are labeled beforehand.

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NEUTRALIZATION THEORY
Neutralization theory was developed as a
means for explaining how criminal offenders
engage in rule-breaking activity while negating
their guilt or blame. The theory was first
introduced in 1957 by criminologists Gresham
Sykes and David Matza. They contended that
juvenile delinquents drift between law-abiding
and law-breaking behavior. This means that
there is an assumption in place that juvenile
delinquents know the difference between law-
abiding and law-breaking behavior, and that
they understand that law-breaking behavior is
wrong. Regardless, these juveniles' actions
and behavior drift between the two. Since
Sykes and Matza first introduced the theory, it
has expanded beyond juvenile delinquents to
include all criminals.

Techniques of Neutralization: A Theory of Delinquency

• Denial of responsibility- The common phrase- “It’s not my fault.” It is a technique that
looks at the criminal act as an accident. The individual who commits the criminal act feels
that they are ultimately helpless and that they are drawn into the situation. They would
think that bad neighborhoods and environment, delinquent peers, and abusive families
predispose them to criminal acts.

• Denial of injury- The common phrase- “No one was hurt.” It is a technique used when
the criminal act did not cause any harm, or it has no victim. The use of this technique
reaffirms the minds of the violators that if an action that causes no harm to any person
like skipping school is not criminal, but instead taken as harmless acts.

• Denial of the victim- The common phrase- “They deserve it.” This technique is used
when the offender thinks that the victim deserves the deviant act. This technique is
common in the story of “Robinhood” about his actions of stealing from the rich.

• Condemnation of the condemners- This technique is viewing the condemners as

hypocrites. The condemners are placed with negative images because they opposed to
criminal behavior. For example, police and judges called corrupt.

• Appeal to higher loyalties- this technique is used when a person breaks the law of a
larger society to protect his immediate circles like family and friends. An example would
be getting into trouble to protect a family member.

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 BIOLOGICAL THEORIES

Biological theories of deviance see crime and deviant behavior as a form of illness caused by
distinct pathological factors. They assume that some people are "born criminals" or that
offenders are biologically different from the general public. The logic here is that these
individuals have a mental and physical defect of some sort that makes it impossible for them to
learn and follow the rules. This "defect," in turn, leads to criminal behavior.

Born Criminals

Nineteenth-century Italian criminologist Cesare Lombroso rejected the idea that crime is a
characteristic of human nature. Instead, he believed that criminality is inherited, and he even
developed a theory of deviance that argued a person’s bodily constitution indicates whether
one is a born criminal. These born criminals are a throwback to an earlier stage of human
evolution with the physical makeup, mental capabilities, and instincts of primitive man.

In developing his theory, Lombroso observed the physical characteristics of Italian prisoners
and compared them to those of Italian soldiers. He concluded that the criminals were physically
different. The physical characteristics he used to identify prisoners included asymmetry of the
face or head, large monkey-like ears, large lips, a twisted nose, excessive cheekbones, long
arms, and excessive wrinkles on the skin.

Cesare believed that criminals can be distinguished just by observing their physical
characteristics. According to him, criminals were physically and mentally inferior.

Characteristics of Criminal

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Lombroso developed the theory about "born criminal." In 3000 anthropometric measurements,
he found some biological traits of criminals.

Biological traits of a born criminal are:

- unusual size or shape of the head,

- strange eyes,
- facial asymmetry,
- extended jaw and jawbone,
- too big or too small ears,
- full lips leaned forward,
- abnormal teeth,
- wrinkled skin,
- nose curled up; thieves have a flat nose and murderers
have a beak nose,
- too long, too small or flat chin,
- dark skin and
- too long arms.

According to Lombroso, persons who have five or more biological traits are born criminals.
Beside physical traits, Lombroso introduces some other traits of born criminal:
1) Hypersensitivity to pain and touch,
2) Use of unique criminal slang,
3) Grotesque expression of thoughts,
4) Tattoos and
5) Unemployment.
Lombroso later changes the theory of a born criminal and develops a new theory.

Classification of criminals is made into three categories:

1) Born criminals (30% of all criminals),

2) Abnormal criminals (idiots, imbeciles, paranoids, melancholic, paralytics, people with

epilepsy, insane persons, alcoholics, and hysterics)

3) Occasional criminals

a) Criminaloids- Criminaloids had difficulties during their childhood and can occasionally
behave delinquently.

b) Pseudo criminals- Pseudo criminals are insane persons and those who committed a
crime in self-defense.

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 c) Criminals out of habit- Habitual criminals had a poor education during their childhood or
have been in social interaction with criminals.

Lombroso's theory was famous in his time, but it was later debunked. Some ideas fall out of
favor in science as well as in politics with time. Lombroso's views on crime are still present
today in the form of stereotypes on some minority groups. Furthermore, research conducted on
police subcultural behavior shows that police officers have similar stereotypes on racial groups.

Somatology

Somatology is the science of classifying human physical characteristics. The application of this
science to the study of deviance represents the heritage of Lombroso and Hooton in its most
sophisticated form. They attempted to explain juvenile delinquency by examining the
relationship between body type or physique and patterns of mental and behavioral
characteristics or temperaments.

Body Types

William Sheldon was an American psychologist practicing in the early to mid-1900s. He spent
his life observing the varieties of human bodies and came up with three types: ectomorphs,
endomorphs, and mesomorphs.

In the 1940s, William Herbert Sheldon associated body types with human temperament types.
He claimed that a body type could be linked with the personality of that person. He says that a
fat person with a large bone structure tends to have an outgoing and more relaxed personality.
In contrast, a more muscular body-typed person is more active and aggressive. A slim or skinny
person with thin muscles is usually characterized as quiet or fragile. He split up these
body/personality types into three categories called somatotypes.

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 Endomorphs are considered fat and soft. They are
said to have a rounded physique with
underdeveloped muscles. They have difficulty losing
weight.

Viscerotonic is the other term for an Endomorphic

somatotype.

Endomorphic characteristics are:

• relaxed, tolerant, comfortable, and friendly.

• Psychologically, they are also fun-loving,
cheerful, even-tempered, and they love food and
affection.
• physically "round."
• They have a pear shape body with wide hips
and narrow shoulders.
• They have a lot of extra fat in their thighs and
arms
• They have skinny ankles and wrists

Ectomorphs are fragile and thin. They have bodies with

characteristics of light muscles, lean small shoulders, and flat-
chested.

The ectomorph is the opposite of endomorph somatotype.

Ectomorph characteristics are:

• Narrow shoulders and thin arms and legs
• Little fat on the body, narrow chest and face
• Never seem to gain weight even they eat a lot
• They are always skinny
• Personally wise, they are socially anxious, self-conscious,
artistic, quiet, and private.

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 Mesomorphs are athletic and muscular.
They have bodies that hourglass-shape for female and
rectangular-shape for males. They are described to possess
excellent posture and muscular with thick skin.
The mesomorphs are most prone to committing deviant
behaviors like crimes, according to Sheldon.

The mesomorph characteristics are:

• They have a narrow waist, broad shoulders and large head
• They have strong arms and legs, little fat and healthy
muscular body
• Psychologically, they are courageous and adventurous loves
to try new things
• They are competitive, assertive, and desire for power and to
be dominant.

Sheldon's Somatotype Character

Endomorph [viscerotonic] relaxed, friendly, tolerant, comfort-loving, peaceful

Mesomorph [somatotonic] active, assertive, vigorous, combative

Ectomorph [cerebrotonic] quiet, fragile, restrained, non-assertive, sensitive

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XYY SYNDROME

This theory holds that criminals have an extra Y chromosome that gives them an XYY
chromosomal makeup rather than an XY makeup. This creates a strong compulsion in them to
commit crimes. This person is sometimes called a "super male." Some studies have found that
the proportion of XYY males in the prison population is slightly higher than the general male
population. Still, other studies don’t provide evidence that supports this theory.

With the discovery of the XYY abnormality in 1961, some social scientists proposed a link
between the abnormality and aggressive and impulsive behavior. This "supermale" syndrome
seemed confirmed when studies of prison populations showed the presence of the abnormality
to be significantly higher than in the general population.

Armed with these studies, defense attorneys sought to use the XYY chromosomal abnormality
as a criminal defense theory. However, the defense has never been successfully used in the
United States. Though the abnormality can be easily diagnosed using a blood test, the courts
have rejected the defense because of the lack of conclusiveness of SCIENTIFIC
EVIDENCE regarding the theory of criminality.

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The legal community's misgivings have been confirmed by subsequent studies of the general
population, especially those in which affected individuals were observed from early childhood
over a long period. These studies have cast serious doubt on the validity of linking the
chromosomal anomaly directly to behavioral abnormalities. Numerous XYY individuals live
healthy lives as law-abiding citizens.

XYY Characteristics

• May be taller than average

• experience severe acne during adolescence
• May have increased risk of learning disabilities
• No increase for severe mental illness
• Not too aggressive
• The first phase of the school is challenging
• Has a normal range of IQ
• Can go on to lead full, normal and healthy lives
• Can test the prison population but does not appear to be higher than predicted in non-
prison population

CASE OF RICHARD SPECK

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Richard Speck, a 1966 mass murderer, systematically tortured, raped, and murdered eight
nursing students in Chicago, one survived. His lawyer looking for defense, saw a pocked
marked face from acne and loudly proclaimed “XYY defense,” with no testing. Later tested,
and Richard Speck had no sexual chromosomal abnormalities.

The “Hype” and “Media” was difficult to combat because of sensationalism at the time – and
the internet now. Death Sentence resulted in re-sentencing based on procedural error per US
Supreme Court – those who were against the death penalty were excluded from the jury.
Resentenced to 400-1200 years. Richard Speck, when asked on film in prison, if he killed the
nurses, he said, “Sure I did, it just wasn’t their night.”

With the discovery of the XYY abnormality in 1961, some social scientists proposed a link
between the abnormality and aggressive and impulsive behavior. This "supermale" syndrome
seemed confirmed when studies of prison populations showed the presence of the abnormality
to be significantly higher than in the general population. Armed with these studies, defense
attorneys sought to use the XYY chromosomal abnormality as a criminal defense theory.
However, the defense has never been successfully used in the United States. Though the
abnormality can be easily diagnosed using a blood test, the courts have rejected the defense
because of the lack of conclusiveness of Scientific Evidence regarding the theory of criminality.
The legal community's misgivings have been confirmed by subsequent studies of the general
population, especially those in which affected individuals were observed from early childhood
over a long period. These studies have cast serious doubt on the validity of linking the
chromosomal anomaly directly to behavioral abnormalities. Numerous XYY individuals live
healthy lives as law-abiding citizens.

TYPES OF CRIME

An act that is defined as contrary to legal code or laws is called crime. There are different types
of crimes like personal crimes, violent crimes, victimless crimes, white-collar crimes, and etc.

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 PERSONAL CRIMES OR CRIMES AGAINST
PERSONS

The crimes that are perpetrated against an

individual are called Personal crimes.
It includes kidnapping, rape, homicide, assault,
battery, and the like.

PROPERTY CRIMES OR CRIMES AGAINST PROPERTY

Property crimes are crimes that involve

stealing a property without causing bodily
harm like robbery, burglary, auto theft, and
arson.

There are modifications and differences

between robbery and theft. Theft is also
known as larceny, it involves stealing an
item. In contrast, robbery involves stealing an item with the use of force.
Example: Theft is stealing cloth from a retail store while stealing cloth from a retail store using
a gun is already robbery.

HATE CRIMES

The crimes against persons or property that are done while

invoking prejudices of gender, race, religion, etc. are called
hate crimes. Hate crimes are usually motivated by prejudice
or bias.

Hate crimes have two criteria:

1. The act must constitute an offense under criminal law
2. The act must be committed by bias

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VICTIMLESS CRIME OR CRIME AGAINST MORALITY

Victimless Crime

Victimless are crimes committed with no victim or complainants. Examples of this are illegal
gambling, prostitution, and illegal drug use.

White-Collar Crime

The crimes that are committed by people in high status who are involved in crimes like their
work. Examples of this are tax evasion, embezzlement, insider trading, and others alike.

White-collar crimes are the least prosecuted and investigated because they are protected by
the privilege of race, gender, and class.

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 Blue-Collar Crime

Blue-collar crime is crimes committed

by people who are from a lower social
class.
The term “blue-collar” is related to the
workers who perform manual labor
work. Examples of blue-collar jobs are
construction workers, janitors,
laborers, and others alike.

The people in the blue-collar industry mostly commit crimes that are personal and immediate
like robbery compared to the people in the white-collar industry because blue-collar workers
have lesser access to the resources.

Organized crime

Organized crime is crimes committed by groups involved in the sale and distribution of illegal
goods and services. Examples of this are drug trade, illegal gambling, and smuggling of
weapons and other goods.

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 PERSONALITY DISORDERS

The term "Personality Disorder" implies there is something not-quite-right about someone's
personality. However, the term "personality disorder" simply refers to a diagnostic category of
psychiatric disorders characterized by a chronic, inflexible, and maladaptive pattern of relating
to the world. This maladaptive pattern is evident in the way a person thinks, feels, and behaves.
The most noticeable and significant feature of these disorders is their negative effect on
interpersonal relationships. A person with an untreated personality disorder is rarely able to
enjoy sustained, meaningful, and rewarding relationships with others, and any relationships
they do form are often fraught with problems and difficulties.

The four defining features of personality disorders are:

• Distorted thinking patterns,
• Problematic emotional responses
• Over-or under-regulated impulse control, and
• Difficulties in the interpersonal aspect
These four core features are common to all personality disorders. Before a diagnosis is made,
a person must demonstrate significant and enduring difficulties in at least two of those four
areas. Furthermore, personality disorders are not usually diagnosed in children because of the
requirement that personality disorders represent enduring problems across time.
These four key features combine in various ways to form ten specific personality disorders
identified in DSM-5 (APA, 2013). Each disorder lists the asset of criteria reflecting observable
characteristics associated with that disorder.

To be diagnosed with a specific personality disorder, a person must meet the minimum
number of criteria established for that disorder. Furthermore, to meet the diagnostic
requirements for a psychiatric disorder, the symptoms must cause functional impairment
and subjective distress. This means the symptoms are distressing to the person with the
disorder, and the symptoms make it difficult for them to function well in society.

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 THE THREE PERSONALITY CLUSTERS

The ten different personality disorders are grouped into three clusters:

• Cluster A (odd, eccentric) cluster

• Cluster B (dramatic, emotional, erratic) cluster
• Cluster C (anxious, fearful) cluster

Let us take a look now at the patterns of personality disorders:

CLUSTER A

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 Cluster A: Paranoid, Schizoid, and Schizotypal Personality Disorders.

The cluster A personality disorder is called as an

odd, eccentric cluster. It includes:
• Schizoid personality disorder
• Schizotypal personality disorder
• Paranoid personality disorder

Typical features of the personality

disorders in this cluster are social awkwardness
and social withdrawal. These disorders are dominated
by distorted thinking.

PARANOID PERSONALITY DISORDER

The characteristics of Paranoid personality disorder

Are suspiciousness of other people and pervasive
distrust.

Persons with Paranoid personality disorder are:

• They assume that other people will harm them
• thinks that people take advantage of them or humiliate
them
• They protect themselves so much
• Distant from others.
• They attack others whom they feel threatened by
preemptively.

• They hold grudges and display jealousy

• They have distorted thinking is evident.
Because of these reasons, they do not allow themselves to be close to other people and
develop close relationships with them. They are dominated by the emotions of distrust and
hostility.

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 Schizoid Personality Disorder

Schizoid Personality Disorder is

characterized by a restricted range of
emotional expression and a pervasive
pattern of social detachment.

People with Schizoid personality are:

• always chose solitary activities
• they take little pleasure in life.
• Prefer activities that involve little
human interaction
• appear indifferent to both
criticism and praise.
• Emotionally, they seem aloof, detached, and cold.
• Their limited emotional range and failure to reciprocate gestures or facial expressions
(such smiles or nods of agreement) cause them to appear somewhat dull, bland, or
inattentive.

Because of this, people with schizoid personality disorder tend to be socially isolated, and they
do not enjoy close relationships with other people.

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 SCHIZOTYPAL PERSONALITY DISORDER

People with Schizotypal

Personality disorder are
characterized by a prevalent pattern
of interpersonal and social
limitations. They experience a little
discomfort in settings with people,
and they have a reduced capacity
for close relationships.

People with Schizotypal

Personality disorder are:
• They experience perceptual and cognitive distortions and eccentric behavior.
• They experience perceptual abnormalities like sparks of light that others cannot perceive
or perceiving objects or shadows in their eyes’ corner and then realized that there is
nothing.
• They have odd beliefs that are inconsistent with cultural norms, like reading other
people’s thoughts.
• Commonly found with families who have been diagnosed with Schizophrenia.

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Because of this, persons with schizotypal personality disorder are socially isolated, reserved,
and distant.

CLUSTER B
Cluster B: Dramatic, Emotional, and Erratic

Cluster B includes:
• Antisocial personality disorder
• Borderline personality disorder
• Histrionic personality disorder
• Narcissistic personality disorder

The disorders in Cluster B have problems with

emotional regulation and impulse control.

Antisocial Personality Disorder

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 People with Antisocial Personality
disorder have a pervasive pattern of
neglect for the rights of other people with
manifestations of aggression and
hostility. The central features are also
manipulation and deceit.
In most cases, being hostile, aggressive,
and deceitful usually appears in the early
stage of the childhood of a person.

People with Antisocial personality

disorder may hurt people or animals or
people. They are often involved in bullying or intimidating others, and they are also involved in
severe violations of standard rules of conduct like setting fires to a property.

When this is the case, Conduct Disorder

(a juvenile form of Antisocial Personality
Disorder) maybe a suitable analysis.

Conduct Disorder is often considered the

predecessor to an Antisocial Personality
Disorder.

They are known to be:

• Taking little to no responsibility for their actions.

• They disregard others
• Loves to place themselves in dangerous or risky situations
• Have difficulty in impulse control
• Do not feel genuine remorse for the harm they cause
• they think that their victims are the ones who are responsible for causing their wrong
actions, and they deserve it.

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 Histrionic Personality Disorder

A histrionic Personality disorder is

characterized by extreme emotionality and
attention-seeking. They are called “drama
queens” since their lives are full of dramas.

Histrionic people are:

• often quite flirtatious or seductive
• They like to dress that draws attention to them
• colorful and theatrical
• exhibits exaggerated degree of emotional expression
• Their emotional expression is shallow, vague, and lacking in detail.
• Appearance is hypocritical.
• They feel depressed when they are not the center of attention.
• They are easily influenced by other people's opinions and suggestions.
A fictional character that exemplifies the people with Histrionic Personality Disorder is Blanche
DuBois.
NARCISSISTIC PERSONALITY DISORDER

The Narcissistic Personality disorder has

significant problems with their self-worth coming
from their keen sense of entitlement; because of
this, they believe that they deserve special
treatment, they are uniquely talented, or they are
exceptionally brilliant or attractive.

People with Narcissistic Personality disorder:

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 • They preoccupied with their
imagination of unlimited success and
power
• They imagine that they have
extreme beauty.
• They are so immersed in their
fantasies. That’s why they don’t put
effort anymore in their daily lives and in
accomplishing their goals.
• They believe that they are unique
and they deserve special treatment
• They are somewhat arrogant and
proud
• They need to be powerful and admired.
• They like to be linked with famous people which gives them a sense of importance
• They manipulate people to get their attention
However, there are times when people with Narcissistic personality disorder feel that they have
unlimited abilities and then suddenly feeling like worthless and devastated when they encounter
their average human limitations. Despite their boldness, they need a lot of admiration from other
people to boost their self-esteem.

BORDERLINE PERSONALITY DISORDER

Persons with borderline personality disorder:

• They experience intense and unbalanced emotions; their moods shift quickly.
• When they are upset, they have a hard time to calm down, which results in having angry
outbursts and engaging in impulsive behaviors.
• They have “all good” and “all bad” perceptions about other people. Sometimes, they
have harsh judgments on others and to themselves and sometimes the opposite. This
leads to an unstable sense of self; that’s why they have the quality of being hard in being

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 consistent, which leads them to frequently change careers, relationships, goals, and any
more, and these changes often happen without preparation.

CLUSTER C
Cluster C: Anxious and Fearful Personality Disorders.

Cluster C is composed of Avoidant, Dependent, and Obsessive-Compulsive Personality

Disorders. These personality disorders share a high level of anxiety.

Avoidant Personality Disorder

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 An avoidant Personality disorder is
characterized by a pervasive pattern of feelings
of inadequacy, social inhibition, and too much
sensitivity to evaluation.

Persons with Avoidant Personality disorder:

• Scared that other people will ridicule
them or criticize, that’s why they avoid
interaction with other people.
• Their social life is limited since they limit
their world to a small circle of confidants.

•They think and interpret that the world that

revolves around them does not like them, or they
are not good enough.

• They think that they are socially inept or unappealing, which gives them the feeling
of intense anxiety in social situations, together with the fear of being criticized,
rejected, and ridiculed.
Because of this fearful anxiety, it creates discomfort to them, which compels them to avoid any
interpersonal situations like attending parties or any social events or speaking in front of people.
Other people might perceive this as being shy or distant, stiff, or restricted. All of these interferes
with their ability to make friends or create a professional move.

Dependent Personality Disorder

The Dependent Personality

disorder’s core feature is the strong
need to be taken care of by other
people.

People with Dependent Personality disorder:

• Need to be taken care of
• Have the fear that they will lose the support of other people
• Behaves in a “clingy” manner
• Submits to the desires of other people
• To avoid conflict, standing up for themselves is very difficult
• Have the intense fear of losing relationship which makes them vulnerable to manipulation
and abuse
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 • Have difficulty in expressing disagreement and making independent decisions
Because of this, being alone is extremely difficult for them since they depend so much on other
people.

Obsessive-Compulsive personality disorder

Persons with Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder are preoccupied with rules,

regulations, and orderliness. Perfectionism and control for them involve openness, flexibility,
and efficiency.

People with Obsessive-Compulsive Personality disorder:

• Devoted to working and are great when it comes to making lists and schedules which
leads them to neglect social relationships often
• They have perfectionist tendencies and want always to get things right that
sometimes lead them not to complete tasks because they get lost in the detail
• They don’t do a “sub-standard” job just to get some things done since they are known
to behave a rigid approach to things.
• They do not like to give tasks to other people because they think that it will not be
done right.

Because of this, people with Obsessive-Compulsive Personality disorder often experienced as

stubborn, controlling, and rigid.

PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS

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A psychological disorder is an ongoing dysfunctional pattern of thought, emotion, and
behavior that causes significant distress, and that is considered deviant in that person’s culture
or society (Butcher, Mineka, & Hooley, 2007). Psychological disorders have much in common
with other medical disorders. They are out of the patient’s control, they may, in some cases, be
treated by drugs, and their treatment is often covered by medical insurance. Like medical
problems, psychological disorders have both biological (nature) as well as environmental
(nurture) influences. These causal influences are reflected in the bio-psycho-social model of
illness (Engel, 1977).

Deviance and mental illness often go together. While not all deviants are considered mentally
ill, almost all mentally ill persons are considered deviant (since mental illness is not considered
"normal"). When studying deviance, then, sociologists also often study mental illness.

Sociologists have two possible explanations for the link between social status and mental
illness. First, some say it is the stresses of being in a low-income group, being a racial minority,
or being a woman in a sexist society that contributes to higher rates of mental illness because
this harsher social environment is a threat to mental health. On the other hand, others argue
that the same behavior that is labeled mentally ill for some groups may be tolerated in other
groups and so, therefore, not labeled as such. For instance, if a homeless woman were to
exhibit crazy, “deranged” behavior, she would be considered mentally ill. In contrast, if a rich
woman exhibited the same behavior, she might be merely eccentric or charming.

Somatoform Disorders

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Somatic symptom disorder (SSD is formerly known as "somatization disorder" or "somatoform
disorder") is a form of mental illness that causes one or more bodily symptoms, including pain.
The symptoms may or may not be traceable to a physical cause, including general medical
conditions, other mental illnesses, or substance abuse. But regardless, they cause excessive
and disproportionate levels of distress. The symptoms can involve one or more different organs
and body systems, such as:
• Pain
• Neurologic problems
• Gastrointestinal complaints
• Sexual symptoms

Many people who have SSD will also have an anxiety disorder.
People with SSD are not faking their symptoms. The distress they experience from pain and
other problems they experience are real, regardless of whether a physical explanation can be
found. And the distress from symptoms significantly affects daily functioning. Doctors need to
perform many tests to rule out other possible causes before diagnosing SSD.

The diagnosis of SSD can create a lot of stress and frustration for patients. They may feel
unsatisfied if there's no better physical explanation for their symptoms or if they are told their
level of distress about a physical illness is excessive. Stress often leads patients to become
more worried about their health, and this creates a vicious cycle that can persist for years.

Causes of Somatoform disorders

• Genetic and hereditary factors

• Hypersensitivity to pain sensations
• The personality trait of negativity which influenced how a person with somatoform
disorder perceived illness and physical symptoms
• Increased attention to bodily symptoms but has difficulty to process emotions
• Sometimes, the somatoform disorder develops in the subconscious when a person has
perceived illness.

Symptoms of Somatoform Disorders

• Cannot be explained by neurological or any medical cause or condition

• Ranges from mild to severe and may have single or multiple symptoms
• The frequent symptom is PAIN, accompanied by pervasive thoughts, actions, and
emotions that are related to pain. These feelings and behaviors can hinder normal or
ordinary functioning
Thoughts, emotions, and behaviors associated with somatoform disorders may consist of the
following:
• Persistent worry about possible sickness
• Interpretation of normal bodily sensations as an indication of severe physical sickness
• Fear that symptoms are dire or life-threatening in the absence of facts or medical
confirmation

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 • Mistrust of medical assessments and treatment
• Excessive visits to a physician or hospital that never alleviate concerns
• More significant impairment than what is commonly expected from a medical
circumstance

Types or Categories of Somatoform Disorders

• Somatization disorder
• Conversion disorder
• Pain disorder
• Hypochondriasis

❖ Somatization Disorder
This disorder occurs when a person repeatedly complains to experience physical symptoms
even there is no present physical condition to cause the symptoms. Usually, it involves
symptoms that continue for years like sexual issues, stomach complaints, and neurological
complications.

❖ Conversion Disorder
This disorder occurs when the physical symptoms seem to imitate the symptoms of a
neurological disorder even there is no present neurological disorder. The symptoms of this
disorder are vision or hearing loss, seizures, or paralysis. Conversion disorder is usually the
overall result when a person experiences trauma and affects his senses and movements.

❖ Pain Disorder
The characteristics of this disorder are recurring pain in one or more parts of the body without
a known cause. It is diagnosed as a pain disorder when pain cannot be accounted for by
medical or any other disorder or when the pain causes distress. The psychological factors of
the pain are significant to the magnitude, onset, and duration of the pain.

❖ Hypochondriasis
This disorder occurs when a person believes that he has a severe illness because of ordinary
bodily signs or symptoms even when medical assessments prove otherwise. The symptoms
are usually real or imagined.

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 EATING DISORDERS

Eating disorders are a range of psychological conditions that cause unhealthy eating habits to
develop. They might start with an obsession with food, body weight, or body shape. In severe
cases, eating disorders can cause serious health consequences and may even result in death
if left untreated.

Those with eating disorders can have a variety of symptoms. However, most include the severe
restriction of food, food binges, or purging behaviors like vomiting or over-exercising. Although
eating disorders can affect people of any gender at any life stage, they're most often reported
in adolescents and young women.

Eating disorders are mental health conditions marked by an obsession with food or body shape.
They can affect anyone but are most prevalent among young women.

Causes of eating disorders:

• Genetics
• Brain biology
• Personality traits
• Cultural ideals

Six major types of eating disorders:

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 ❖ ANOREXIA NERVOSA
The most well-known eating disorder
is Anorexia Nervosa.

People who have this eating

disorder see themselves as
overweight, even if they are
extremely underweight. They tend
to always monitor their weight, and
they are very strict in avoiding
certain types of foods. They
always severely restrict their
calories.

❖ Bulimia nervosa
Another well-known eating disorder is
BULIMIA NERVOSA. It is
characterized by frequently eating
unusually large amounts of food in a
specific period. During the binge,
the person cannot control or stop
how much they are eating. After
that, they would feel gut discomfort,
so to compensate with that, they
would then attempt to purge or
vomit for the calories they
consumed.

Other purging behaviors that they do

are fasting, forced vomiting, drinking
laxatives, or doing excessive exercise.

❖ Binge eating disorder

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Another common eating disorder is BINGE EATING DISORDER. It usually happens during
adolescence and develops later on until early adulthood. The symptoms of this disorder are
similar to bulimia eating disorder.

People with this disorder eat unusually large amounts of food in short periods, and they feel the
loss of control during this binge period. Unlike other eating disorder, this does not restrict
calories or use purging behaviors to compensate for their bingers like excessive exercise or
vomiting.

❖ PICA

Pica is
an eating
disorder that
involves intaking or craves for things that are not
considered food like dirt, soil, ice, chalk, cloth, pebbles, paper, and others alike.

❖ RUMINATION DISORDER

Another newly recognized eating disorder is Rumination disorder. It is characterized by

vomiting the food that they previously chewed or swallowed, then re-chews it, and then
either swallow it again or spit it out.

❖ ARFID or Avoidant/Restrictive food intake disorder

ARFID eating disorder is previously known as “feeding disorder of infancy and early
childhood.” Individuals who have this eating disorder experience dislike for food because
of its specific texture, smell, taste, color, and temperature.

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.

Causes of Eating disorders

EDs are complex disorders, influenced by a facet of factors. Though the exact cause of eating
disorders is unknown, it is generally believed that a combination of biological, psychological,
and environmental abnormalities contribute to the development of these illnesses.

Examples of biological factors include:

• Irregular hormone functions

• Genetics (the tie between eating disorders and one’s genes is still heavily researched, but
we know that genetics is a part of the story).
• Nutritional deficiencies

Examples of psychological factors include:

• Negative body image

• Poor self-esteem

Examples of environmental factors that would contribute to the occurrence of eating disorders
are:

• Dysfunctional family dynamic

• Professions and careers that promote being thin and weight loss, such as ballet and
modeling
• Aesthetically oriented sports, where an emphasis is placed on maintaining a lean body for
enhanced performance.
• Examples include:
• Rowing
• Diving
• Ballet
• Gymnastics
• Wrestling
• Long-distance running
• Family and childhood traumas: childhood sexual abuse, severe trauma
• Cultural and peer pressure among friends and co-workers
• Stressful transitions or life changes
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 Conduct Disorder

Conduct disorder is a mental health condition characterized by a behavioral pattern in which

the child breaks age-appropriate social norms and rules.

Conduct disorder is a condition in which an individual displays an ongoing pattern of

uncooperative, rebellious, and aggressive behavior toward people in authority. Such individuals
often bully, threaten, or intimidate others. They are often physically cruel to others, initiate
physical fights, and may use weapons to cause physical harm to others. They engage in
criminal behaviors such as stealing, forcing others into sexual activity, destroying property, and
setting fires. Children and adolescents with conduct disorder often break the rules and stay out
at night, run away from home, and maybe truant from school. This disorder can wreak havoc
on the individual’s family and school, as well as the broader community.

Young people with this condition can be cruel and violent towards others, including pets and
other animals. They may be destructive, breaking, and damaging property. The behavior
associated with conduct disorder is not limited to occasional outbursts. It is consistent and
repetitive, occurring frequently enough that it interferes with the child’s education, family life,
and social life.

What Are the Symptoms of Conduct Disorder?

Symptoms of conduct disorder vary depending on the age of the child and whether the disorder
is mild, moderate, or severe. In general, symptoms of conduct disorder fall into four general
categories:

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 • Aggressive behavior: These are behaviors
that threaten or cause physical harm and may include
fighting, bullying, being cruel to others or animals,
using weapons, and forcing another into sexual
activity.

• Destructive behavior: This involves

intentional destruction of property such as arson
(deliberate fire-setting) and vandalism (harming
another person's property).

• Deceitful behavior: This may include repeated lying, shoplifting, or breaking into homes
or cars to steal.

• Violation of rules: This involves going

against accepted rules of society or engaging in
behavior that is not appropriate for the person's
age. These behaviors may include running
away, skipping school, playing pranks, or being
sexually active at a very young age.

Also, many children with conduct disorder are irritable,

have low self-esteem, and tend to throw frequent temper
tantrums. Some may abuse drugs and alcohol. Children
with conduct disorder often are unable to appreciate how their behavior can hurt others and
generally have little guilt or remorse about hurting others.

How do these students do in school? Teachers see these students as:

• Uninterested
• Unenthusiastic
• Careless

Students with Conduct Disorder have:

• Poor interpersonal relations
• Rejected by their peers
• Poor social skills

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Students with Conduct Disorder are most likely to
be:
• Left behind in grades
• Show lower achievement levels
• End school sooner than same-age peers

Types of Conduct Disorder

Conduct disorder is categorized according to the age at which symptoms of the disorder first
occur.

• Childhood-onset occurs when the signs of conduct disorder appear before age 10.

• Unspecified onset means the age at which conduct disorder first occurs is unknown.

• Adolescent onset occurs when the signs of conduct disorder appear during the teenage
years.

What causes Conduct Disorder?

The exact cause of conduct disorder is not known. Still, it is believed that a combination of
biological, genetic, environmental, psychological, and social factors plays a role.

• Biological: Some studies suggest that defects or injuries to some regions of the brain
can lead to behavior disorders. Conduct disorder has been linked to brain regions
involved in regulating behavior, impulse control, and emotion. Conduct disorder
symptoms may occur if nerve cell circuits along these brain regions do not work correctly.
Further, many children and teens with conduct disorder also have other mental illnesses,
such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), learning disorders, depression,
substance abuse, or an anxiety disorder, which may contribute to the symptoms of
conduct disorder.

• Genetics: Many children and teens with conduct disorder have close family members
with mental illnesses, including mood disorders, anxiety disorders, substance use
disorders, and personality disorders. This suggests that a vulnerability to conduct
disorder may be at least partially inherited.

• Environmental: Factors such as dysfunctional family life, childhood abuse, traumatic

experiences, a family history of substance abuse, and inconsistent discipline by parents
may contribute to the development of conduct disorder.

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 • Psychological: Some experts believe that conduct disorders can reflect problems with
moral awareness (notably, lack of guilt and remorse) and deficits in cognitive processing.

• Social: Low socioeconomic status and not being accepted by their peers appear to be
risk factors for the development of conduct disorder.

Treatment

A young person with conduct disorder may be perceived as a juvenile delinquent, rather than
an individual with a mental health condition. Treating conduct disorder solely as a discipline
problem is rarely effective. The key to effective treatment of conduct disorder is early
intervention. Doctors and caregivers should also be sure to address all the aspects of an
individual’s life that are affected by the problematic behavior, including home, school, social
situations, and the community.

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 Mood Disorders

What is a mood disorder?

A mood disorder is a mental health problem that primarily affects a person’s emotional state. It
is a disorder in which a person experiences long periods of extreme happiness, extreme
sadness, or both. It is usual for someone’s mood to change, depending on the situation.
However, to be diagnosed with a mood disorder, symptoms must be present for several weeks
or longer.

Mood disorders can cause changes in your behavior. They can affect your ability to deal with
routine activities, such as work or school. Two of the most common mood disorders are
depression and bipolar disorder. This article will review these disorders and some of their many
subtypes.

Classification of mood disorders:

• Manic episode
• Depressive episode
• Bipolar mood (affective) disorder
• Recurrent depressive disorder
• Persistent mood disorder
• Other mood disorders

❖ MANIC EPISODE
Tends to occur in episodes usually lasting 3-4 months, followed by complete clinical recovery.

Prepared by: NIKKI C. ALBURO

Characterized by the following
features:

• Elevated, expansive or irritable

mood
• Psychomotor activity
• Speech and thought
• Goal-directed activity
• Absence of underlying organic
cause

(last for at least one week and disrupt occupational & social activities)

❖ DEPRESSIVE EPISODE

Characterized by the following

features:
• Depressed mood
• Depressive
ideation/cognition
• Psychomotor activity
• Physical symptoms
• Biological functions
• Psychotic features
• Suicide
• Absence of underlying
organic cause

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(last for at least two
weeks for a diagnosis to
be made)

❖ BIPOLAR MOOD OR AFFECTIVE DISORDER

Earlier known as manic depressive psychosis (MDP). This episode can occur in any sequence.
The current episode in bipolar mood disorder is specified as one of the following (ICD- 10):
• Hypomanic
• Manic without psychotic symptoms
• Manic with psychotic symptoms
• Mild/mod depression
• Severe depression, without psychotic symptoms
• Severe depression, with psychotic symptoms

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 • Mixed
• In remission

Further divided into

bipolar I & bipolar
II disorders
• Bipolar I- involves severe depression and severe mania
• Bipolar II- involves severe depression and hypomania

❖ RECURRENT DEPRESSIVE DISORDER

Characterized by recurrent (at least 2) depressive episodes (unipolar depression).

The current episode in recurrent depressive disorder is specified as one of the following:
• Mild
• Moderate
• Severe, without psychotic symptoms
• Severe, with psychotic symptoms
• In remission

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 Dissociative Disorders

Dissociative disorders are mental disorders that involve experiencing a disconnection and lack
of continuity between thoughts, memories, surroundings, actions, and identity. People with
dissociative disorders escape reality in ways that are involuntary and unhealthy and cause
problems with functioning in everyday life.

Dissociative disorders usually develop as a reaction to trauma and help keep painful memories
at bay.

Signs and symptoms depend on the type of dissociative disorders you have, but may
include:
• Memory loss (amnesia) of specific periods, events, people and personal information
• A sense of being detached from yourself and your emotions
• A perception of the people and things around you as distorted and unreal
• A blurred sense of identity
• Significant stress or problems in your relationships, work or other vital areas of your life
• Inability to cope well with emotional or professional stress
• Mental health problems, such as depression, anxiety, and suicidal thoughts and
behaviors

There are three major dissociative disorders defined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders (DSM-5), published by the American Psychiatric Association:

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 • Dissociative amnesia or Psychogenic amnesia.

The main symptom is memory loss that's more severe than normal forgetfulness, and that can't
be explained by a medical condition. You can't recall information about yourself or events and
people in your life, especially from a traumatic time. Dissociative amnesia can be specific to
events in a particular time, such as intense combat, or, more rarely, can involve complete loss
of memory about yourself. An episode of amnesia usually occurs suddenly and may last
minutes, hours, or rarely, months or years.

There are three types of amnesia:

❑ Localized – Cannot remember an event or period (the most common form of amnesia)
❑ Selective – Cannot remember specific details of events about a given period.
❑ Generalized – Complete loss of identity of life history (rarest form).
*Dissociative Fugue- Dissociative fugue is also known as a psychogenic fugue. The
person suddenly, and without any warning, can’t remember who they are and has no
memory of their past. They don’t realize they are experiencing memory loss and may
invent a new identity. Typically, the person travels from home – sometimes over
thousands of kilometers – while in the fugue, which may last between hours and months.
When the person comes out of their dissociative fugue, they are usually confused with
no recollection of the ‘new life’ they have made for themselves.

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 • Dissociative identity disorder. Formerly known as multiple personality disorder, this
disorder is characterized by "switching" to alternate identities. You may feel the presence
of two or more people talking or living inside your head, and you may feel as though
you're possessed by other identities.

Each identity may have a unique name, personal history, and characteristics, including
noticeable differences in voice, gender, mannerisms, and even such physical qualities
as the need for eyeglasses. There also are differences in how collective each identity is
with the others. People with dissociative identity disorder typically also have dissociative
amnesia and often have dissociative fugue.

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 Sexual Disorders or Paraphilias

A paraphilia is a condition in which a person's sexual arousal and gratification depend on

fantasizing about and engaging in sexual behavior that is atypical and extreme. A paraphilia is
considered a disorder when it causes distress or threatens to harm someone else. A paraphilia
can revolve around an object (children, animals, underwear) or a behavior (inflicting pain,
exposing oneself) but is distinguished by a preoccupation with the object or behavior to the
point of being dependent on that object or behavior for sexual gratification.

Definition and classification According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual Disorder, Fourth
Edition, Text Revision (DSM IV-TR) or to the International Classification of Mental Diseases
(ICD-10th), PARAPHILIAS are defined as sexual disorders which are characterized by “
recurrent, intense, sexually arousing fantasies, sexual urges or behaviors, generally involving
called “ paraphilia not otherwise specified.”

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Major types of Paraphilia:

❑ FETISHISM

Fetishism is a sexual attraction to a nonliving thing like shoes, underwear, gloves, stockings,
and others alike. They do unusual things to this object like smelling, sucking, or caressing.

Another variant of Fetishism:

*Partialism is solely interested in the sexual gratification from a specific body part, examples
are feet, neck, underarms, back, etc.

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 ❑ TRANSVESTIC FETISHISM

A sexual disorder that only exists in males. It involves an uncontrollable desire to wear
the clothing of a woman because this is where they achieve sexual gratification.

❑ VOYEURISM

The term VOIR means “To See.”

Voyeurism is a sexual disorder where a person finds sexual gratification from observing sexual
activity or nudity or other people who are unaware that they are being watched. Voyeurism is
common in men.

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 ❑ EXHIBITIONISM

Exhibitionism sexual disorder involves the

feeling of satisfaction due to exposure of
genitals to strangers. The reaction of shock or
fear from strangers is arousing for people with
this disorder.

❑ SEXUAL MASOCHISM

Masochism involves seeking sexual

gratification by applying pain to one’s body or to
his/her partner’s body. Masochist finds
pleasure from being subjected to pain.
They usually use whips and ropes.

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 ❑ SEXUAL SADISM

Sexual sadism finds sexual gratification from activities that cause or urges harm to
another person, which is usually the sexual partner. Sadist finds it pleasing by seeing
the sexual partner in pain.

*Sadomasochist

A sexual disorder that is a combination of sadist and

masochist roles in sexual interaction. Sadomasochist
finds satisfaction in inflicting or receiving pain.

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 ❑ PEDOPHILIA

Pedophilia is a severe sexual disorder. It occurs when an adult has an uncontrollable

sexual urge to minor and immature children (13 below).

❑ BESTIALITY

(A man from Florida, 21, charged with Bestiality for allegedly having sex with a donkey)

Bestiality is a sexual disorder that finds satisfaction in having sexual intercourse with
animals. It is already called Zoophilia when sexual activity with animals is always
preferred by a person.

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 ❑ FROTTEURISM

The word Frotter means “To rub.”

Frotteurism is a sexual disorder that finds sexual satisfaction in rubbing into people. They like
to do masturbation when rubbing against another person. Their usual targets are strangers or
not consenting people.

Other types of Paraphilias:

• Coprophilia- having sexual satisfaction from contact with feces

• Klismaphilia- having sexual satisfaction with the use of enemas
• Urophilia- having sexual satisfaction from contact with urine
• Autagonistophilia-having sexual satisfaction when having sex in front of other people
• Somnaphilia- finds satisfaction in having sex with a sleeping person
• Stigmatophilia- having sexual satisfaction with tattoo or skin piercing
• Autonepiophilia- having sexual satisfaction with wearing diapers
• Telephone Scatologia- having sexual satisfaction by doing obscene calls like
describing the masturbating activity
• Necrophilia- having sexual satisfaction in having sexual contact with a dead body or
corpse.
• Zoophilia- having sexual satisfaction in doing sexual contact with animals

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