Understanding Development

UNIT 1 UNDERSTANDING
DEVELOPMENT*
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Notions Related to Development
1.2.1 Evolution and Progress
1.2.2 Growth, Change and Modernisation
1.3 Development: Conceptual Framework
1.3.1 Meaning of development
1.3.2 Definition of Development
1.4 Dimensions of Development
1.4.1 Economic development
1.4.2 Social development
1.4.3 Human development
1.4.4 Sustainable development
1.4.5 Territorial development
1.4.6 Inclusive development
1.5 Let Us Sum Up
1.6 Further Readings
1.7 Key Words
1.8 Specimen Answers of Check your progress

1.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to understand:
Differentiate between Evolution, Progress and Growth, Change and
Modernisation.
Meaning and Definition of Development.
Describe the dimensions of Development

1.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit section1.2 we first discuss notions related to Development In the
section 1.3 we discuss meaning and definition of Development and the section
1.4 we discuss the dimensions of Development

Understanding development involves lots of ambiguities vis-à-vis complexities

and further guided by prominent liberal practicing ideologies. The process of
development is complex, multidimensional and brings uneven and unequal results
to different sections and communities in the society. Therefore, understanding
development and its processes require an understanding of the pedagogy and
ideology related to growth, development and prosperity involving the socio-
political and cultural matrix. In another way to acquire understanding of
*Prof. [Link], Department of Sociology BBAU Lucknow
9
Unpacking Development development requires the indicators used by various national and international
sources, agencies and bodies to measure the phenomena of development. Such
indicators may be otherwise regarded as development indicators. Nevertheless,
development is a normative, as almost synonym of improvement, progress,
modernisation, change and growth. Development is concerned with attainment
of better life and therefore development analysis has to include the quality of life
of people and the way they live in. Quality of life includes the life longevity,
expectancy, living standard with civic amenities, household assets, nutritious
food etc. All these attributes encompass the notion of development vis-à-vis
nuances of developmental ideology, theory and praxis. In the contemporary
discourse and dialogue, development is understood as freedom, capability and
democracy. “Democracy and development are inter-linked in fundamental ways…
They are connected because democracy is a fundamental human right, the
advancement which is itself an important measure of development. They are
linked because people’s participation in the decision making processes which
affect their lives is the basic tenet of development” (United Nations 1994, para
120). Now let us discuss related notions of development.

1.2 NOTIONS RELATED TO DEVELOPMENT

As we proceed to understand the notion of “development”, we encounter several
related notion e.g. evolution, progress, growth, transformation and so on.
Therefore, it is necessary that we should have an understanding of all these notions
or concepts at the very outset even though there is tendency to use them
interchangeably.

1.2.1 Evolution and Progress

The notion of evolution is derived from the Latin word evolvere. It means ‘to
develop’ or to unfold. The concept of evolution is specifically applied to mean
the internal growth of a living organism the plants, animals etc. Moreover, internal
growth has also seen through varios stages of gradual transition. Hebert Spencer
propagated that all through the ages there had been social evolution from simple
to complex.

The notion of progress on the one hand, is used to mean to step forward. The
fundamental meaning of progress is the forward march or advancement towards
a desirable ends. There may be as many types of progress as there are desirable
ends. I t is value loaded concept The grand ideas of Morgan, Comte, Spencer,
Marx, Durkhiem, Weber and many others have examined the journey of human
society through various stages of development and progress. Now let us
differentiate between growth, change and development.

1.2.2 Growth, Change and Modernisation

In this section we shall discuss the different connotation of development as in

general perceived in the post world war second period. We shall also discuss the
impact of these notion of development in society very briefly.

Development as multiple connotations: There are several connotations about

development, such as growth, development as change or transformation and
development as modernization.
10
a) Growth: In economic terms ,development as growth refers to Understanding Development

i) An increased capacity to produce consumption goods, and a concomitant

increase in consumption patterns;

ii) An increase ability to fulfil basic human needs of food,clothing

shelter,healthcare and education;

iii) In terms of expansion of possibilities, an increase in individual choices,

capabilities and functioning.

b) Change and transformation: Any kind of alteration in the society is known

as a change. Change is value neutral concept whereas development is a
value-laden concept. The notion of development is, in other words, the
process of desired change. Development as change and transformation refers
to the economic, social, political and cultural processes of change in human
societies.

c) Modernization: Often modernization being seen as a means to development.

In the economic realm it refers to the processes of industrialisation,
urbanisation and technological transformation of agriculture. In the political
realm, it requires a rationalisation of authority in general and a rationalising
bureaucracy in particular. In the social realm it is marked by the weakening
of ascriptive ties and the primacy of personal achievement in
advancement,and in the cultural realm it is the growth of science and
secularization, along with an expansion of the literate population that makes
for what has been referred to as “disenchantment” of the world (Marlin
1990).

As development was predominantly defined in terms of increase in productivity,

economic prosperity and an expansion of the market economy. Underdevelopment
had been constructed as the phenomena of poverty, low productivity and
backwardness. There was optimism that economic growth was the fastest road
to development. From the 1950s onwards, therefore, there has been an obsessive
focus on industrialisation and growth of gross national product (GNP).It has
been assumed that the national consequences of a rapid in there will bring positive
changes in existing social conditions. However, there were several adverse
consequences duo to this development. It also causes anxiety, alienation,
fragmentation, cynicism demobilization. We need development to address the
powerlessness that people feel due to illiteracy, unemployment, lack of productive
assets and lack of knowledge.

From the above discussion we can say that the balance sheet of development
may not be very optimistic, yet it still carries the only possibility of ameliorating
long standing human problems of poverty and backwardness.

1.3 DEVELOPMENT: CONCEPTUAL

FRAMEWORK
Development, conceived along as the economic growth, is an all-inclusive
phenomenon. Its quantitative consequences are qualitative and explanatory to
the large extent. For example, if we limit ourselves to solely the economy of
development, it may further add to justify that the same implies more than 11
Unpacking Development economic growth and leading to several social consequences having a lot of
socio-cultural and political ramifications. However, economic development refers
to growth accompanied by qualitative change in the structure of production and
employment, generally referred to as structural change (Kuznets, 1966). In other
words, developing economy contributes and increases in the share of the dynamic
industrial sector, national output, employment and decreases the share of
agriculture. This explains that economic growth could take place without any
economic development. Development likewise has come a long way in the past
few decades. If we analyse the development in narrow sense we can say that
initially development is about using the state to spearhead the process of
modernising the economy, society and raising its income by providing
employment. Hence, development, in short, ostensibly means to improve the
quality of life of poor people of the world so that wealth, health, longevity and
education of these people may commensurate with those living in better off
conditions across countries. Therefore, development is more than a mere economic
change and it is not purely an economic phenomenon; rather an inclusive vis-a-
vis multi-dimensional process involving rationalisation, reorganisation and
reorientation of the entire economic and social system towards ensuring a just,
egalitarian and democratic set up.

Further to acknowledge development is a normative concept, Dudley Seers

(1972:22), the founding father of development studies, takes the position that
development nevertheless has a coherent object; i.e., “the realisation of the
potential of human personality”. He accordingly challenged the prevalent notion
of his time that development is merely commensurate with economic growth.
Therefore, he argued for a broader explanatory framework and stresses the
importance of three interdependent indicators: poverty, unemployment and
inequality.

Lesotho Ferguson (1990) demonstrates the ahistorical and depoliticising nature

of development discourse and practice. His work is an emblematic of post-
development and post-colonial theorists. He argues that certain characteristic of
“Western” ways of talking about and representing the non-West should be
understood as ideological projections rather than as a scientific knowledge about
people and places elsewhere. Hence in the views and contributions of these
theorists, the ways of conceiving and representing development that are closely
bound to Northern development agencies. It reveals more about the self-affirming
ideologies of the North than insights into the peoples of the rest of the world. In
this connection, post-development scholars of recent decades especially take the
position that development has less to do with human improvement and more to
do with human control and domination. In contrast, Esteva (1991) takes a narrower
view of the temporality of development. He is portraying it as a project directed
by the United States in an effort to consolidate its emergent hegemony at the end
of the Second World War. Where does this leave us? Ferguson’s (1994) injunction
that we address two key questions: “What is to be done?” and “By whom? In this
manners and categories, various schools of thought ought to contest the very
coherent meaning and widespread desirability of development.

1.3.1 Meaning of development

The dictionary meaning of the word “development” connotes such ideas as
‘unfolding’, ‘growth’ ‘the fuller working out of the details of anything’, and
12
bringing out the potential that is latent in something and need to be developed. Understanding Development
These connotations and ideas are relevant to understand the concept of
development. Further, development as a public policy over the last half-century
and more, grounded in industrialisation and industrialised (core) countries and
in the “periphery” of the erstwhile colonies that come to be described as the
“less developed countries” (LDCs) of the “Third World”. (The idea of the “Third
World” held connotations of the French tiers état, or “third estate,” referring to
the mass of people, and implied the idea of “the people” on a world scale—those
who oppressed by colonial rule).

Development is undoubtedly a very big, vast and generic terminology. It is a

fusion of material as well as non-material things and loaded with everything
simultaneously. Regardless of partial, prejudicial and problematics, development
process is always cyclical, linear and perpetual. Though as of date precise or
concise meaning of development is yet to be drawn or understood across societies
unanimously; no society is found escape from paradigms of development. Instead
of classification or categorisation of a society to ascertain development syndrome
therein, everybody is ostensibly hyped to believe development is equivalent to
uncommon output. Accordingly, from a micro suit perspective, fruits of
development is only reaped and realised when it adequately encompasses
everything. From the above discussion it is evident that though development
initially started solely as economic development but the scholars attributed
different and multidimensional analyses to broaden the development. Therefore,
development has to be grounded in the societal milieu and not in isolation.
Therefore, development needs to be defined and described as social development.
In this context ‘social’ means how development brings changes in the life of the
people, its organisation, functions; and its impact on different communities and
also the indicators to measure it and etc. In this manner, development means to
unfold itself, to grow fuller and matured. Hence development indicates continuous
progressive improvement in quality of life of the people, their living condition,
material possession and many other overt and covert factors.

1.3.2 Definition of Development

Gunnar Myrdal very comprehensively deliberated the concept of development.
To him ‘by development I mean the movement upward of the entire social system,
and I believe this is the only logically tenable definition. This social system
encloses, besides the so-called economic factors, all noneconomic factors,
including all sorts of consumption by various groups of people; consumption
provided collectively; educational and health facilities and levels; the distribution
of power in society; and more generally economic, social, and political
stratification; broadly speaking, institutions and attitudes—to which we must
add as an exogenous set of factors induced policy measures applied in order to
change one or several of these endogenous factors.’(Myrdal 1974:729-30).

Perroux focuses both attitudinal and mental changes which to him is the
prerequisites of development and enhancement of production. Further, he writes
development as “the combination of mental and social changes among the
population which decide to increase its real and global products, cumulatively
and in sustainable manner” (1978:65).

Todaro refers to development as a multi-dimensional process involving the

reorganisation and reorientation of the entire economic and social systems. He 13
Unpacking Development argues that development is a physical reality and a state of mind in which society
has, through some combinations of social, economic and political process secured
the way of obtaining better life. That is (i) raising peoples’ standard of living i.e.
incomes and consumption, levels of food, medical services, education through
relevant growth processes; (ii) Creating conditions conducive to the growth of
peoples’ self-esteem through the establishment of social, political and economic
systems and institutions which promote human dignity and respect; and (iii)
increasing peoples’ freedom to choose by enlarging the range of their choice
variables, e.g. varieties of goods and services (1981:56).

Rogers writes “development is a long participatory process of social change in

the society whose objective is the material and social progress for the majority
of population through a better understanding of their environment” (1990:30).

As deliberated by Szirmai that there are two distinctive ways to understand

development: (i) Development as a state or condition which is static and (ii)
Development as a process or course of change which is dynamic. The long-term
approach to development is more detached. One tries to comprehend why, in the
long term, such great difference in development occurred in the different parts of
the world (Szirmai, 1993).

According to Amartya Sen(1999) ‘Development is about the expansion of

citizen’s capabilities and fulfilling their entitlements as a citizen and
individual. Further, it requires increasing citizen’s access and opportunities to
the things they have reason to value’. His view is based on capabilities
enhancement by advocating freedom: economic opportunities, political freedoms,
social facilities, transparency, guarantees and protective security. These, he argues,
need to be interconnected. Social facilities involve institutions such as the state
and the market. Societal arrangements should be investigated ‘in terms of their
contribution to enhancing and guaranteeing the substantive freedoms of
individuals, seen as active agents of change rather than as passive recipients of
dispensed benefits’ (Sen 1999:xii). Social facilities should aim to provide
opportunities that increase the well-being of the population. He contends that
all human beings are equally entitled to enjoy a life that they value. If pursuing
freedom-for-all is about expanding citizens’ capabilities, the focus should not be
exclusively on making up for what people lack (Reid-Henry 2012). ‘Development
consists of the removal of various types of un-freedoms that leave people with
little choice and little opportunity of exercising their reasoned agency’ (Sen 1999:
xii). Further he argues the major factors that limit freedom as ‘poverty as well as
tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systematic social deprivation,
neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or over activity of repressive
states” (Sen 1999:1). He argues for the removal of these major factors. Sen’s
work has a huge influence on the establishment of a new paradigm in the early
2000s. Development was “redefined in terms that include human rights as a
constitutive part: all worthwhile processes of social change are simultaneously
rights-based and economically grounded, and should be conceived of in those
terms” (Uvin 2010:168). Sen’s capability approach challenges the world-view
of elites. He manages to convince sceptical economists that social choice and
public discussion is both possible and necessary. He contends that choices about
growth strategies should be democratic (Evans 2012). “Sen has focused on the
well-being of those at the bottom of society, not the efficiency of those at the
top” (Longworth 1999). He influences the ideas and decisions made by other
14
development actors. The Millennium Development Goals are guided by Sen’s Understanding Development
ideas.

Thomas (2000) explains three ways the word ‘development’ is used. Firstly,
development as a vision means how desirable it is for the society and to take
society to the desirable direction. Secondly, development is a historical process
upholds social change over the period of time. This is inevitable and its processes
are continuous. For example, both capitalism and communism are unavoidable
results of progress which are the by product of the historical process of
development. Thirdly, development as action focuses on deliberate efforts to
bring change make it better.

Kofi Annan, Secretary-General of United Nations, while defining development

draws the disparity in the life of the people in developed and developing countries.
He vehemently spoke about freedom and the rights of the poor in his report
named In Larger Freedom (2005). To him ‘a world of interdependence cannot
be safe or just unless people everywhere are freed from want and fear and are
able to live in dignity. Today, as never before, the rights of the poor are as
fundamental as those of the rich, and a broad understanding of them is as important
parameter to the security of the developed world as it is to that of the developing
world’ (Annan 2005).

Paul Streeten while discussing the Human Development Index, writes that ‘the
approach that sees nutrition, education and health as ends in themselves… will
argue for projects… that enhance these ends, even when conventionally measured
rates of return on these investments turn out to be zero’ and this approach ‘leads
inevitably to the call for freedom by the people’ (Streeten 2009:234-36).

These above definitions are product of their time, culture-space and boundary.
These provide a holistic understanding what development is all about by focusing
different aspects of the buzz word called development. Now let us discuss the
dimensions of development.
Check your progress
1) Differentiate between change and development.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

2) Economic growth is a sufficient and a necessary condition to stimulate

development of all sections of society. Tick the correct box

Yes No

15
Unpacking Development
1.4 DIMENSIONS OF DEVELOPMENT
Development in general terms means a new stage of changing situation which
can be categorised and elaborated in different themes, framework and
perspectives. These perspectives and thematic narrations centred on a focus and
idealistic context, which may or not fit into a single frame of reference to
development of a group or nation or community. A few and important dimensions
are discussed below:

1.4.1 Economic development

Traditionally, economic development is a kind and form of development which
is mostly centred on economic activities and growth principles. The rise in per-
capita income, GDP, GNP is the indicator of economic development and growth.
This takes the economic system in a rising speed and condition. Indeed, growth
defined in this way can be seen more as the result of an economic development
process; for example the transformation of the structure of an economic system.
Economic development cannot be explained by economic factor only, and the
concept of development includes more than mere changes in economic indicator,
however economic perspective is one of the predominant perspectives of
development.

1.4.2 Social development

Development is not an isolated phenomenon. It has to be there in society and for
betterment of people in the society; therefore, development per se is social and
sociological. But development which is otherwise consider as ‘unfolding or to
grow or getting matured’ referring to an instrument of action, an act or process
for progressive improvements in the living conditions and quality of life of the
people. According to Bilance, 1997 ‘social development is the promotion of a
sustainable society that is worthy of human dignity by empowering marginalised
groups, women and men, to undertake their own development, to improve their
social and economic position and to acquire their rightful place in society…..” -
If we analyse development in sociological sense we find that development
sociology has been by and large the critical successor to 19th century theories of
development. It owes its origin to deviation from late 19th century. Development
can be understood as the problematic transition from agrarian to an industrial
social set up. There is a close relationship between growth and equity such as
‘Economic growth and social development impinge on each other, i.e. broadly
effective social progress is not possible without a socially oriented economic
and finance policy’. The important goal dominant tendency has been to relegate
question of social development is poverty alleviation. The low standard of living
of the mass of the population in developing countries is singled out as the key
issue in development.

1.4.3 Human development

According to the United Nation Development Programme (UNDP) human
development is a process of analysing people’s choices. In principle, these choices
can be infinite and change over time. But at all levels of development, the three
essential ones are there for people (a) to lead a long and healthy life, b)to acquire
knowledge and c) to have access to resources needed for a decent standard of
16
living. Human development does not end here. Additional choices, ranging from Understanding Development
political, economic and social freedom to opportunities for being creative and
productive and enjoying personal self respect and guaranteed human rights are
also inseparable parts of human development.

UNDP depicts two sides of human development: a) the formation of human

capabilities such as improved health, knowledge and access to resources and b)
the people making use of these capabilities for productive purposes being active
in cultural, social and political affairs.

According to India Human Development Report, 1999 “Human development is

a process of enlarging peoples’ choices. The most critical choices that people
should have include a long and healthy life, access to knowledge and income,
assets and employment for a decent standard of living… (But) human development
concerns more than the formation of human capabilities such as improved health
or knowledge. It also concerns the use of these capabilities”. The relevant theme
for the human development approach is to examine the relationship between
human capital that is people-centred development, where the focus is put on the
improvement of various dimensions affecting the well-being of individuals and
their relationships with the society (health, education, entitlements, capabilities,
empowerment etc.) The above-mentioned emphasis on the links between human
capital and growth constituted a step towards a multi-dimensional concept of
development, where knowledge is not only fundamental to economic growth but
an end per se, as it generates empowerment, self-reliance and a general
improvement in community and social relationships. Nowadays the concept of
development encompasses a set of elements comprised in more than one of the
above-mentioned qualifications.

1.4.4 Sustainable development

Sustainable development which considers the long term perspectives of the socio-
economic system, to ensure that improvements occurring in the short term will
not be detrimental to the future status or development potential of the system,
i.e. development will be “sustainable” on environmental, social, financial and
other grounds. The concept of “sustainable development” was first introduced
by Brundtland (1987:12), who defines development as ‘sustainable’ if it ‘meets
the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their own needs’. Sustainable development implies minimising the use
of exhaustible resources, or at least, ensuring that revenues obtained from them
are used to create a constant flow of income across generations, and making an
appropriate use of renewable resources. This applies to energy (oil and oil products
in particular) but also to fish stock, wildlife, forests, water, land and air. The
concept of sustainability has also been extended beyond environmental concerns,
to include social sustainability, i.e. long term acceptance and ownership of
development changes by the citizens, their organisations and associations (civil
society), and financial and economic sustainability.

1.4.5 Territorial development

This dimension of development refers to a territorial system, intended as a set of
interrelationships between rural and urban areas, in a space characterised by the
existence of poles of attraction for human activities (production and consumption
of goods and services, but also culture and social life), and connected by 17
Unpacking Development information systems and transport infrastructures. Territorial development of a
specific region (space) can be achieved by exploiting the specific socio-
economic, environmental and institutional potential of the area, and its
relationships with external subjects.

1.4.6 Inclusive development

This new term called inclusive development concept is now added to the lexicon
of developmental studies in the very recent past of the society. It is precisely
because of ‘slow progress in living standards and widening inequality’ because
of which the World Economic Forum System Initiative on Shaping the Future of
Economic Progress last year (2017) introduced a new economic policy framework
which is otherwise termed as inclusive development. The focus is to have more
inclusive and sustainable model of growth and development to promote high
living standards for all. The framework identifies 15 areas of structural economic
policy and institutional strength that have the potential to contribute
simultaneously to higher growth rate and wider social participation network in
the process and benefits to intensify growth. As per the 2018 rank 29 countries
are in ‘advanced economies’ and 74 countries in ‘emerging economies’. Among
the emerging countries India’s rank is 62 and in trends of development —-
‘receding, slowly receding, stable, slowly advancing, and advancing’—; India
is yet categorised as advancing economies. The Inclusive Development Index
(IDI) is an annual assessment of 103 countries’ economic performance that
measures how countries perform on eleven dimensions of economic progress in
addition to GDP. It has 3 pillars; growth and development; inclusion and;
intergenerational equity – sustainable stewardship of natural and financial
resources. The key characteristic of inclusive development is (i) Inclusive
development implies social, ecological and relational inclusiveness, (ii) Inclusive
development has its roots in different disciplinary approaches, (iii) Inclusive
development is used to counter exclusive capitalist approach, (iv) Inclusiveness
refers to how access to and allocation of basic resources is systematically
organised, and (v) development refers to ecological and equitable well-being of
people.

1.5 LET US SUM UP

The concept of development is by no means unproblematic. Development has
been described as a process of change from the traditional way of living of rural
communities to progressive ways of living to modern society. Development means
people are assisted to develop themselves on the basis of their capacities and
resources. Development is more concerned with the investment in human beings
especially in the areas of education, health, social welfare etc. Social development
aims at the total development of people, which requires decentralisation of power
and decision making so that process of planning at the grass root level is made
possible. This means active people’s participation in making political and
economic decision involving their welfare. Hence development in Amartya Sen,
(1995) words ‘social development is equality of social opportunities’. It means
there is important role interplay between economic and non-economic factors to
create adequate social space and also generate social opportunity for our
understanding of the dynamics of social development.

18
 Understanding Development
1.6 KEY WORDS
Gross National Product (GNP) : It is the total flow of goods and
services produced by the economy
over a specified time period, usually
one year. To this net income flows
from abroad is added and outflow is
subtracted.

Value-laden : Attributing a value, as good or evil,

desirable or undesirable, to
something.

Value-neutral : Interpreting objectively, without

taking sides.

1.7 FURTHER READINGS

Esteva, Gustavo. 1991, “Development” pp. 1-23 in Wolfgang Sachs (ed), The
Development Dictionary. London: Zed Books

Sen, A. 1999, Development As Freedom, Oxford: Oxford University Press

Sachs,Wolfgang (edt),1992. The Development Dictionary: A Guide to Knowledge

and [Link]: Zed Books.pp1-21

1.8 SPECIMEN ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
1) Change is a value-neutral concept while development is a value-laden
concept. All cases of change do not indicate development. Only planned-
desired changes can be termed development
2) No

REFERENCES
Annan, K. 2005, “In Larger Freedom”: Decision Time at the UN. Foreign Affairs.
Available at: [Link]
Accessed 26th March 2017

Brundtland, 1987, Our Common Future, World Commission on Environment

and Development (WCED) Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Chakravarty, Sukhamay, 1987, Development Planning: The Indian Experience,

Oxford University Press, New Delhi, p. 2-5.

Esteva, Gustavo. 1991, “Development” pp. 1-23 in Wolfgang Sachs (ed), The
Development Dictionary. London: Zed Books.

Evans, P. 2002, Collective Capabilities, Culture, and Amartya Sen’s Development

as Freedom, Studies in Comparative International Development, 37:2. pp 54-60.
19
Unpacking Development Ferguson, James. 1994, “Epilogue.” Pp. 279-288 in The Anti-Politics Machine:
Development, Depoliticization, and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho, Minneapolis,
MN: University of Minnesota Press

Longworth, R. 1999, Amartya Sen. Nobel Prize winning economist, The Chicago  
Tribune.[Online] 28th March 1999, Available at: [Link] chicagotribune.
com/1999-328/news/9903280117_1_inequality-economy-amartya-sen.
Accessed: 27th March 2017

Myrdal, Gunnar. 1974. “What is Development?” Journal of Economic Issues

8(4):729-736.

Reid-Henry, S. 2012, Amartya Sen: economist, philosopher, human development

doyen, The Guardian [Online] 22nd November 2012. Available at: http://
[Link]/global-development/2012/nov/22/amartya-sen   human-
development-doyen. Accessed 26th March 2017

Seers, Dudley. 1972. “What are we trying to Measure?” Journal of Development

Studies 8(3):21-36.
Sen, A. 1999, Development As Freedom, Oxford: Oxford University Press

20