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This is a 4 part series:

You are here This is the next phase

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 Where does this Topic go?
Term 1
Topic 1: Topic 2: Topic 3:
Algebraic Exponents, Trigonometry
Expressions Equations and
Inequalities

Term 2
Topic 1: Topic 2: Topic 3:
Euclidean Analytical Functions
Geometry Geometry

Term 3
Topic 1: Topic 2: Topic 3: Topic 4:
Trigonometry Statistics Probability Finance

You are here

Term 4
Topic 1: Topic 2: Revision
Measurements Number
Patterns
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 SATISTICS
Statistics is the study of collecting, organizing, summarizing and representing conclusions from
data.

If data is so important then we should define and classify it. We have two types of data that we can
collect.

Qualitative data- describes a subject, and cannot be expressed as a number.

Quantitative data- defines a subject and is expressed as a number that can be analyzed (it can be
quantified). There are 2 types of quantitative data- Discrete (Integers) and Continuous (Real
values).

Qualitative Data Quantitative Data

Interviewing 15 people about their Interviewing 15 people about the
preferred pet. distance they travel daily.

Results: Results:

Person 1: Cat Person 1: 50 km

Person 2: Dog Person 2: 45,67 km
Person 3: Turtle Person 3: 16 km
Person 4: Hamster Person 4: 21,80 km
Person 5: Cat Person 5: 19,23 km
Person 6: Cat Person 6: 60 km
Person 7: Dog Person 7: 154,90 km
Person 8: Dog Person 8: 40 km
Person 9: Snake Person 9: 70,09 km
Person 10: Hamster Person 10: 86,79 km
Person 11: Cat Person 11: 30,87 km
Person 12: Turtle Person 12: 57,97 km
Person 13: Turtle Person 13: 34,95 km
Person 14: Dog Person 14: 200 km
Person 15: Dog Person 15: 184,2 km

Continuous Quantitative data

Interviewing 15 people about their preferred pet.

Results:

Cat: 4
Dog: 5
Turtle: 3
Snake: 1
Hamster: 2

Qualitative Data to Discrete Quantitative Data

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 Graphs: How we represent Qualitative data vs Quantitative data:

Qualitative data: Quantitative data:

- Pie chart - Histograms

- Bar graphs - Line Graphs
- Scatter Plots

Descriptive statistics:

Descriptive statistics is a branch of statistics that focuses on organizing, summarizing and

representing data in a meaningful way.

For example, if you survey a group of students about their test scores, descriptive statistics can
help summarize the average score, the most common score, and how widely scores vary.
The most common descriptive statistics focus on determining the “average” of the data.

Values which describe the averages are:

Mean: sum of data divided by the number of datum in the group, denoted by x, reads as x bar.

Median: the middle most datum, when all data are arranged in ascending order.

Mode: the most common datum in the set. Data sets can have many modes or no modes.

2
ORGANISE

1 COLLECT 3 SUMMARIZE
4
REPRESENT

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 Three main types of descriptive statistics:

1. Frequency Distribution (Organize and Represent) – This shows how often each value
appears in the dataset, often represented in tables or graphs. Grade 11

2. Measures of Central Tendency (Summarize)– These describe the center of a data set:

- Mean (average)
- Median (middle value)
- Mode (most frequently occurring value)

3. Measures of Variability (Dispersion) (Summarize)– These describe how spread out the data
is:
- Range (difference between highest and lowest values)
- The five number summary (Quartiles)

- Variance (average squared deviation from the mean) Grade 11

- Standard Deviation (how much data points deviate from the mean) Grade 11

MEASURES OF
DISPERSION

MEASURES
FREQUENCY
OF CENTRAL
TENDENCY
STATISTICS DISTRIBUTION

CORRELATION &
REGRESSION
ANALYSIS
Grade 12

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 1/4. Frequency Distribution ( Organize & Represent)

Purpose: To show how often each value or range of values occurs.

- It organizes raw data into a structured format — often a table or graph.

- Helps identify patterns, trends, and outliers.
- Can be grouped (e.g., score ranges) or ungrouped (individual values).

It’s like zooming out to see the shape of the data — where it peaks, where it’s flat, and how it flows

Stem and leaf plots

Frequency tables
Tally tables

2. Measure of Central Tendency (Summarize)

Purpose: To identify the typical or central value in a data set.

- It tells us where the center of the data lies — like the average test score in a class.
- Common measures: Mean, Median, Mode.
- Helps summarize a large data set with a single representative value.

Think of it has the general trend or idea of the data set.

3. Measure of Variability (Dispersion) (Summarize)

Purpose: To describe how spread out the data is around the center.

- It shows whether data points are tightly packed or widely scattered.

- Common measures: Range, Variance, Standard Deviation, IQR, SIQR.
- Essential for understanding consistency and reliability in data.

Two data sets can have the same average but very different spreads — variability tells that story.

- Data set A: Scores: 4, 5, 5, 5, 6 - Data set B: (Widely spread)

Mean: 5 Scores: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9
Range: 6 − 4 = 2
Standard Deviation: Low (values are close to the Mean: 5
mean) Range: 9 − 1 = 8
Standard Deviation: High (values are spread out)

Teacher A has more consistent results than teacher

B.
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 4. Frequency Distribution ( Organize & Represent)

Purpose: To show how often each value or range of values occurs.

- It organizes raw data into a structured format — often a table or graph.

- Helps identify patterns, trends, and outliers.
- Can be grouped (e.g., score ranges) or ungrouped (individual values).

It’s like zooming out to see the shape of the data — where it peaks, where it’s flat, and how it flows

Stem and leaf plots

Frequency tables
Tally tables

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 QUICK EXAMPLE: PUTTING THESE IDEAS IN PERSPECTIVE

Scenario: Exam Scores in a Class

A teacher records the scores (out of 100) for 20 students:

Scores:

55, 60, 60, 62, 65, 65, 68, 70, 72, 75, 75, 78, 80, 82, 85, 88, 90, 92, 95, 98

1. Frequency Distribution (Organize)

Score Range Frequency

50-59 1
60-69 5
70-79 5
80-89 5
90-100 4

The frequency table reveals the overall shape of the distribution.

2. Measures of Central Tendency

- Mean (Average):
77

- Median (Middle value):

Middle two scores: 75 and 75- 75

- Mode (Most frequent):

60, 65, and 75 each appear twice

These values tell us the typical performance in the class.

- The mean tells the teacher the class average.

- The median shows the central score, unaffected by outliers.
- The mode highlights common scores.

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 3. Measures of Variability:

- Range:
98 - 55 = 43

- Q2 (Median):
75%

- Q1 (Lower Quartile):
Lower half: 65

- Q3 (Upper Quartile):
Upper half: 86.5

What This Tells Us:

- Q1 = 65 → 25% of students scored below 65%.

- Q2 = 75 → 50% scored below 75, and 50% scored above.
- Q3 = 86,5 → 75% scored below 86,5, and the top 25% scored 86,5 and above that.

These quartiles help you:

- Understand how scores are distributed.
- Spot skewness (if Q2 is closer to Q1 or Q3).
- Detect outliers using the IQR (Q3 − Q1 = 21.5).
Q1 Q2 Q3
25% 25% 25% 25%

- Interquartile Range (IQR):

Q1 = 65, Q3 = 86,5 →
[ IQR = 86,5 - 65 = 21,5 ]

- Standard Deviation (approx.):

≈ 13.2

These show how spread out the scores are — from the lowest to the highest, and how tightly they
cluster around the average.

- The IQR and standard deviation show how consistent or varied the performance was. Lower
standard deviations show that the data is closer to the mean, could indicate that th teacher teaches
in a way that resonates with every student.

100 100

90 90
Marks

Marks

80 80 The mean
score
70 70

60 60

50 50

0 0

Students Students

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 ORGANISING DATA

We can organise data by using tallies, frequency tables, stem-and-leaf diagrams, histograms and
frequency polygons. We can also group data into intervals

GROUPING DATA
A practical approach to organizing continuous quantitative data is to divide the entire range into
distinct intervals or classes. Since continuous values — such as height or weight — can take on
infinitely many possibilities and often don’t repeat exactly, it’s more meaningful to group them into
intervals that capture where each value belongs, rather than listing them individually.

This process involves defining non-overlapping intervals that span the full range of the data set.
Once these intervals are set, we count how many data points fall within each one. This transforms a
continuous data set into a more structured form, making patterns easier to interpret.

And importantly, this method isn’t limited to continuous data. When dealing with a large volume of
discrete data, such as survey responses with dozens or hundreds of unique values, grouping is still
essential. For example, if 150 people each gave a distinct response or score, trying to display every
single one as a separate bar in a histogram would be impractical.

One of the most effective ways to visualize this grouped data is with a histogram. In a
histogram:

- The x-axis represents the intervals,

- The height of each bar shows how many values fall within that interval,
- And the bars are placed adjacently to reflect the continuous nature of the data.

Graphs should contain:

- A descriptive title below the graph

- Axes should be labelled with the name of the variable, units and intervals (intervals must be
spaced according to a scale)
- A key to indicate which data points belong to which set of data, if more than one data set is
displayed.

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 Here’s a sample data set of 30 people’s heights (in centimeters)

Heights (cm):

152, 158, 160, 161, 162, 164, 165, 165, 166, 167,
168, 169, 170, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176,
177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 185, 187, 190

We could represent our ranges grouped class labels or set builder notation.

we could say:

Let each interval increase by increments of 10cm, therefore:

150-159 < <

160-169 < <
170-179 or or < <
180-189 < <
190-199 < <

These 3 different representations mean the exact same thing.

Represent this on a frequency table and draw an histogram:

Height Range Tally Frequency

< < 2
< < 9
< < 12
< < 6
< < 1
Total 30

Stem Leaf 12

11
15 28 10
16 0123445679 9
Frequency

17 00123456789 8

18 012357 7

19 0 6

Key: 5
15|2=52
4

A Stem and Leaf Plot is a special table 3

where each data value is split into a 2
"stem" (every digit but the last digit) 1
and a "leaf" (the last digit). Always add
0
a key at the end.
Height (cm)
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Height ranges of participants and frequencies
 12

11

10

9
Frequency
8

0
140<x<149 200<x<209

Height (cm)
Height ranges of participants and frequencies

How to a Frequency Polygon:

- Create a frequency table with class intervals.

- Find the midpoint of each class:
- Plot each midpoint against its frequency.
- Connect the points with straight lines.
- Anchor the graph by adding points at the beginning and end with zero frequency.

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 - Measures of Central Tendency (Summarize) -

- Mean (average)- add each data value and divide by the number of datum.

- Median (middle value)- arrange the data values in numerical order. The median is the middle data
value. If there is an even number of data, then find the mean of the two closest to the middle.

- Mode (most frequently occurring value)- The data value that occurs most often

- Measures of Variations (Summarize)-

These quantities describe how far apart the data points can be from each other. We use the
following to describe the dispersion of data:

- Range- Describe the span of the data, or how far the biggest and smallest value are. It is
calculated by subtracting, the min value from the max value.

- Outliers- are data point which occur individually and do not behave according to the trend
described by the rest of the data.

- Quartiles- Divide data into four equal parts:

Standard deviation and variance are both measures of how spread out data is, but they differ in
how they quantify variability.

- Variance measures the average squared deviation from the mean. It gives a broad sense of how
much the data points differ from the mean but is expressed in squared units, making it harder to
interpret directly.

- Standard deviation is simply the square root of the variance. Since it’s in the same units as the
original data, it’s more intuitive for understanding how much individual data points deviate from
the mean.

For example, if you’re analyzing test scores:

- A high variance means scores are widely spread out.
- A high standard deviation means individual scores differ significantly from the average.

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 Let's take an example of student test scores to calculate variance and standard deviation.
Given Marks:

Scores: 75, 80, 85, 90, 95

Step 1: Calculate the Mean (Average)

85

Step 2: Find the Variance

Variance is the average of the squared differences from the mean.
50
Step 3: Find the Standard Deviation
Standard deviation is simply the square root of the variance.
7,07

So, for this dataset:

- Variance = 50

- Standard Deviation ≈ 7.07

This means that the scores typically deviate by about 7.07 points from the mean of 85.

- A high standard deviation means individual scores differ significantly from the average.

What the Variance Shows:

- Since the variance is 50, it indicates that the scores are moderately spread out from the mean of
85. If the variance were much higher (e.g., 200), the scores would be more scattered, with extreme
highs and lows.
- The standard deviation (7.07) tells us that most scores fall within 7.07 points of the mean,
meaning scores are typically between (85 - 7.07) = 77.93 and (85 + 7.07) = 92.07.
- A higher variance would mean greater inconsistency among student performance, while a lower
variance (e.g., 10) would indicate scores are more uniform and predictable.

Variance measures how spread out the data is around the mean. A high variance indicates that the
data points are widely scattered, while a low variance suggests that the values are closely clustered
around the mean.
In practical terms:
- If test scores in a class have high variance, it means students performed very differently—some
scored very high, while others scored very low.
- If test scores have low variance, most students scored similarly, with little deviation from the
average.
Variance is useful for comparing datasets and understanding consistency. For example, in finance,
a high variance in stock prices suggests volatility, while a low variance indicates stability.

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 Quartiles – Divide data into four equal parts:

- Q1 (First Quartile): 25th percentile (lower quarter)

- Q2 (Median): 50th percentile (middle value)
- Q3 (Third Quartile): 75th percentile (upper quarter)

For even data:

38, 47, 49, 58, 60, 65, 70, 79, 80, 92

For Quartile 2: there is not exact middle point so we add the two middle datum and divide by 2.

For Quartile 1: Cut the data set in half, look at the lower half which may also be even, track the half
of this half. If it is even then add the middle two datum and divide by 2.

For Quartile 3: Cut the data set in half, look at the upper half which may also be even, track the
half of this half. If it is even then add the middle two datum and divide by 2.

Q1 Q3
Q2

Example 1: 38, 47, 49, 58, 60, 65, 70, 79, 80, 92
62,5

Q1 Q2 Q3
Example 2: 55, 60, 60, 62, 65, 65, 68, 70, 72, 75, 75, 78, 80, 82, 85, 88, 90, 92, 95, 98
65 75 86,5

For odd data:

For Quartile 2: there is an exact middle point so we can take the median

For Quartile 1 and 3: Split the data into two halves (excluding the median), add the middle two
values and divide by 2

Q2
Q1 Q3
Example: 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19

6 16

1
Position of median(n) = 2
(Total no. of data + 1)

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 - Percentiles – Divide data into 100 equal parts. The nth percentile tells you the value below which
n% of the data falls. Quartiles are just special percentiles (Q1 = 25th percentile, Q2 = 50th
percentile, Q3 = 75th percentile). You have to arrange data in ascending order.

Number of datum below “x” Percentile

Percentile = Total number of datum
x100 Position(n) = 100
(Total no. of data + 1)

Scores obtained by 10 students are 38, 47, 49, 58, 60, 65, 70, 79, 80, 92 (already in ascending
order)

1. Calculate the percentile for 70%?

2. How many students scored less than 70 percent?
3. Calculate the 25th percentile
4. Calculate Quartile 1.
5. If 79% is at the 70th percentile what does this mean?

Answers:

1. 6 datum lie below 70%. The total number of datum is 10. Therefore 6/10x100=60th percentile.
This means that 60 percent of the students scored less than 70%, and 40 percent of students
scored 70% and above.

2. 60% of 10 students is 6. Therefore, 6 students scored less than 70%.

3. 25 x(10+1)
n=
100
n= 2,75

therefore, quartile 1 lies between 2 and 3. Remember n is talking about positions which have to be
natural numbers (same logic from number systems). (47+49)/2=48%
Q1 Q3
Q2
4. 38, 47, 49, 58, 60, 65, 70, 79, 80, 92

Therefore Q1 is 49%.

Quartile 1 is the same as the the 25th percentile, however you can see we yield 2 different
answers, this is becasue the percentile (48) was calculated using the percentile position formula.
This method uses interpolation between values — it’s more precise. The Quartile (49) was
calculated by splitting the data set in half and taking the median of the lower half — a more manual
method.

5. 70 percent of students scored lower than 79% and 30 percent of students scored 79% and
above.

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 - Interquartile Range (IQR) – Measures the spread of the middle 50% of the data: [ IQR = Q3 - Q1
]
- A higher IQR means more variability.
- A lower IQR means data is more clustered.
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q1 Q2 Q3

}
IQR
IQR

- Semi-Interquartile Range (SIQR) – Half of the IQR: SIQR = IQR/2

- It gives a more compact measure of dispersion.

Why They Matter:

- Quartiles & Percentiles help understand relative positioning in a dataset.
- IQR & SIQR are robust measures of dispersion, unaffected by extreme values (unlike range or
standard deviation).
- IQR is used to detect outliers (values beyond Q1 - 1.5 × IQR or Q3 + 1.5 × IQR).

Using IQR to find outliers:

1. Find Q1 and Q3

2. Calculate the IQR:

IQR = Q3 - Q1

3. Determine the outlier boundaries:

Lower bound = Q1 − 1.5 × IQR
Upper bound = Q3 + 1.5 × IQR

4. Identify outliers:
Any value below the lower bound or above the upper bound is considered an outlier.

Example: 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90

1. Find Q1 and Q3
Q1=55 and Q3=80

2. Calculate the IQR:

IQR = 80 - 55= 25

3. Determine the outlier boundaries:

Lower bound = 55 − 1.5 × 25= 17,5%
Upper bound = 80 + 1.5 × 25= 117,5%

4. Identify outliers:
Any value below the lower bound or above the upper bound is considered an outlier.

Since no values fall outside this range there are no outliers.

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 Let's take an example data set and calculate quartiles, percentiles, interquartile range (IQR), and
semi-interquartile range (SIQR).

Example Data set:

Scores: 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90

[Link]:
- Q1 (First Quartile): The 25th percentile (middle of the lower half)
- Lower half: 45, 50, 55, 60, 65
- Q1 = 55

- Q2 (Median): The 50th percentile (middle value)

- Q2 = 67,5

- Q3 (Third Quartile): The 75th percentile (middle of the upper half)

- Upper half: 70, 75, 80, 85, 90
- Q3 = 80

2. Interquartile Range (IQR):

[ IQR = Q3 - Q1 = 80 - 55 = 25 %] This means the middle 50% of the data is spread across 20
perecent.

Q1 Q2 Q3
25% 25% 25% 25%

45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90

3. Semi-Interquartile Range (SIQR):

[ SIQR = IQR/2 = 25/2= 12,5% ] This provides a more compact measure of dispersion.

4. Percentiles:
- 25th percentile = Q1 = 52,5%
- 50th percentile = Q2 (Median) = 67,5%
- 75th percentile = Q3 = 82,5%

Interpretation:
- The IQR (25%) shows the spread of the middle 50% of scores.
- Quartiles help understand relative positioning in the data set (Split in quarters).

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 Each of these measures of dispersion serves a distinct purpose in understanding the spread and
distribution of data:

- Quartiles – Divide data into four equal parts, helping to identify where values fall within a dataset.
They are useful for comparing different sections of data and detecting skewness.

- Percentiles – Indicate the relative standing of a value within a dataset. For example, if a test score
is in the 90th percentile, it means the score is higher than 90% of all other scores. Percentiles are
widely used in standardized testing and performance evaluations.

- Interquartile Range (IQR) – Measures the spread of the middle 50% of the data: [ IQR = Q3 - Q1 ]
- A high IQR suggests greater variability.
- A low IQR indicates that most values are clustered closely.

4. Semi-Interquartile Range (SIQR) – Half of the IQR: [ SIQR = \frac{IQR}{2} ]

- It provides a more compact measure of dispersion.
- Useful for understanding typical deviations in a dataset.

Why These Matter:

- Quartiles & Percentiles help compare individual values within a dataset.
- IQR & SIQR are robust measures of spread, unaffected by extreme values.
- IQR is used to detect outliers (values beyond Q1 - 1.5 × IQR or Q3 + 1.5 × IQR).

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 The Five Number Summary
&
Box-and Whisker plot
The five-number summary is a compact way to describe the spread and shape of a data set. It
includes:
- Minimum – the smallest value
- Q1 (First Quartile) – the 25th percentile
- Median (Q2) – the 50th percentile
- Q3 (Third Quartile) – the 75th percentile
- Maximum – the largest value

Box-and-Whisker Plot (Box Plot)

This is the visual representation of the five-number summary.

- The box spans from Q1 to Q3 (the interquartile range).

- A line inside the box marks the median (Q2).
- The “whiskers” extend from the box to the minimum and maximum values (unless there are
outliers).
- Outliers, if any, are plotted as individual points beyond the whiskers.

Q₁ Q₂ Q₃

Min Max

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

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 1.1

1.1.1 x= 17+18+19+21+24+26+28+31+35+39+40+42+42+45+51+55+70+85+95
19
= 41,21%

1.1.2 17 18 19 21 24 26 28 31 35 39 40 42 42 45 51 55 70 85 95

Q1 Q2 Q3
1.1.3 42%

1.1.4 IQR= 51-24= 27%

1.1.5
Min-17%
Q1- 24%
Q2- 39%
Q3- 51% Q₁ Q₂ Q₃
Max- 95%

Min Max

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

1.2

1.2.1 a= 8x15=120 (this will be significant when we find the mean. The data where already
grouped, so we don’t know the actual percentage of monthly income spent on fuel. So we find the
averages in each interval and multiply by the frequency since it exists that many times in the data
set.)

b=420/20= 21%

c= 12x27= 324

d= 264/33= 8 people
or
d=50-8-20-12-2=8 people

e= 2x39= 78

1.2.2 x= 120+420+324+264+78
50
= 24,12%

1.2.3 18<p<24

1.2.4 n=0.5(50+1)= 25,5

18<p<24

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Copyright reserved by FPT Mathematics: Lushen Govender 2021
 4.1 6+16+21+8= 51 athletes

4.2 x= (25x6)+(35+16)+(45x21)+(55x8)
51
= 41,08 secs

4.3 40<x<50
Percentile
4.4 Position= (Total no. of data + 1)
100
30
= (51 + 1)
100
= 15,6

Therefore, between 15th and 16th position.

Therefore, the 30th percentile lies in the 30<x<40 (start from bottom up)

4.5

5.1 Median= 24

5.2

5.2.1 x= 10+13+15+17+18+20+23+24+26+28+28+29+39+48+49
15
= 25,8

5.2.2 49-10=39

5.2.3 IQR=29-17= 12

5.3 Q₁ Q₂ Q₃

Min Max

10 20 30 40 50

12
5.4 x 100= 80%
15
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