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Purposive Communication – Lecture (PURCOM LEC 100)

MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
Week 2 Topic

At the end of the discussion, you are expected to:

a) identify the various models of communication;

b) describe the relationship between models and process of communication; and
c) comment on the working of communication process as visualized by some of the
important communication scholars.

Introduction
Every day, we communicate with one another. We all know how to do it, right? Actually, not
always.
To understand the ways we communicate, communication theorists have developed models
that illustrate how communication takes place. In a way, as the US communication theorist Harold D.
Lasswell said, the theorists’ task is to answer the question “Who says what to whom with what
effect?”.
In this guide, we will introduce you to the models of communication that are most frequently
encountered in the literature.

What are models of communication?

According to Denis McQuail, “a model is a selective representation in verbal or
diagrammatic form of some aspect of the dynamic process of mass communication.”
In other words, models of communication provide us with a visual representation of the
different aspects of a communication situation.
It is not easy to determine where a conversation begins and ends, because communication is a
complex process. That is why we have models of communication — to simplify the process of
understanding communication.
Some models are more detailed than others, but even the most elaborate ones cannot perfectly
represent what goes on in a communication encounter.

The Major Models of Communication

There are 8 major models of communication, that can be divided into 3 categories:

1. Linear models — Only look at one-way communication. The most prominent linear models of
communication are:
 Aristotle’s Model of Communication
 Laswell’s Model
 The Shannon-Weaver Model
 Berlo’s S-M-C-R Model

2. Interactive models — They look at two-way communication.

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  The Osgood-Schramm Model

3. Transactional models — They look at two-way communication where the message gets more
complex as the communication event progresses.
 Barnlund’s Transactional Model

Linear models

Linear models of communication suggest that communication takes place only in one
direction. The main elements in these models are:
1. The channel,
2. The sender, and
3. The receiver.

1. Aristotle’s Model

This is the oldest communication model that dates back to 300 BC. Aristotle’s model was
designed to examine how to become a better and more persuasive communicator.
It is a foolproof way to excel in public speaking, seminars, and lectures, where the sender
(public speaker, professor, etc.) passes on their message to the receiver (the audience). So, the sender
is the only active member in this model, whereas the audience is passive.

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 Aristotle identified three elements that improve communication:
 Ethos — defines the credibility of the speaker. Speaker gains credibility, authority, and power by
being an expert in a field of their choice.
 Pathos — connects the speaker with the audience through different emotions (anger, sadness,
happiness, etc.)
 Logos — an important element that signifies logic. It is not enough for the speech to be
interesting — it needs to follow the rules of logic.
Aside from that, Aristotle suggested that we look at five components of a communication
situation to analyze the best way to communicate:
1. Speaker
2. Speech
3. Occasion
4. Target audience
5. Effect

2. Laswell’s Model

The next linear model on our list is Laswell’s Model of mass communication.
According to this model, communication is the transmission of a message with the effect as
the result. The effect is the measurable and obvious change in the receiver of the message, that is
caused by the elements of communication. If any of the elements change, the effect also changes.
Laswell’s model aims to answer the following 5 important questions regarding its elements:

1. Who created the message?

2. What did they say?
3. What channel did they use (TV, radio, blog)?
4. To whom did they say it?
5. What effect did it have on the receiver?

3. The Shannon-Weaver Model

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 Maybe the most popular model of communication is the Shannon-Weaver model.
Strangely enough, Shannon and Weaver were mathematicians, who developed their work
during the Second World War in the Bell Telephone Laboratories. They aimed to discover which
channels are most effective for communicating.
So, although they were doing the research for engineering endeavors, they claimed that their
theory is applicable to human communication as well. And, they were right.
So, first, let’s consider the components of the Shannon-Weaver model of communication.
These are:
 Sender
 Encoder
 Channel
 Decoder
 Receiver
Shannon and Weaver were the first to introduce the role of noise in the communication
process. The noise appears in the form of mishearing a conversation, misspelling an email, or static
on a radio broadcast.

4. Berlo’s S-M-C-R model

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 Berlo’s model of communication is unique in the sense that it gives a detailed account of the
key elements in each step.
This model explains communication in four steps:
1. Source
2. Message
3. Channel
4. Receiver

The source
The source or the sender carefully puts their thoughts into words and transfers the message to
the receiver.
So, how does the sender transfer the information to the receiver?
With the help of:
 Communication skills — First and foremost, the source needs good communication skills to
ensure the communication will be effective. The speaker should know when to pause, what
to repeat, how to pronounce a word, etc.
 Attitude — Secondly, the source needs the right attitude. Without it, not even a great
speaker would ever emerge as a winner. The source needs to make a lasting impression on
the receiver(s).
 Knowledge — The third element on our list is knowledge. Here, knowledge does not refer
to educational qualifications. It refers to the clarity of the information which the source
wants to transfer to the receiver.
 Social system — Moving on to the fourth element on the list — the social system. The
source should be familiar with the social system in which the communication process takes
place. That would help the source not to offend anyone.
 Culture — Last but not least, culture. To achieve effective communication, the source needs
to be acquainted with the culture in which the communication encounter is taking place.
This is especially important for cross-cultural communication.

The message
The speaker creates the message when they transform their thoughts into words.
Here are the key factors of the message:
 Content — Simply put, this is the script of the conversation.
 Elements — Speech alone is not enough for the message to be fully understood. That is why
other elements have to be taken into account: gestures, body language, facial expressions,
etc.
 Treatment — the way the source treats the message. They have to be aware of the
importance of the message so that they can convey it appropriately.
 Structure — The source has to properly structure the message to ensure the receiver will
understand it correctly.
 Code — All the elements, verbal and nonverbal, need to be accurate if you do not want your
message to get distorted and misinterpreted.

The channel
To get from the source to the receiver, the message goes through the channel.
All our senses are the channels that help us communicate with one another.
 Our sense of hearing lets us know that someone is speaking to us.
 Through our sense of taste, we gather information about the spiciness of a sauce we are
eating.
 Our sense of sight allows us to decipher traffic signs while driving.

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  We decide whether we like a certain perfume or not by smelling it.
 By touching the water we feel whether it is too cold for a swim.

The receiver
A receiver is a person the source is speaking to — the destination of the conveyed message.
To understand the message, the receiver should entail the same elements as the source. They should
have similar communication skills, attitudes, and knowledge, and be acquainted with the social
system and culture in which they communicate.

5. The Osgood-Schramm Model

In their book Communication Models for the Study of Mass Communications-Routledge,

Denis Mcquail and Sven Windahl say that the emergence of this model “meant a clear break with
the traditional linear/one-way picture of communication.”
This model is useful for describing interpersonal, synchronous communication, but less
suitable for cases with little or no feedback.
The Osgood-Schramm model is a circular model of communication, in which messages go in
two directions. There are four principles in this model:

1. Communication is circular
— individuals involved in the communication process are changing their roles as encoders and
decoders.

2. Communication is equal and reciprocal

— both parties are equally engaged as encoders and decoders.

3. The message requires interpretation

— the information needs to be properly interpreted to be understood.

4. There are three steps in the process of communication:

 Encoding
 Decoding
 Interpreting

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 In this model, there is no difference between a sender and a receiver. Both parties are equally
encoding and decoding the messages. The interpreter is a person trying to understand the message.

Transactional models

Transactional models are the most dynamic communication models.

Their key components are:

1. Encoding
2. Decoding
3. Communicators
4. The message
5. The channel
6. Noise

In these models, communication is viewed as a transaction, meaning that it is a cooperative

process in which communicators (a new term for senders and receivers, which first appears in these
models) co-create the process of communication, thereby influencing its outcome and effectiveness.
In other words, communicators create shared meaning in a dynamic process.

6. Barnlund’s Transactional Model

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 Barnlund’s Transactional Model explores interpersonal, immediate-feedback communication,
and is a multi-layered feedback system. That means that the sender and the receiver change their
places and are equally important. Feedback for the sender is the reply for the receiver, and both
communicators provide feedback. At the same time, both sender and receiver are responsible for the
communication’s effect and effectiveness.
The main components of Barnlund’s Transactional Model are:
 Encoding
 Decoding
 Communicators
 The message (including the cues, environment, noise), and
 The channel
This model accentuates the role of cues in impacting our messages. So, Barnlund
differentiates between:
 Public cues (environmental cues),
 Private cues (person’s personal thoughts and background), and
 Behavioral cues (person’s behavior, that can be verbal and nonverbal).
All these cues, as well as the environment, and noise, are part of the message. Each
communicator’s reaction depends on their background, experiences, attitudes, and beliefs.

Examples of Barnlund’s Model of communication include:

 Face-to-face interactions,
 Chat sessions,
 Telephone conversations,
 Meetings, etc.