WATER SUPPLY & WASTE

WATER ENGINEERING
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Water Supply,
Quantity and Quality of water
 1 Introduction to Water Supply, Quantity and Quality of water
1.1 Necessity of treated water supply
1.2 Per capita demand, variation in demand and factors affecting demand
1.3 Methods of forecasting population, Numerical problems using different
methods
1.4 Impurities in water – organic and inorganic, Harmful effects of impurities
1.5 Analysis of water –physical, chemical and bacteriological
1.6 Water quality standards for different uses
Water treatment is ‘Any process that makes water more acceptable for a specific end-use’.
That means water treatment can cover a huge range of applications, including drinking
water, water for industrial use (such as in producing paper, chemicals, and cars), and ultra-
pure water, which is used for semiconductor and pharmaceutical purposes.
1.1 Necessity of treated water supply:-
▪ Water treatment is important to earth because the availability of fresh water is limited in
the earth and the demand is high.
▪ It is important to protect the health– The harmful chemicals, metal and other
contaminants present in water are dangerous for the health of humans and other
organisms living on this planet. These harmful substances and toxins lead to various
health problems like asthma, cholera, diarrhea, asthma, cancer, skin disorders and even
death.
▪ To protect the environment– Water treatment is very much helpful for the
environment. It helps to balance the water cycle by maintaining groundwater and
surfabenefited.
▪ To solve the problem of water shortage and countries with limited access to safe
water will be benefited.
▪ Desalination is another way of water purification. It is important as it converts the
saline water (which is actually of no use and is available in abundance on the earth) to
potable water. This can help in solving the problem of water scarcity in the world.
1.2 Per capita demand, variation in demand and factors affecting demand :-
Per Capita Demand:
The demand of water per day per person called per capita demand.
Average Daily Per Capita Demand = Quantity Required in 12 Months/ (365 x Population)

Variation in Demand:-
Seasonal variation: The demand peaks during summer. Firebreak outs are generally
more in summer, increasing demand. So, there is seasonal variation .
▪ Daily variation:- Daily variation depends on the activity. People draw out more water on
Sundays and Festival days, thus increasing demand on these days.
▪ Hourly variations:- These variations are very important as they have a wide range. During
active household working hours i.e. from six to ten in the morning and four to eight in the
evening, the bulk of the daily requirement is taken. During other hours the requirement is
negligible.
Various types of demand (As per IS: 1172 1993):
For an average Indian town without full flushing system (for LIG)
(a) Domestic ( 50 to 60%) -- 135 l.p.c.d
(b) Industrial & commercial ( 20 to 25 %) – 70
(c) Public use ( 5 to 10 %) - 10
(d) Losses & thefts (15 to20 %) -- 55
Total demand: 270 0.p.c.d
(b) With full flushing system ( HIG)
1. Domestic --200 0.p.c.d
2. Industrial & commercial – 70
3. Public use- 10
4. Losses & thefts -- 55
Total demand: 335 l.p.c.d.
The per capita demand for nursing homes, Boarding Schools and Hostels: 135 lpcd.
Domestic demand:Bathing, cooking etc
▪ Maximum daily demand = 1.8 x average daily demand
▪ Maximum hourly demand = 1.5× Average hourly demand of a maximum day
▪ Maximum hourly demand =(1.8×1.5)× Average hourly demand =2.7×Avg. Hourly demand
▪ Coincidental Drift = maximum daily water demand + fire demand
Factors affecting per capita demand:
a. Size of the city: Per capita demand for big cities is generally large as compared to that for smaller towns as big cities
have sewered houses.
b. Presence of industries.
c. Climatic conditions.
d. Habits of people and their economic status.
e. Quality of water: If water is aesthetically & medically safe, the consumption will increase as people will not resort to
private wells, etc.
f. Pressure in the distribution system.
g. Efficiency of water works administration: Leaks in water mains and services; and unauthorised use of water can be
kept to a minimum by surveys.
h. Policy of metering and charging method: Water tax is charged in two different ways: onthe basis of meter reading
and on the basis of certain fixed monthly rate.
Population Forecasting Methods :-
▪ The various methods adopted for estimating future populations are given below. The
particular method to be adopted for a particular case or for a particular city depends
largely on the factors discussed in the methods, and the selection is left to the discrection
and intelligence of the designer.
1. Arithmetic Increase Method
2. Geometric Increase Method
3. Incremental Increase Method
4. Decreasing Rate of Growth Method
5. Simple Graphical Method
6. Comparative Graphical Method
7. Ratio Method
8. Logistic Curve Method
[Link] Increase Method
▪ This method is applied to areas where it is found that the rate of increase of population with time is constant i.e.
dP/dt = Constant;
▪ If, Pn = Population of an area after any time ‘t’ or Population after ‘n’ decades, Po = Last known Population of
that area; n = number of decades ( 10 years = 1 decade); X’ = average increase in population.
▪ Pn = Po + nX
▪ This method is most suitable for large cities that have practically reached their maximum development. This
method gives too low an estimate of population. So, the use of this method is limited.
2. Geometrical increase method
▪ This method is based on assumption that the percentage increase in population for constant interval of time
remains constant and the increase is compounded every time.
▪ The population at the end of years (n) Pn = P (1 + r /100)n
Where r = Percentage rate of increase in population growth.
▪ In this method, the average percentage growth of the population for the last available decades is determined.
▪ The only difference between arithmetic and geometrical increase methods of forecasting population is that ‘In
arithmetical increase method, no compounding is done but in geometrical increase, method compounding is
done every decade.’
▪ This method is suitable for young and rapidly growing cities.
3. Simple graphical method
▪ In this method, a curve is plotted from available data b/w time and
population. Then the curve is extended carefully depending upon its shape.
Thus, the population of the next decade can be determined.
▪ This method gives very approximate results as the extension is done by the
expertness of the designer.
4. Incremental increase method
▪ In this method, it is assumed that the average incremental increase in
population per decade is constant.
▪ In comparison with the first two methods (arithmetical and geometrical),
this method is better and gives more approximate results
▪ Pn = P+ n.X + {n (n+1)/2}
7. Decreasing Rate method
▪ In this method, the average decrease in the percentage increase is worked
out and is then subtracted out from the latest percentage for each successive
decade. This method is however applicable to those cities where the rate of
growth shows a downward trend.
Pn = Po [1+(r0 – D)/100]×[1+(r0 – 2D)/100…….[1+(r0 – nD)/100]
 Year Population Year Population
1970 40000 1980 46000
1990 53000 2000 58000
The predicted population in 2010 by Arithmetic Regression method is??

Solution:- Year Population Per decade increases in

population
1970 40000
1980 46000 6000
1990 53000 7000
2000 58000 5000
Population data pertaining to a community is given below. Find population in the year 2030 by Geometrical increase method

Year 1980 1990 2000 2010

Population 40000 50000 80000 140000
Solution:-
Year Population Per decade % increase in
population
1980 40000
1990 50000 [ (50-40)/40 ] ×100 = 25
2000 80000 [ (80-50)/ 50] ×100 =60
2010 140000 [ ( 140- 80) / 80 ] = 75

n = (2030 – 2010)/10 = 2
P0 = 140000
Geometric average of per decade % increase in population (r ) = (r 1 × r 2 ×r 3) ⅓ = (25×60×75)⅓ =48.27%
P n = P 2030 = Pn = P (1 + r /100)n = 140000 ×( 1+ 48.27/100)² = 307795
1.4 Impurities in water – organic and inorganic, Harmful effects of impurities
▪ Suspended impurities: They cause turbidity. The concentration of suspended impurities is measured by
turbidity.
Eg : silt, clay, bacteria, fungi, algae.
▪ Colloidal impurities: These are finely divided dispersion of solid particles, not visible to the naked eye.
These impurities if associated with organic matter having bacteriabecomes the chief source of epidemic.
▪ Dissolved impurities: It includes organic compounds, inorganic salts and gases. The following are various
dissolved impurities and their effects.
1. Salts : CaCl2,MgCl2, CO3 , HCO3, They cause hardness and alkalinity in water.
2. Metals: Iron causes red colour, Manganese causes brown colour
3. Lead and arsenic: It cause poisoning
4. Gases: Oxygen causes corrosion of metals
▪ Chlorine and Ammonia cause bad taste and odour.
▪ CO2, and Hydrogen sulphide cause acidity in water.
1.5 Analysis of water –physical, chemical and bacteriological

Analysis Of water Quality

Bacteriological
PHYSICAL Chemical • Standard Plate
• Turbidity • pH
• Total Solid,Suspended count test
• Colour • Most Probable
solid,Dissolved solid
• Taste and odor • Hardness Number
• Temperature • Chloride content • Member Filter
• Specific • Nitrogen Content Technique
• Coliform
Conductivity • Metal and Chemical
Substances
▪ Physical Charecteristics
1. Turbidity of water:-
Turbidity is a measure of the degree to which the water loses its transparency due to the presence of
suspended particulates. The more total suspended solids in the water, the murkier it seems and the
higher the turbidity
▪ Measured on Silica Scale. By Turbidity meter Permissible limit for potable water 5 to 10ppm
a) Jackson Turbidity meter:- used to measure HIGH TURBIDITY >25 PPM (JTU)
b) Baylis Turbidity meter:- Precisely records low turbidity value of order 0 to 2 PPM (BTU)
c) Nephelometer :- Commonly used for turbidity of turbidity 0 to 1 PPM. ( NTU)
2. Colour of Water:-
It is caused by dissolved organic matters from decaying vegetation or some inorganic coloured soils, growth of
algae, metallic ions (Fe and Mn).Measured by comparing the colour of water sample with other standard glass
tubes (Nesslar tubes)Measured by Platinum CobaltMethod. (Measured on Platinum Cobalt Scale)
▪ Permissible limit : 5 to 20 ppm. Measured by Tintometer.
3. Taste & Odour :
▪ Due to dissolved organic matter or inorganic salts, dissolved gases etc. Threshold number is the standard unit for
[Link] is expressed as FTN (Flavor ThresholdNumber)
▪ Odour is expressed as TON (ThresholdOdourNumber)
▪ TON = Dilution [Link] Ratio= (A+B)/A, A= Vol. of raw water sample, B = Vol. of distilled water used
for dilution.
▪ Permissible Limit : 1 to [Link] odour changes with [Link] is tested normally at20⁰C to25⁰C.
▪ Odour is measured by an apparatus called Osmoscope.
▪ Osmoscope:
The Osmoscope is 'graduated with PO values from 0 to 5. ( pO value of 0 indicates 'no perceptible odour'.pO value
of 5 indicates 'extremely strong odour’)
Example: 1 If 10 ml water sample diluted with 190 ml distilled water at which odour is just detectable, then TON
of the sample is
Sol: TON= (A+B)/A = 10+ 190/10 = 20
4. Temperature : 5⁰C to 12⁰C. 10⁰C is desirable.
5. Specific Conductivity: To know the dissolved salt content. Determined by Dionic water tester
Chemical Characteristic:-
1. Total Solids and Suspended Solids
▪ Total solids (suspended solids + dissolved solids) can be obtained by evaporating a sample of water and
weighing the dry residue left and weighing the residue left on the filter paper.
▪ The suspended solid can be found by filtering the water sample. Total permissible amount of solids in
water is generally limited to 500 ppm.
2. pH value of Water
▪ If concentration increases, pH decreases and then it will be acidic. If concentration decreases, pH increases
and then it will be alkaline.
▪ pH + pOH = 14
▪ if the pH of water is more than 7, it will be alkaline and if it is less than 7, it will be acidic.
▪ The alkalinity is caused by the presence of bicarbonate of calcium and magnesium or by the carbonates of
hydroxides of sodium, potassium, calcium and [Link], but not all of the compounds that cause
alkalinity also cause hardness.
3. Hardness of Water
▪ Hard waters are undesirable because they may lead to greater soap consumption, scaling of boilers, causing
corrosion and incrustation of pipes, making food tasteless etc.
▪ Temporary Hardness: If bicarbonates and carbonates of calcium and magnesium are present in water, the
water is render hard temporarily as this hardness can be removed to some extent by simple boiling or to full
extent by adding lime to water. Such a hardness is known as temporary hardness or carbonate hardness.
▪ Permanent Hardness: If sulphates, chlorides and nitrates of calcium or magnesium are present
in water, they can not be removed at al by simple boiling and therefore, such water require
special treatment for softening. Such a hardness is known as permanent hardness or non-
carbonate [Link] is caused by sulphates, chlorides, nitrates of Ca and Mg.
▪ Carbonate hardness = Total hardness or Alkalinity (which ever is less)
▪ Non-carbonate hardness = Total hardness – Alkalinity
▪ Carbonate hardness is equal to the total hardness or alkalinity which ever is less
▪ Non-carbonate hardness is the total hardness in excess of the alkalinity. If the alkalinity is
equal to or greater than the total hardness, there is no non-carbonate hardness.
▪ Water with hardness upto 75 ppm are considered soft and above 200 ppm are considered hard
and in between is considered as moderately hard.
▪ The prescribed hardness limit for public supplies range between 75 to 115 ppm.
4. Chloride Content
▪ The chloride content of treated water to be supplied to the public should not exceed a value of
about 250 ppm.
▪ The chloride content of water can be measured by titrating the water with standard silver nitrate
solution using potassium chromate as indicator.
(5) Nitrogen Content
The presence of nitrogen in water may occur in one or more of the following reasons:
▪ Free ammonia: It indicates very first stage of decomposition of organic matter. It should not exceed 0.15mg/l
▪ Albuminous or Organic Matter: It indicates the quantity of nitrogen present in water before the decomposition of organic
molten has started. It should not exceed 0.3mg/l
▪ Nitrites: Not fully oxidized organic matter in water.

▪ Nitrates: It indicates fully oxidized organic matter in water (representing old pollution).
▪ Nitrites is highly dangerous and therefore the permissible amount of nitrites in water should be nil.
▪ Ammonia nitrogen + organic nitrogen = kjeldahl nitrogen
▪ Nitrates in water is not harmful. However the presence of too much of nitrates in water may adversely affect the health of
infants causing a disease called methemoglobinemia commonly called blue baby disease.
▪ The nitrate concentration in domestic water supplies is limited to 45 mg/l.

6. Metal and other chemical substances in water:

● Iron – 0.3ppm, excess of these cause discolouration of clothes.
● Manganese – 0.05ppm ● Copper – 1.3ppm ● Sulphate – 250 ppm ● Fluoride – 1.5 ppm,
excess of this effects human lungs and other respiratory organs.
▪ Fluoride concentration of less than 0.8 – 1.0 ppm cause dental cavity (tooth decay). If fluoride concentration is greater than
1.5ppm, causing spotting and discolouration of teeth (a disease called fluorosis).
6. Metal and other chemical substances in water:
▪ Iron – 0.3ppm, Manganese – 0.05ppm (excess of these cause discolouration of clothes.
● Copper – 1.3ppm ( affects human lungs and other respiratory organ)
▪ Sulphate – 250 ppm (Causes laxatives effect on human body and diarrhea)
● Fluoride – 1.5 ppm, (excess of this effects human lungs and other respiratory organs.)
▪ Fluoride concentration of less than 0.8 – 1.0 ppm cause dental cavity (tooth decay). If
fluoride concentration is greater than 1.5ppm, causing spotting and discolouration of teeth (a
disease called fluorosis).
7. Dissolved gases:-
▪ Hydrogen Sulfide :- Bad test and odour.
▪ Carbon dioxide:- indicates biological activity and corrosion in pipe lines.
▪ Dissolved Oxygen:- To know the extent of pollution. Permissible limit for potable water
should be between 5 to 10 ppm.
▪ Nitrogen gas :- Indicates presence of organic matter.
Bacteriological Analysis of Water :-
▪ Bacteriological water analysis is a method of analysing water to estimate the numbers of bacteria present and, if needed, to find out what sort
of bacteria they are. It represents one aspect of water quality. It is a microbiological analytical procedure which uses samples of water and
from these samples determines the concentration of bacteria.
▪ It is then possible to draw inferences about the suitability of the water for use from these concentrations. This process is used, for example, to
routinely confirm that water is safe for human consumption or that bathing and recreational waters are safe to use. The interpretation and the
action trigger levels for different waters vary depending on the use made of the water.
▪ Bacteria (1 to 4 microns in size):Classification:

1. Non pathogenic bacteria: They are Harmless; e.g Escherichia coliform orE-coli
2. Pathogenic bacteria: They are harmful & causes water borne [Link] of "E-Coli "indicates the probable presence of 'Pathogens E-
Coli bacteria is used as indicator organism
▪ Classification based on shape:
▪ Cocci - Sphere shaped bacteriaBacilli - Rod shaped bacteria
▪ Spirilla - twisted rod shaped bacteria
▪ Classification based on living conditions:
▪ Aerobic bacteria: It survives in the presence of Oxygen.
▪ Anaerobic bacteria: It survives in the absence of Oxygen.
▪ Facultative bacteria: Survives with or without Oxygen

▪ To detect and measure coliform bacteria, the following tests are available.
A) count or agar plate count test
B) E-coli test
C) Membrane filter technique
1.6 Water quality standards for different uses
▪ For any water body to function adequately in satisfying the desired use, it must have corresponding degree
of purity. Drinking water should be of highest purity. As the magnitude of demand for water is fast
approaching the available supply, the concept of management of the quality of water is becoming as
important as its quantity.
▪ Each water use has specific quality need. Therefore, to set the standard for the desire quality of a water
body, it is essential to identify the uses of water in that water body. In India, the Central Pollution Control
Board (CPCB) has developed a concept of designated best use.
▪ Water Quality Standards in India (Source IS 2296:1992)
▪ Important Questions:-
 WATER SUPPLY &
WASTE WATER ENGINEERING
CHAPTER:- 2
Sources and Conveyance of water
 2 Sources and Conveyance of water
2.1 Surface sources – Lake, stream, river and impounded reservoir
2.2 Underground sources – aquifer type & occurrence – Infiltration gallery, infiltration well,
springs, well
2.3 Yield from well- method s of determination, Numerical problems using yield formulae
(deduction excluded)
2.4 Intakes – types, description of river intake, reservoir intake, canal intake
2.5 Pumps for conveyance & distribution – types, selection, installation.
2.6 Pipe materials – necessity, suitability, merits & demerits of each type
2.7 Pipe joints – necessity, types of joints, suitability, methods of jointing Laying of pipes –
method
 SOURCE OF WATER

Surface Source Underground

1. Lakes and ponds Sources
2. Streams or River 1. Infiltration Well
3. Storage Reservoir 2. Infiltration Gallery
4. Oceans 3. Springs
4. Well and tube wells
2.1 Surface sources – Lake, stream, river and impounded reservoir
Surface sources:-
The sources of water in which the water flows over the earth surface are called surface sources . The surface
sources are mainly classified as :- River, Stream & Lakes , Impounding reservoir .
▪ Rivers, Stream & Lakes :- They are formed by rainfall runoff i.e. rain water flowing along the ground into
these natural drainage depressions .Quantity varies depending on the catchment.
Rivers:- Rivers are born in the hills , when the discharge of large number of springs and streams combine
together. Rivers are the only surface sources of water which have maximum quantity of water which can be
easily taken. Streams . In mountainous regions streams are formed by the run off . The discharge in streams is
much in rainy season than other seasons. The quality of water in streams is normally good except the water of
first run-off.
Lakes :- In mountains at some places natural basins are formed with impervious beds. Water from springs &
streams generally flows towards these basins and Lakes are formed . The quantity of water in the lakes depends
on its basin capacity , catchment area, annual rainfall & porosity of the ground etc.
Impounded Reservoirs :- It may be defined as an artificial lake created by the construction of a dam across a
valley containing a water course . The object is to store a portion of the stream flow so that it may be used for
water supply. The reservoir consists of three parts :
(i) A dam to hold back water
(ii) A spillway through which excess stream flow may discharge
(iii) A gate chamber containing the necessary valves for regulating the flow of water from the reservoir
2.2 Underground sources – aquifer type & occurrence – Infiltration gallery,
infiltration well, springs, well
Aquifer:-
▪ An aquifer is any underground layer of water-bearing rock or geological formation that yields sufficiently
groundwater for wells and springs.
▪ According to geological terms an Aquifer could be referred to as a body of saturated rock or geological
formation through which water can easily move (permeability) into wells and streams.
Classification of aquifers
1. Confined aquifers
▪ Confined Aquifers are those bodies of water found accumulating in a permeable rock and are been enclosed
by two impermeable rock layers or rock bodies.
▪ Confined Aquifers are aquifers that are found to be overlain by a confining rock layer or rock bodies, often
made up of clay which might offer some form of protection from surface contamination.
▪ The geological barriers which are non-permeable and found exist between the aquifer causes the water
within it to be under pressure which is comparatively more than the atmospheric pressure.
▪ Confined aquifers could also be referred to as “Artesian aquifers” which could be found most above the
base of confined rock layers. Punctured wells deriving their sources from artesian aquifers have fluctuation
in their water levels due more to pressure change than quantity of stored water.
2. Unconfined aquifer
▪ Unconfined Aquifer unlike confined aquifers are generally found
located near the land surface and have no layers of clay (or other
impermeable geologic material) above the water table although they
are found lying relatively above impermeable clay rock layers.
▪ The uppermost boundary of groundwater within the unconfined
aquifer is the water table, the groundwater in an unconfined aquifer
is more vulnerable to contamination from surface pollution as
compared to that in confined aquifers this been so due to easy
groundwater infiltration by land pollutants.
▪ Fluctuation in the level of groundwater varies and depends on the
stored up groundwater in the space of the aquifer which in turn
affects the rise or fall of water levels in wells that derive their
source from aquifers.
▪ Perched aquifers are special cases of unconfined aquifers occurring
in situation where groundwater bodies are separated from their main
groundwater source by relatively impermeable rock layers of small
areal extents and zones of aeration above the main body of
groundwater The quantity of water found available in this type of
aquifer is usually minute and available for short periods of time.
▪ Infiltration galleries: A horizontal or nearly horizontal tunnel usually rectangularin cross- section and
having permeable boundaries so that groundwater can infiltrate into the same. It is also known as
horizontal well. Frequently located near a perennial recharge source and hence it is usually placed along
the bank, or under the bed of a river.
▪ Infiltration wells: These are shallow wells constructed in series along the banks of a river to collect the
water seeping through the banks of the [Link] at top and open at bottom The various infiltration
wells are connected by pipes to a collecting sump well known as jack well. Water from the jackwell is
pumped to treatment plant.
▪ Springs: Spring is natural outflow of ground water which appears at the ground surface as a current or
stream of flowing [Link] are capable of supplying small quantity of water .Useful only for small
towns near hills or bases of hills.
Types of Spring (Assignment)
Open wells or Dug wells:Have comparatively large diameters but low yields and are not very deep.
Usually constructed by digging.
Tube wells:Tube well is a long pipe sunk into the ground intercepting one or more water bearing strata.
Intakes:These are structure placed in a surface-water source to permit the withdrawal of water from this
source, and discharge it into an intake conduit to the treatment plants.
Infiltration well

C/S Infiltration well

2.3Yield from Well :-
▪ Yield has been defined as the amount of water flowing into the well per unit time. It is expressed in litres per
second or sometimes in cubic meter per day.
Methods of determination of Yield of the well:-
If D = the vertical distance from the water table to the bottom of the well. d = the depth of water in the well
R = the radius of the circle of influence r = the radius of the well
p = porosity ratio k = constant
Yield of the well Q =[ Km (D²– d²)]/ log10 (R/r) litre per minute.
Where Transmissibility constant Km = 3.143pk *1000/ (24* 60* 2.303)
Problem : The following observations were made on a 30 cm diameter tube well :—
(i) Rate of pumping = 1500 litre / minute , (ii) Draw down in a test well 30m away =1.5m,
(iii) Draw down in another test well 60m away = 0.6m, (iv) Depth of water in the well before pumping = 40m.
Determine the radius of the circle of influence & the transmission constant.
Ans. : Given H = 40m , h = 40 - 0.6 = 39.4m
So here Q =[ Km (D²– d²)]/ log10 (R/r) litre per minute.
= Km (40²– 38.5²)/ log10 (R/30) = Km (40²– 39.4²)/ log10 (R/60)
Solving for R by trial & error ,we get R = 94m.
Now solving for Km , 15.0 = Km (40²– 38.5²)/ log10 (94/30) = Km = 6.31 (Ans.)
Measurement of an open yield :-
The yield can be determined by the following two methods:
(i) Actual Pumping Method
(ii) Theoretical Method
Actual Pumping Method :
The specific yield of a well can be determined by the following formula –
C ‘/ A = (2.303/ T) log10 (S1 / S2)
Where , C‘/A = Specific yield.
S1 = Depression head in the well at the time immediately after the pumping was stopped.
S2 = Depression head in the well at time ―t ‘‘ after the pumping was stopped.
T = Time after pumping when measurement S2 was taken.
Knowing the value of C‘/A , the discharge ―Q‖ of the well can be determined by –:
Q = (C‘/A) *A *S
Where , A = Cross sectional area of the well
S = Depression head
Theoretical Method :-
▪ The approximate quantity of water entering or percolating in the wall can be calculated as :

Q = A* V * B

Where A = cross sectional area of the well opening

V = Velocity of water percolating in the well & B = Permeability constant.
Problem :
The water level in an open well was depressed by pumping up to 3.0 meter. The water level
was raised by 1.5meter within 50 minutes just after stopping the pumping . Determine Yield
from well , if the diameter of the well is 2.5 meter & the depression head is 3.3 meter.
Ans. Given S1 = 3.0m, S2 = 3 – 1.5 = 1.5m , T = 50 minutes = 3000 sec
C‘/ A = (2.3 / T) log10 (S1 /S2 )
C‘/A = (2.3/3000) log10 (3/1.5)
C‘/A = 0.0002307
If d = 2.5m & S= 3.3m, then A = 3.142d² = 4.909 m²
Then Q = (C‘/A) *A *S = 0.0002307 * 4.909 * 3.3 = 3.737 * 10-3 litre per second Ans.
2.4 Intakes – types, description of river intake, reservoir intake, canal intake
INTAKES:- Intake structures are used for collecting water from the surface sources such as river, lake, and reservoir and
conveying it further to the water treatment plant.
▪ These structures are masonry or concrete structures and provides relatively clean water, free from pollution, sand and
objectionable floating material.
▪ An intake structure consist of two sections-
1) intake conduit with screen at inlet end and valve to control the flow of water and
2) the structure permitting the withdrawal of water from source and housing and supporting intake conduit, valves, pumps
etc.
Types of Intake Structures
Intakes are classified under three categories:
▪ Category 1:
1. Submerged intake:- Those intakes that are constructed entirely under water are termed as submerged
intakes. Submerged intake structures are commonly used to obtain water from lakes.
2. Exposed intake:- Exposed intakes are in the form of oil or tower constructed near the bank of river, or in
some cases even away from the bank of river and are common due to ease in its operation.
▪ Category 2:
1. Wet intake:- The water level of intake tower is practically the same as that of the water level of sources of
supply in wet intake. It is also known as jack well.
2. Dry intake:- There is no water in the water tower in the case of dry intake. Water enters through the port
directly into the conveying pipes. In this type of intake the dry tower is simply used for the operation of
valves.
 WET INTAKE

EXPOSED INTAKE

SUBMERGED INTAKE

DRY INTAKE
▪ Category 3:
1. River intake
2. Reservoir intake
3. Lake intake
4. Canal intake
River Intake Structures
▪ It is a type of intake which may either located sufficiently inside the
river so that demands of water are met with in all the seasons of the
year, or they may be located near the river bank where a sufficient
depth of water is available.
▪ Sometimes, an approach channel is constructed and water is led to
the intake tower.
▪ If the water level in the river is low, a weir may be constructed across
it to raise the water level and divert it to the intake tower.
Reservoir Intake Structures
▪ When the flow in the river is not guaranteed throughout the
year, a dam is constructed across it to store water in the
reservoir so formed.
▪ These are similar to river intake, except that these are
located near the upstream face of the dam where maximum
depth of water is available.
▪ Design of intake may vary based on the type of dam.
Lake Intake Structures
▪ Generally submerged intakes are preferred for lake intakes.
▪ These are constructed as cribs or bell mouths. The cribs are
made of heavy timber frame work which is partly or wholly
filled with rip-rap to protect the intake conduit against
damage by waves etc.
▪ The top of the crib is covered with cast iron or mesh
grating.
Canal Intake Structures
▪ In some cases, source of water supply to a small town
may be an irrigation canal passing nearer or through the
town. Then it will be constructed.
▪ Generally it consists of masonry or concrete intake
chamber of rectangular shape, admitting water through a
coarse screen.
▪ A fine screen is provided over the bell mouth entry of the
outlet pipe.
▪ The intake chamber may be constructed inside the canal
bank if it does not offer any appreciable resistance to
normal flow in the canal.
▪ It’s preferred to provide lining to the canal near the intake
chamber.
2.5 Pumps for conveyance & distribution – types, selection, installation
Pumping
▪ A pump is a device which converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy. It lifts water from a lower to a
higher level and delivers it at high pressure. Pumps are employed in water supply projects at various stages for
following purposes:
▪ To lift raw water from wells.
▪ To deliver treated water to the consumer at desired pressure.
▪ To supply pressured water for fire hydrants.
▪ To boost up pressure in water mains.
▪ To fill elevated overhead water tanks.
▪ To back-wash filters.
▪ To pump chemical solutions, needed for water treatment.
Classification of Pumps
Based on principle of operation, pumps may be classified as follows:
1. Displacement pumps (reciprocating, rotary)
2. Velocity pumps (centrifugal, turbine and jet pumps)
3. Buoyancy pumps (air lift pumps)
4. Impulse pumps (hydraulic rams)
Capacity of Pumps
▪ Work done by the pump,
▪ H.P.=gQH/75
▪ where, g= specific weight of water kg/m3, Q= discharge of pump, m3/s; and H= total head against which
pump has to work.
▪ H= Hs + Hd + Hf + (losses due to exit, entrance, bends, valves, and so on)
▪ where, Hs=suction head, Hd = delivery head, and Hf = friction loss.
▪ Efficiency of pump (E) = gQH/Brake H.P.
▪ Total brake horse power required = gQH/E
▪ Provide even number of motors say 2,4,... with their total capacity being equal to the total BHP and provide
half of the motors required as stand-by.
Conveyance
▪ There are two stages in the transportation of water:
1. Conveyance of water from the source to the treatment plant.
2. Conveyance of treated water from treatment plant to the distribution system.
▪ In the first stage water is transported by gravity or by pumping or by the combined action of both, depending
upon the relative elevations of the treatment plant and the source of supply.
▪ In the second stage water transmission may be either by pumping into an overhead tank and then supplying
by gravity or by pumping directly into the water-main for distribution.
Selection Of type of Pump:-
Following Following consideration govern the choice of particular type of Pump in water
supply project:
1. Capacity of Pumps
2. Importance of water supply scheme
3. Initial Cost
4. Location of Pump
5. Maintenance cost
6. Number of units required
7. Quality of water to be pumped
8. Total head of water, variation in pumping head and pumping rate
9. Type of Supply service:- intermittent or continuous
10. Working or operating conditions such as flexibility in operation, requirement of floor
area etc.
2.6 Pipe materials – necessity, suitability, merits & demerits of each type
▪ The pipes used for plumbing installations in homes and businesses can be
manufactured from many different materials. Like in any engineering decisions,
the best option changes depending on the application and project conditions.
▪ The most common piping materials used for plumbing are copper, PVC, CPVC
and PEX(Cross-Linked Polyethylene Piping) etc.
1. Copper Pipes
▪ Copper is very durable, and it has been the traditional plumbing material since
the 1960s. Other materials have been introduced since then, but copper is still
one of the best options. The main drawback of copper piping is its high price,
and it requires soldering and additional fittings.
• Demerits:-
▪ Merits:-
• Expensive
• Resistant to leaks
• Old installations may contain lead solder
• Durable • Old copper pipes can be recycled, but copper mining
• Does not pollute water and manufacturing cause environmental damage
• Heat tolerant
• Old pipes can be recycled
• Corrosion resistant
2. Polyvinyl Chloride Piping (PVC)
▪ PVC is a plastic material that is commonly used in plumbing, and it comes in two sizes:
Schedule 40 and Schedule 80.
▪ Schedule 40 PVC is the most commonly used, having thinner walls and a lower price.
▪ Schedule 80 PVC has thicker walls, making it more durable but also more expensive.

▪ PVC is commonly used for the drain lines of sinks, toilets and bathtubs. Other common
applications include indoor plumbing, underground plumbing,

Merits Demerits
• Resistant to rust and corrosion • Cannot be used for hot water, since heat
• Resistant to high water pressure deforms PVC.
• Low cost • PVC degrades with UV light, which means it
• Easy installation, no welding or metalwork cannot be exposed to sunlight.
• Versatile: multiple sizes and fittings • Not safe for drinking water.
• Strong and durable • Not recyclable.
• Non-conductive
3. Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride Piping (CPVC)
▪ As implied by its name, CPVC is PVC piping with a higher chlorine content. CPVC is suitable for hot
water and drinking water, unlike normal PVC. Compared with copper, CPVC pipes are smoother, and they
produce less noise when water flows through.
Merits Demerits
• Safe for drinking water • CPVC pipes split when frozen
• Easy installation • Not recyclable
• Can carry hot water • More expensive than PVC
• More flexibility than PVC and • Manufacturing process is highly
metallic pipe polluting
• All the benefits of PVC, and more
durable
• Fire resistant

4. Cross-Linked Polyethylene Piping (PEX)

▪ PEX pipes are considered one of the biggest innovations in plumbing. PEX is an extremely flexible
pipe similar to a hose, which can bend around edges and obstructions. In addition, it uses
compression fittings and does not require glue.
Merits Demerits
• Flexible,Versatile, Heat resistant. • The fittings require a special tool
• Freeze resistant, since the material can expand and • Cannot be connected directly to a water heater
contract. • Cannot be used outdoors, since the material is
damaged by UV rays.
5. Galvanized Steel Piping
▪ This materials was popular in the past, but no longer used due to its negative effects:
▪ Internal rusting in small diameter pipes, due to the zinc coating
▪ Can get clogged over time
▪ Lead can be released by corroded pipes
▪ Water discoloration

▪ Galvanized steel is also a heavy material, which limits its applications in plumbing. These pipes were commonly
used in greywater and non-potable water drains.
6. Cast Iron Pipes
▪ Cast iron pipes are usually manufactured as a bell and spigot type, and they are the heaviest of all plumbing
pipes.
▪ common applications of cast iron pipes are water distribution systems and underground installations, such as the
main pipes on drainage and sewer systems.
7. Asbestos Cement Pipe.
▪ The asbestos pipe is made from asbestos, silica, and cement converted under pressure to a dense, homogeneous
material possessing considerable strength.
▪ The asbestos fiber is thoroughly mixed with the cement and serves as reinforcement.
▪ They are used to carry water under low pressure. The hydraulic efficiency of an asbestos pipe is high.
▪ These pipes are soft from the inside. That is why their performance is better. They are not rusted and are cheap as
well.
8. Concrete Pipe.
▪ The Pre-cast Concrete pipe is available in sizes up to 72 inches diameter, and sizes up to 180 inches have been
made on special order.
▪ The centrifugal force presses the mortar tightly against the forms and results in high-density watertight concrete.
▪ Because of the better control in its manufacture, a pre-cast concrete pipe is usually of higher quality and not need
to be so thick as a cast-in-place pipe of the same size.
▪ Because of the need to move plant and forms over long distances, cast-in-place pipe is relatively expensive and is
normally used only for pipe sizes not available in precast form or where transportation difficulties make use of
precast pipe impossible.
▪ Concrete Pipes are generally used these days. They are used even in low as well as high pressure. Plain concrete
pipes are made for low pressure, and R. C. C. ( Reinforced Cement Concrete) pipes are made for high pressure.
▪ Less expenditure is required for their maintenance. Rust does not affect these [Link] pipes are heavy. So, their
transportation is difficult. It is also difficult to repair them.
2.7 Pipe joints – necessity, types of joints, suitability, methods of jointing Laying of pipes – method :-

1. Threaded Joint in Pipe

▪ Threaded joint means, pipes are connected by screwing with the help of threads provided for
each pipe. One pipe having internal threads and the other one having threads externally. Cast
iron pipes, copper pipes, PVC and G.I pipes are available with threads.
▪ They are preferable for low temperature areas and low pressure flows.
2. Brazed Joint in Pipe
▪ Brazing is the process of jointing pipes using molten filler material at above 840 oC. Brazing is
generally used for joining copper pipes or copper alloy pipes. The filler material majorly
consist tin which has great affinity towards copper. But because of its weak property tin is
added to other materials like nickel, bismuth, silver and copper.
▪ The melting point of parent metal should be higher than filler metal. Mechanical strength of
brazed joint is low compared to other joints. This type of joint is suitable in moderate range of
temperature areas.
3. Soldered Joint in Pipe
▪ Soldering is also similar to brazing but the only difference is in case of soldering the filler
metal melts at below 840oC. Soldering also used to joint copper and copper alloy pipes. Before
proceeding to soldering flux called paste is applied to pipes and fittings to prevent them from
oxidation from flame. Here also we require skilled workers for installation.
▪ Soldered joints are suitable for low temperature areas. These are having low mechanical
strength as brazed joints.
4. Butt Welded Joint in Pipe
▪ When the pipes are of same diameter butt welding is to done to join the
pipes. It is the most common type of welding. Skilled workers are required
to install the joint. These joints are generally used for large commercials
and industrial piping systems.
▪ Butt weld provides good strength for the joint and it can resist high
pressure because of smooth and continuous surface inside the joint.
▪ Butt weld joints are expensive, to make it economical sometimes internal
weld backing rings are used, which joins the pipe with less amount of
filler material. But these rings may fail under heavy stress and cracks are
developed.
5. Socket Welded Joint in Pipe
▪ Socket welded joints are used wherever there is a high chance of leakage
in joints. Pipes are connected as putting one into other and welded around
the joint. Pipes having different diameters are suitable for this type of
joint.
6. Flanged Joint in Pipe
▪ Flanged joints are used for high pressure flows and for large diameter
pipes. In general they are used for plain end pipes or threaded pipes. Two
flange components are connected by bolts at the pipe joint to prevent
leakage.
7. Compression Joint in Pipe
▪ When the pipes have plain ends they are joined by installing some fittings at their
ends then that type of joint is called compression joint. The pipe ends will be
fitted with a threaded fittings or couplings hence they are connected.
▪ So, in this case we can connect pipes of different materials and different sizes.
But the joints should be properly fitted to resist flow pressure otherwise they may
fail and leakage occurs.
8. Grooved Joint in Pipe
▪ In case of grooved joint, the pipe ends consist grooved edges which are
connected by elastomer seal and then ductile iron made grooved couplings are
used as lock for elastomer seal. This grooved couplings are connected by bolts.
These joints are easy to install and economical.
▪ Grooved joints will give good resistance against pressure and allows moderate
axial movement due to thermal expansion. But, in high temperature area
elastomer seal may lost its strength and torsional failure occurs. So, these are
permitted to moderate temperature areas.
▪ Grooved joints are easily removable so, for maintenance purposes of pipes these
joints are preferable.
 WATER SUPPLY &
WASTE WATER ENGINEERING
CHAPTER 3

Treatment of water
BY:- ER. M. S. KAR
 3 Treatment of water
3.1 Flow diagram of conventional water treatment system
3.2 Treatment process / units :
3.2.1 Aeration ; Necessity
3.2.2 Plain Sedimentation : Necessity, working principles, Sedimentation tanks – types,
essential features, operation & maintenance
3.2.3 Sedimentation with coagulation: Necessity, principles of coagulation, types of
coagulants, Flash Mixer, Flocculator, Clarifier (Definition and concept only)
3.2.4 Filtration : Necessity, principles, types of filters Slow Sand Filter, Rapid Sand
Filter and Pressure Filter – essential features
3.2.5 Disinfection : Necessity, methods of disinfection Chlorination – free and
combined chlorine demand, available chlorine, residual chlorine, pre-chlorination, break
point chlorination, super- chlorination
3.2.6 Softening of water – Necessity, Methods of softening – Lime soda process and Ion
exchange method (Concept Only)
3.1 Flow diagram of conventional water treatment system :-

Primary Treatment
Source
Protective
bar screen
Low Lift Pump well

Sedimentation Basin
Coagulation
Flocculation

Sand filtration
Chlorination
3.2.1 Aeration ; Necessity
▪ Aeration (also called aerification) is the process by which air is
circulated through, mixed with or dissolved in a liquid or
substance.
▪ Passing the liquid through air by means of fountains, cascades,
paddle-wheels or cones.
Necessity:-
▪ Production of aerated water for drinking purposes.
▪ Secondary treatment of sewage or industrial wastewater through
use of aerating mixers/diffusers.
▪ To increase the oxygen content of water used to house animals,
such as aquarium fish or fish farm.
▪ In chemistry, to oxidise a compound dissolved or suspended in
water.
3.2.2 Plain Sedimentation : Necessity, working principles, Sedimentation tanks – types, essential features,
operation & maintenance
Plain Sedimentation
Solid liquid separation process in which a suspension is separated into two phases –
▪ Clarified supernatant leaving the top of the sedimentation tank (overflow).
▪ Concentrated sludge leaving the bottom of the sedimentation tank (underflow).

Purpose of Sedimentation:-
▪ To remove coarse dispersed phase.
▪ To remove coagulated and flocculated impurities.
▪ To remove precipitated impurities after chemical treatment.
▪ To settle the sludge (biomass) after activated sludge process / tricking filters.
Principle of Sedimentation:-
▪ Suspended solids present in water having specific gravity greater than that of water tend to settle down by
gravity as soon as the turbulence is retarded by offering storage.
▪ Basin in which the flow is retarded is called settling tank.
▪ Theoretical average time for which the water is detained in the settling tank is called the detention period.
▪ Type I: Discrete particle settling - Particles settle individually without interaction with
neighboring particles.
▪ Type II: Flocculent Particles – Flocculation causes the particles to increase in mass and
settle at a faster rate.
▪ Type III: Hindered or Zone settling –The mass of particles tends to settle as a unit with
individual particles remaining in fixed positions with respect to each other.
▪ Type IV: Compression – The concentration of particles is so high that sedimentation can
only occur through compaction of the structure.
Types of Settling Tanks
▪ Sedimentation tanks may function either intermittently or continuously.

1. Fill and Draw Type Sedimentation Tank

▪ In case of fill and draw type sedimentation tank, water from inlet is stored for some time.
The time may be 24 hours. In that time, the suspended particles are settled at the bottom of
the tank. After 24 hours, the water is discharged through outlet.
▪ Then settled particle are removed. This removal action requires 6-12 hours. So, one
complete action of sedimentation requires 30-40 hours in case of fill and draw type
sedimentation tank.
2. Continuous Flow Type Sedimentation Tank
▪ In this case, water is not allowed to rest. Flow always takes place but with a very small
velocity. During this flow, suspended particles are settle at the bottom of the tank. The flow
may be either in horizontal direction or vertical direction.
Horizontal flow type sedimentation tank
▪ These tanks generally in rectangular shape. They have more length twice its width. Because
they need to flow more distance to settle all suspended particles. The maximum permissible
velocity in this case is 0.3m/sec.
Vertical flow type sedimentation tank
▪ The vertical flow type sedimentations tanks are generally in circular shape and flow takes place
in vertical direction. Hopper bottom is provided at the bottom of the tank to dispose the
collected sludge.
Types of Sedimentation Tanks based on Shape
1. Circular Tank
▪ Circular sedimentation tanks are preferred for continuous vertical flow type sedimentation
tanks. In this case influent is sent through central pipe of the tank and radial flow takes place.
▪ Mechanical sludge scrappers are provided to collect the sludge and collected sludge is carried
through sludge pipe provided at the bottom. But circular tanks are uneconomical as compared
to rectangular tanks but they have high clarification efficiency.
2. Rectangular Tank
▪ Rectangular sedimentation tanks are mostly preferred sedimentation tanks and are used widely.
The flow takes place in horizontal direction that is length wise in rectangular tanks. Sometimes
baffle walls are provided for rectangular tank to prevent short circuiting.
▪ Maintenance costs are low in case of rectangular sedimentation tanks. They are also suitable
for large capacity plants.
3. Hopper Bottom Tank
▪ In case of hopper bottom tank, a deflector box is located at the top which deflects the influent coming from central pipe to downwards. Sludge
is collected at the bottom and it is disposed through sludge pump.
3.2.3 Sedimentation with coagulation: Necessity, principles of coagulation, types of coagulants, Flash Mixer, Flocculator, Clarifier :-
▪ The process of removal of suspended solid from water using chemical agent is called coagulation.
▪ The purpose of Coagulation is to make particles of bigger size by adding certain chemical called “COAGULANT “ are mixed with water
which from a gelatinous precipitate called “floc” which attracts the fine suspended particles and making it settled down. It is required for raw
water containing turbidity more than about 40ppm.
Necessity:-
1. To remove very fine suspended and colloidal particles.
2. The coagulation is to be adopted when turbidity of water exceeds about 40ppm
Principle Of Coagulation:-The principle of coagulation can be explained from the two considerations
1. Floc Formation:- When coagulant are dissolved in water and thoroughly mixed with it, they produce a thick gelatinous [Link]
precipitate is known as the floc and this floc has got the property of arresting the suspended impurities in water during its downward
movement towards bottom of tank
2. Electric Charge:- The ions of floc are found to possess positive electric charge. Hence, they will attract the negatively charged colloidal
particle of clay and thus they cause the removal of these particles from water.
Types of Coagulant:-
1. Aluminum Sulfate/ Alum:-
▪ Cheap and Effective coagulant used universally at present in any water treatment plant.
▪ This coagulant is found to be effective between pH range of 6.5 to 8.5.
▪ Dosage of coagulant will depends on various factors such as turbidity of water, colour and taste of water,pH of water, temperature etc.

2. Chlorinated Copperas:- (mixture of chlorine and solution of ferrous sulphate)

▪ Effective in removing colour of water
▪ Ferric sulphate is effective for pH range is 4 to 7 and ferric chloride is effective for pH range 3.5 to 6.5.
Hopper Bottom Tank
 3. Ferrous Sulphate and lime (Coppera):-
▪ The floc formed by Coppera is heavier than that formed by alum. Hence it sinks more rapidly.
▪ Skilled supervision required for proper dosage of both chemicals.

4. Magnesium Carbonate:-
▪ Floc fromed in this process using is heavier and larger than the floc formed in the process using alum as a
coagulant.
▪ It removes organic colour and turbidity and in addition to it also completely removes iron and manganese.
▪ It is possible to recycle and reuse the coagulant by passing the sludge through water dissolved with CO2 gas.

5. Sodium Aluminate:-
▪ This coagulant removes carbonate or temporary hardness and also non-carbonate or permanent hardness.
▪ Suitable for pH range 6 to 8.5 and as pH value of normal water lies within this range, the adjustment of pH value
not important when this coagulant used.
▪ This coagulant is costly so it can’t adopted for treating water on a large scale.
Flash Mixer, Flocculator, Clarifier:-
• In the flash mixer, coagulant chemicals are added to the water and the water is mixed quickly and violently.
• The purpose of this step is to evenly distribute the chemicals through the water. Flash mixing typically lasts a minute or less.
• If the water is mixed for less than thirty seconds, then the chemicals will not be properly mixed into the water. However, if
the water is mixed for more than sixty seconds, then the mixer blades will shear the newly forming floc back into small
particles.
• After flash mixing, coagulation occurs. During coagulation, the coagulant chemicals neutralize the electrical charges of the
fine particles in the water, allowing the particles to come closer together and form large clumps.
▪ You may already be familiar with the process of coagulation from cooking. You can see coagulation occurring when preparing gelatin
(jello) or when cooking an egg white.
▪ The final step is flocculation. During flocculation, a process of gentle mixing brings the fine particles formed by coagulation into contact
with each other. Flocculation typically lasts for about thirty to forty-five minutes. The flocculation basin often has a number of
compartments with decreasing mixing speeds as the water advances through the basin. This compartmentalized chamber allows
increasingly large floc to form without being broken apart by the mixing blades.
▪ Floc

▪ The end product of a well-regulated coagulation/flocculation process is water in which the majority of the turbidity has been collected
into floc, clumps of bacteria and particulate impurities that have come together and formed a cluster. The floc will then settle out in the
sedimentation basin, with remaining floc being removed in the filter.
▪ The best floc size is 0.1 to 3 mm. Larger floc does not settle as well and is more subject to breakup in the flocculation basin.
FLOCCULATION:-
The floc produced by the action of coagulant with water is heavy And hence to start settle down at the
bottom of the tank. As it descends, it absorbs and catches more and more suspended impurities present in
water. It thus goes slowly on increasing in size during this process some amount of bacterial removal is also
takes place.
The surface of floc is sufficiently wide to arrest colloidal and organic matter present in water. The term
flocculation is used to denote the process of floc formation and thus flocculation follows the addition of
coagulant and its efficiency depends on the following factors.
▪ Dosage of Coagulant:- The dosages or quantity of coagulant should be carefully to determined so as to
cause visible floc. The quantity of coagulant should be such that the turbidity of water is brought down
to the limit of 10 to 25 PPM.
▪ Feeding:- The feeding of coagulant maybe in powder form or in solution form, the latter being more
popular.
▪ Mixing:- The coagulant should be properly mixed with water so as to cause a uniform. In the beginning
the mixing may be quick for a period of about 30 to 60 second or so.
▪ pH value:-Depending upon the quality of water and coagulant adopted suitable,suitable pH value
should be determined. The pH value should be actually tested in the laboratory at regular intervals. To
remove acidity the lime is added to water and to remove alkaline it is sulphuric acid as added to water.
▪ Velocity:- The floc should be allowed to move gently after initial quick mixing. The gentle moment of
floc result in collision of particles and ultimately the floc grows in size. The detention period of
sedimentation tank collision 3 to 4 hour
Clarifier:-
▪ Fluid Systems Offers a wide range of Clarifiers to suit various clarification applications, from pre-treatment to effluent
treatment.
▪ Fluid Systems primary clarifiers are designed to receive raw/waste from the incoming stream, after it has been pre-
screened to remove large objects and grit.
▪ The clarifier reduces the velocity of the water, ensuring that the incoming water is distributed uniformly in a radial manner
in all the directions.
▪ This also provides maximum setting time causing efficient separation of settled particles from water. Collected particles
gradually travel down the through the slope forming sludge.
▪ The sludge is scraped of by a scraper bridge provided. The clear water overflows via a launder provided at the top portion.
3.2.4 Filtration : Necessity, principles, types of filters Slow Sand Filter, Rapid Sand Filter and Pressure Filter – essential features :-
NECESSITY:
1. The sedimentation tanks remove a large percentage of the suspended solids and the organic matter present in raw water.
2. The process of coagulation further assists in the removal of impurities present in the water .But even then; the resultant water is not pure
and may contain some very fine suspended particles, bacteria etc.
3. In order to remove or to reduce the content of impurities still further, the water is filtered through the beds of fine granu lar material like
sand .The process of passing though the bed such granular material is known as filtration .
PRINCIPLES OF FILTERATIONS:
Process of filtration consists of the allowing water to pass through a thick layer of sand.
Principles of filtration are:
(1)Mechanical straining: The suspended participles which are unable to pass through the voids of sand grains are arrested and are removed by
mechanical straining.
(2) Sedimentation: The voids between sands grains of filter act more or less like small sedimentation tanks .The particle of impurities arrested
in these voids, at here to the participles of sand grains and are the removed by the action of sedimentation.
(3)Biological metabolism:
▪ The growth and silt process of the living cells is known as the biological metabolism.

▪ When the bacteria are caught in the voids of sand grains, a zoological jelly or film is formed around the sand grains. This film contains large
colonies of living bacteria .The bacteria feeds on the organic impurities contained in water. They convert such impurities in to harm less
compounds by the complex biochemical reaction.
(4)Electrolytic changes:
▪ According to this theory when two substance whit opposite electric charges are brought in to contact with each other, the electric charges are
neutralized and in doing so, new chemical substances are formed.
▪ It is observed that some of the sand grains of filter are charged with electricity of some polarity. Hence, when particle of suspended and
dissolved matter contain electricity of opposite polarity come into contact with such sand grains they neutral each other and neutralize result in
the alteration of chemical characteristics of water.
CLASSIFICATION OF FILTERS : FILTERS

The filters are classified in to the following:

(1) Slow sand filter Pressure
Gravity Fillter
(2) Rapid sand flitter.
Filter

The rapid sand filters are further subdivided into the following two categories.
Rapid Sand Slow Sand
▪ Gravity types rapid sand filter
Fillter Fillter
▪ Pressure type rapid sand filter.

The above classification is based on the rate of filtration .On the consideration of the gravity and pressure the filters may be classified as
[Link] the above two classification, there are following three types of filters.
1) Slow sand filter
2) Rapid sand filter
3) pressure filter
SLOW SAND FILTERS:

PURPOSE :

▪ Incase of slow sand filtration , the water is allowed to pass slowly through a layer of sand placed above the base of
the,material and thus the purification process are at simultaneously improving the biological chemical and physical
characteristic of water.

▪ The slow sand filtration is very well suited for rural area as in developing countries, because of its simple operation and
maintenance. It thus provides safe drinking water at low recurrent cost.

ESSENTIAL PARTS: A slows sand filter consist of the following five parts.

1. Enclosure tank (2) Under drainage system (3) Base material 4. Filter media or sand (5) Appurtenances.

2. ENCLOSURE TANK:

A water tight tank is constructed either in stone masonry or brick masonry .The sides & floor are also coated with water
proof material . The bed slope is about 1 in 100 to 1 in 200 towards the central drain. The depth of tank is about 2.50m to
3.50m .The surface area of a slow sand filter may vary from 30m to 2000m or even more.

2. UNDER DRAINAGE SYSTEM:

The under drainage system consists of a central drain and lateral [Link] lateral drain is placed at a distance of about 2.5
m to 3.5m and they are stopped at a distance of about 500mm to 800mm from the walls of the tanks. The drains may be
pipes which are laid with open joint.

3. BASE MATERIAL:
The base material is gravels &it is placed on the top of under drainage [Link] depth varies from 300mm to 750mm
.It is usually graded and laid in layers of 150mm .The topmost layer should be small size gravel and the lowest layer
should be of bigger size gravel . Followings is a typical section of base material.
▪ Top most layer150mm depth –size 3mmto 6mm
▪ 150mm depth-size 6mm to 20mm
▪ 150mm depth –size 20mm to 40mm
▪ 150mm depth – size 40mm to 65mm
▪ Total 600mm depth.
5. FILTER MEDIA OF SAND: A layer of sand placed above the gravels. The finer the sand, the better will be the efficiency of filter regarding the removal
of bacteria but in that case , the output from the flitter is lowered
▪ The depth of sand layer varies from 600mmto 900mm.
▪ The effective size of sand varies from 0.20 mm to 0.30mm & the uniformity co-efficient about 2 to 3.

6. APPURTENANCE:
▪ The various appurtenances are to be installed for the efficient working of slow sand filter.
▪ The devices for measuring loss of head for controlling depth of water above sand layer. And for minting rate of flows through filter are to be
suitably [Link] vertical air pipe passing through layer of sand help in proper function of filtering layer.

7. WORKING & CLEANING :

▪ The water allowed to enter the filter through the inlet chamber. It descends through the filter media and during this processit gets purified.
▪ Water is then collected in the outlet chamber and taken to the clear water storage tank.
▪ The depth of water filter is to be carefully decided. It should neither be too small nor too high. Generally it is kept as eq ual to the light of filter media
of sand.
▪ For the purpose of cleaning the top layer of sand is scrapped or removed through a depth of about 15mm to 25mm. The water is then admitted to the
filter. But the purified water is not taken into use until the formation film around sand grain occurs

8. RATE OF FILTERATION: - The rate of filtration of a normal slow sand filter varies from 100 to 200 liters/ hours/ 𝑚² of filter area.
Efficiency of slow sand filters
▪ Bacterial load: The slow sand filters are highly efficient in the removal of bacterial load from water. It is expected that they remove about 98 to 99 per
cent of bacterial load from raw water and this percentage may be as high as 99.50 to 99.90, when pre-treatment has been given to the raw
water. However, for complete removal of bacteria, disinfection is essential.
▪ Colour: The slow sand filters are less efficient in the removal of colour of raw water. It is estimated that they remove about 20 to 25 per cent of colour of
raw water.
▪ Turbidity: The slow sand filters can remove turbidity to the extent of about 50 ppm. For water having greater turbidity than 60 ppm, it is necessary to
give preliminary treatment and bring down is turbidity below 50 ppm
RAPID SAND FILTERS ( GRAVITY TYPE): -
1) Purpose: - The great disadvantages of a slow sand filter are that it requires considerable space for its installation. This requirement makes it uneconomical
for places where land values are high. The difficulty of requiring moves space for slow sand filters can be obviated by increasing the rate of filtration which
is accomplished in rapid sand filter by increasing the size of sand.
2) Essential parts:-It consists of the following five parts.
i) Enclosure tank ii) Under drainage system iii) Base material iv) Filter media v) Appurtenances
i) Enclosure Tank: A watertight tank is constructed either of masonry or concrete.
▪ The side and floor are also coated with waterproof material.
▪ The depth of tank is about 2.5m to 3.5m.
▪ The surface area of a exit of rapid sand filter varies from 10m² to 30m².

ii) Under drainage system: There are various forms of under drainage system of a rapid sand filter and most of them are patented by the [Link]
are two common types of under drainage system
a. perforated pipe system b. pipe and strainer system

a) Perforated pipe system: In this system there is a central drain or manifold and to this manifold the various lateral drains are attached.
▪ The drains are usually made of cast-iron.
▪ The lateral drains are placed at a distance of about 150mm to 300mm.
▪ The lateral drains are provided with holes at the bottom side and such holes make an angle of 20° with the vertical.
▪ The perforated pipe system is economical and simple in operation.

b) Pipe and strainer system: In this system also there is a central drain or manifold with lateral drains attached on either [Link] in this system the s trainers are
placed on lateral drains instead of drilling holes.
▪ A strainer is a small pipe of brass. It is closed at top and contains holes on its surface.
▪ The strainers are either screwed or fixed on the top of lateral drains.
▪ When pipe and strainer system is adopted the compressed air is used for the purpose of washing the filter. This results in saving of wash water.
(iii)Base Material: The base material is gravel and it is faced on the top of under drainage [Link] gravel to be used for best material should be clean and free
from clay , dust, silt and vegetable [Link] gravel particle should be durable, hard, round and [Link] depth of base material varies from 450mmto
600mmgravel .It is usually graded and laid in layers of 150mm.
▪ The topmost layer should be of small seize of gravel and the lower layer should be of big size gravel.

Following is a typical section of base material:

▪ Top most layer 150mmdepth –size3mm to 6 mm
▪ Intermediate layer {150mm depth-size 6mm to 12mm } ,{150mm depth -size 12mm to 20mm}
▪ Lower layer 150mm depth- size 20 mm to 40mm
▪ Total 600mm depth

(iv) FILTER MEDIA OF SAND:

▪ A layer of sand is placed above gravel. The depth of sand layer varies from 600mm t0 [Link] coarse sand is used as filter [Link] effective size of sand
varies from 0.35mmto 0.60 mm and the uniformity coefficientof sand is between 1.20 to 1.70 .Thus the space of voids between sand particles is increased and it
result in the increase rate filtration.
(v) APPURTENANCES:
a) AIR COMPRESSORS: The agitation of sand grains during washing of filter is carried out either by compressed air or by water jet or by mechanical rakes. When
air is to be used an air compressor of required capacity should be installed.
b) WASH- WATER THROUGHS: The dirty water after washing of filter is collected in wash water through or gutter which is placed above sand bed level.
c) RATE CONTROL: There are various devices which may be fitted at the outlet end of the filter to control the rate of flow.
Efficiency of rapid sand filter
▪ Bacterial load: The rapid sand filters are less effective in the removal of bacterial load. It is expected that they remove about 80 to 90 per cent of bacterial
impurity present in water.
▪ Colour: The rapid sand filters are highly efficient in colour removal and the intensity of colour can be brought down below 10 on cob alt scale.

▪ Turbidity: The rapid sand filters can remove turbidity to the extent of 35 to 40 ppm. As water entering rapid sand filter is invariably given the treatment in
coagulation sedimentation tank, it posses less turbidity. This turbidity is easily brought down to permissible limits by rapid sand filters.
(iv) FILTER MEDIA OF SAND:
▪ A layer of sand is placed above gravel. The depth of sand layer varies from 600mm t0 900mm. The coarse sand is used as filter [Link] effective size of sand
varies from 0.35mmto 0.60 mm and the uniformity coefficientof sand is between 1.20 to 1.70 .Thus the space of voids between sand particles is increased and it
result in the increase rate filtration.
(v) APPURTENANCES:
a) AIR COMPRESSORS: The agitation of sand grains during washing of filter is carried out either by compressed air or by water jet or by mechanical rakes. When air
is to be used an air compressor of required capacity should be installed.
b) WASH- WATER THROUGHS: The dirty water after washing of filter is collected in wash water through or gutter which is placed above sand bed level.
c) RATE CONTROL: There are various devices which may be fitted at the outlet end of the filter to control the rate of flow.
4) Loss of head and negative head:-
▪ When water passes through the filter it has to resist the frictional resistance. It therefore losses some of its head. The loss of head can easily be computed by
knowing the water level in the filter and pressure of water in the outlet pipe. The difference between the two head s indicates the loss of head in filter. In the
beginning when the filter is cleaned the loss of head is very small about [Link] 300mm. the loss of head then gradually goes on increasing. The loss of head can
be measured by inserting piezometers in filter . The difference of water level In two tubes indicates the loss of head. A stage then comes when frictional resistance
offered by filter media exceeds the static head above sand bed.
▪ This is developed due to the deposit of suspended matter in top layer of about 100mm to 150mm. thickness. The lower portion then act more or less like a vacuum
and the water is succeed through the filter media rather than flittered through it. The fall of liquid level in the piezometer tube below the center line of under
drainage system indicates the negative head.
▪ The negative head thus formed tense to release dissolved air and other gasses present in water. The bubbles stick to the sandgrains and the working of filter is
seriously disturbed. This phenomenon is known as air binding as air binds filter and stops its working. The rate of filtration is consequently greatly [Link] case
of rapid sand filter the allowable loss of head is about 3m. To 3.5m. and the allowable negative head is about 1200mm. The filter is to be washed when this limit of
the allowable loss of head has been reached it is usually cleaned after 2 to 3 days.
5) Troubles in operation:- Following two troubles are generally encountered in operating rapid sand filter.
I. Mud balls: - The mud ball are generally formed near the top of filter media. They may even be formed and distributed throughout the filter. The mud balls are
formed or caused due to insufficient washing of sand grains. The gelatinous film formed during filtration is not separated out from sand grains during washing. The
mud balls interfere with the normal working of the filter and their size is about 25mm to 50mm.
II. Cracking of filters: - the fine material contained in the top layer of filter shrinks and this shrinkage leads to form cracks in the filter. These cracks are prominent
near wall junctions. To remove these troubles, the following remedies are adopted.
i. The mud balls are broken with the help of rakes or some such equipment.
ii. The working of filters is carried out with high velocity of water.
iii. The damaged portion of filter media is replaced.
6) Rate of filtration: - The chief advantage of a rapid sand filter is that its rate of filtration is very high. It is about 3000 to 6000 liters/ hour/ 𝑐𝑚2 the high rate of
filtration results in considerable saving of space for the installation of filter.
7) Efficiency of rapid sand filter: -The efficiency of rapid sand filter is as follows.
i. Bacterial load: - The rapid sand filters are less effective in the removal of bacterial load. It is expected that they remove about 80 to 90 percent of bacterial impurity
present in water.
ii. The rapid sand filters are highly efficient in colour removal and the intensity of colour can be brought down below 10 on cobalt scale.
iii. Turbidity: - The rapid sand filter can remove turbidity to the extent of 35 to 45 p.p.m. As water entering rapid sand filter is invariably given the treatment in
coagulation sedimentation tank, it possesses less turbidity. This turbidity is brought down easily to the permissible limits by rapid sand filters.
PRESSURE FILTERS: -These filters are more or less similar to the rapid sand filters ( gravity type) except with the following differences.
1) Meaning of the term – pressure filter: - The pressure filter does not indicate that the water is pumped through the filter under a high pressure loss. But it indicates
that a filter is enclosed in space and the water passes under pressure greater than atmospheric pressure. This pressure can b e developed by pumping and it may vary
from 0.3 to 0.7 N/𝑚𝑚2
2) Construction: - The pressure filters are closed cylinders either riveted or welded. They may be of horizontal or vertical typ e. The diameters of pressure filters vary
from 1.50m to 3.00m. and their lengths or height varies from 3.50m. to 8.00m. the manholes are provided at top for inspection.
3) Working: - The water mixed with coagulant is directly admitted to the pressure filter. Thus the flocculation takes place inside the pressure filter itself. In normal
working condition, all valves are closed except those for raw water and filtered water. The water is admitted through inlet and after it is filtered, it is collected in the
central drain and converged to the filtered water storage tank
4) Cleaning: -
▪ The compressed air may be used to agitate sand [Link] values for raw water and filtered water are in closed position and those for wash water and wash
water drain are in open position during the operation of washing of filter.
▪ The cleaning of pressure filters may be required more be frequently.

▪ The automatic pressure filters are available in which washing of filter is done automatically at a predetermined interval of time or loss of head.

5) Rate of filtration:- The rate of filtration of pressure filters is high as compare to that of rapid sand filters. It is about 6000 to 15000 liters /hour/𝑚2. of filter
area as compared to that of 3000 to 6000 liters/hour/𝑚2. of rapid sand filters.
6) Efficiency: - The pressure filters are found to be less efficient than the rapid sand filters in terms of bacterial loads, colour and turbidity.
7) Suitability: - The pressure filters are more suitable for public water supply projects. But they can be installed for small water supply pro jects such as
colonies of few houses, industrial plants, private estates, swimming pools etc.
3.2.5 Disinfection : Necessity, methods of disinfection, Chlorination – free and combined chlorine demand, available chlorine, residual
chlorine, pre-chlorination, break point chlorination, super- chlorination
Disinfection: It is the process of killing pathogenic bacteria. When high quality water is required, such as drinking water, household water or
livestock watering, disinfection is an essential barrier.
Necessity:-
▪ Disinfection kills disease-causing organisms.

▪ Disinfection is usually the last barrier in municipal water treatment.

▪ Continual water testing is always necessary to ensure the disinfection process is working effectively.

Methods:
1. Bolling of water :Most effective method of disinfection of [Link] be used for huge quantities of public water [Link] take
care of the future possible [Link] only for Domestic purposes in emergencies.
2. Treatment with excess limes : Effectively kills the bacteria, but cannot safe guard the future [Link] lime is added to water to
raise its pH value to 9.5 or more, thereby most of the bacteria will be killed. Recarbonation is necessary. The process of removal of excess
lime before it is supplied to public is known as Recarbonation.
3. Ozone: SinceOzone is a more powerful disinfectant than [Link] is more costly than [Link] not provide residual protect ion
against [Link] be [Link] for disinfection of water on a small scale such asfor swimming pool waters.
4. lodine and Bromine pills: Compared to chlorine , iodine provides longer lasting protection against pathogens and reduced offensive tastes
and odours. Used for water supply for army troops, private plants, swimming pools. Cannot be used for public water supply as it is costly.
5. Ultra violet rays:Very costly technique and is an effective method for the disinfection of waterNo residual effect is available for protection
against [Link] for water supply installations of private Buildings, Institutions; Treating small quantities of water in
hospitals, dispensaries for surgical use, Swimming pools
6. Potassium Permanganate:For disinfecting well water supplies which are generally contaminated with lesser amounts of
[Link] remove 100 % organisms [Link] also oxidizes organic matter
7. Silver or Electro-Katadyn Process: Removes algae also and takes care of future pollution. It is costly.
8. Chlorination: Universally adopted for public waters supplies because it is capable of providing residual disinfecting effects
for long periods. It satisfies all the requirements of an ideal [Link] takes care of any possible future contamination. (i.e
it prevents recontamination) Only disadvantage is it imparts bad [Link] addition of chlorine does not produce any
significant change in the pH Value of the natural [Link] is not effective if the water is alkaline.
▪ Free available chlorine:When chlorine is added to water, the following reaction takes place:
▪ Cl2+ H2 O --→ HOCL + H+ + CL- (Hydrolysis)This hydrolysis reaction is reversible.
▪ HOCL -----> H+ + OCL- .. (Ionization) This reaction is also reversible.
▪ At pH < 5.5 , - > 100% HOCL and no OCL
▪ At pH > 9.5, - > 100% OCL and no HOCL
▪ At pH = 7.5 ,- > 50% HOCL and 50% OCL
▪ Hypochlorous acid (HOCL) andthe hypo chlorite ions (OCL- ) accomplish disinfection of [Link] Chlorine reacts with water
to produce hypo chlorous acid (HOCL) and hypo chlorite (OCL) which are together known as "free available chlorine." HOCL
is 80 to 100 times more powerful than OCL.
▪ Combined Chlorine:- The free Cl2 reacts with compounds such as ammonia, proteins, amino acids and phenol that may
generally be present in water to form Chloramines and Chloro derivatives which are called "Combined Chlorine". It possesses
some disinfecting properties but less effective compared to free available chlorine .Some free chlorine also exists along with
combined available [Link] chlorine is about 25 times more powerful than combined chlorine.
▪ Residual Chlorine:- Residual chlorine is the amount of chlorine that remains in the water after a certain period or
contact time.
▪ Residual Chlorine = Chlorine Dosage - Chlorine demand
▪ Various forms of Chlorine:
1. As bleaching power or hypo chlorite
2. As chloramines
3. As chlorine gas or liquid chlorine
4. As chlorine dioxide gas
▪ Bleaching powder: (Calcium Hypochlorite Ca(OCl )2)The bleaching powder contains about 30 to 35 percent of available
chlorine. Therefore, it can not be used for large public water supplies. This chlorination is known as hypochlorination.
▪ Chloramines: Chloramines are the compounds formed by the reactions between ammonia and chlorine .chloramines do not
cause bad taste and odour. Residual effects lasts for longer [Link] are much weaker disinfectants as compared to
free chlorine.
▪ Chlorine gas or liquid chlorine: Chlorine in gaseous or liquid form is now-a-days universally adopted(liquid chlorine) as
disinfectant for public water supplies It is a powerful disinfectant and may remain in water as residual for sufficient time No
sludge is formed in its application, as may be formed by using hypochlorites or chloramines.
▪ Chlorine dioxide: It has an oxidizing capacity 2.5 times that of chlorine. Further it is effective in the removal of tastes and
odours, but due to its high cost of production it is not economical
Types of Chlorination:
Plain chlorination: Only chlorine treatment and no other [Link] to remove bacteria and colour from water and it also
controls the growth of Algae. It is used in case of emergencies, when full fledged treatment cannot be given. Also adopted for
clean water.
Prechlorination: Chlorine is added before raw water enters sedimentation tanks. It helps in reducing the quantity of coagulants
and to improve coagulation. It reduces taste and odour of water;Controls the growth of algae .It reduces the bacterial load on
filters;It prevents putrefaction of sludge in settling tanks.
Post chlorination : This is the standard form of chlorination in which chlorine is added to water as it leaves filters and before
it enters distribution system. The residual chlorine present in water is useful for its protection against contamination in the
distribution [Link] = 0.1 to 0.2 mg/ l .
Double or multiple chlorination: It consists of prechlorination and post chlorination. Adopted when raw water is highly
contaminated and contains large amount of bacterial life.
Break point chlorination (or free residual chlorination):Break point chlorination gives an idea of chlorine to be added to
water so as to ensure the desired amount of residual chlorine .
Advantages (or other actions) of Chlorine as disinfectant:
▪ It will remove taste and odour.
▪ It will have adequate bactericidal effect.
▪ It will leave a desired chlorine residual.
▪ It will remove manganese and iron.
▪ It will complete the oxidation of ammonia and other compounds,Organic matter.

Super chlorination: The application of chlorine to water beyond the stage of break point is known as super-chlorination. It is
most commonly added at the end of filtration. Adopted whenever there is breakout of water borne [Link]-
chlorinationispracticed,it becomes necessary to remove the excess chlorine by any suitable method of dechlorination before
water is supplied to the consumers
Dechlorination: Process of removing excess chlorine by dechlorinating agents. This is to avoid chlorinous taste from water.
Chemicals used for dechlorination are: sulphur dioxide, Sodium thiosulphate, sodium bio sulphate, Activated carbon,
potassium permanganate,ammonia.
BREAK PONIT CHLORINATION:-
▪ This term has come into practical use today for the amount of chlorine required to treat the water. If
water is pure and if it has no chlorine demand any chlorine that is added to soft water will come out as
usual chlorine.
▪ But for water containing organic matter the chlorine has to perform the following two function
1. To remove bacteria from water
2. To oxidize the organic matter present in water
▪ The chlorine when added to water, perform the function of removing bacteria first and then it started
accumulate of to a certain point. This point is represented by a point B on curve.
▪ At this stage if for other dosage of chlorine is added in water, it is followed by a sudden decrease in
residual chlorine content This stage is sometime accompanied by bad smell and taste. This naturally
indicate that the extra quantity of chlorine added after point B on the curve has been utilised for second
function of chlorine that is oxidation of organic matter present in water.
▪ If Steel further chlorine is added in water a point C is raised on the curve when bad smell and taste
suddenly disappear and residual chlorine henceforth tend to accumulate as represented by line R.
▪ The point C on the Curve is known as break point as any chlorine that is added to the water beyond this
point breaks through water and appear residual chlorine. The exact dosage of chlorine can be
determined by proper study of breakpoint formation.
▪ This method is useful for water containing high content of organic matter as in case of water of
swimming pool.
R
3.2.6 Softening of water – Necessity, Methods of softening – Lime soda process and Ion exchange method
Necessity:-
▪ To improve taste of water

▪ To increase life of textile and saving of cost of laundry .

▪ To make water for washing cleansing easy.

▪ To restrict Scale formation and subsequent loss of heat in boilers, hot water pipes,etc. and therefore the economy is achieved in fuel
consumption and saving of labour in descaling the affected surfaces.
▪ Saving of labour, soap and other detergents.

Methods of Softening:-
Lime soda process:- In this process, the lime and sodium carbonate or soda ash are used to remove permanent hardness from water. The
hardness brought down to the level of 3 to 4 degrees.
Lime Soda Water Softening plant consists of the following units:
i) Feeding and mixing devices ii) Settling tank or settling basin.
iii) Recarbonation plant. iv) Filters
Recarbonation plant: Carbon dioxide CO, gas is diffused through the effluent so that the insoluble calcium carbonate and magnesium
hydroxide combine with carbon dioxide to again form the soluble bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium.
Advantages of Lime-Soda Process:
1. Economical
2. pH value increases and corrosionof the distribution system decreases
3. The process is suitable for turbid, chalybeateand acidic waters for which zeolite process cannot be used.
4. less quantity of coagulant will be required for coagulation.
5. Removal of iron and manganese to some extent.
6. There is likelihood of killing of pathogenic bacteriain this process.
7. Better for excessively hard waters.
Disadvantages of Lime-soda Process:
1. A large quantity of sludge is formed in this process which needs to be disposed off by some suitable method
2. In this process recarbonation is required. By Lime soda process water of zero hardness can’t be produced.
Zeolite Process:
▪ Zeolite is a complex compound of aluminium, silica and soda.
▪ Hard water is passed through a bed of ion-exchange material or ion exchanger commonly known as Zeolite.
▪ Calcium and magnesium are removed from water as these are substituted by sodium by ion- exchange process.
▪ By Zeolite process the hardness of water is reduced almost to zero.
Advantages of Zeolite process:
1. Sludge is not formed and there is no problem of sludge disposal.
2. Does not require any skilled supervision.
3. It is possible to reduce hardness of water to zero. This is useful for softening of water to be used for boilers and
certain textile industries.
Disadvantage of zeolite process: Cannot be adopted for highly turbid water.
▪ Important Questions:-
WATER SUPPLY AND
WASTE WATER ENGINEERING
CHAPTER-04

Distribution System
By:- Er. M. S. Kar
4 Distribution system And Appurtenance in distribution system :
4.1 General requirements, types of distribution system-gravity, direct and combined
4.2 Methods of supply – intermittent and continuous
4.3 Distribution system layout – types, comparison, suitability
4.4 Valves-types, features, uses, purpose-sluice valves, check valves, air valves, scour
valves, Fire hydrants, Water meters
4.1 General requirements, types of distribution system-gravity, direct and combined:-
▪ The process of distributing treated water to the consumers is called a water distribution system.
▪ The distribution system includes pumps, reservoirs, valves, water meters, pipe fittings, etc.
▪ The cost of the distribution system is about 40-70 % of the total of the entire scheme.
▪ A good water distribution system aims to supply water to all the consumers whenever required in sufficient quantity
with required pressure without any leakage.
1.1. Requirements of the good water distribution system
1. The system should be economical to maintain and operate.
2. Sufficient water should reach all consumers.
3. It should be able to draw enough water during an emergency like fire fighting.
4. The system should be watertight and leakage should be least as possible.
5. Any type of contamination of water should not occur during the distribution.
6. It should not be laid below the sewer lines as far as possible.
7. The system should have adequate pressure but the pressure should not be high causing the bursting of pipes and
fittings.
8. The distribution layout should be such that it should supply water even during repair and maintenance time.
Methods of Water Distribution System
▪ For efficient distribution, it is required that water should reach every consumer with the required rate of flow.
▪ Therefore, the same pressure in the pipelines is necessary which should force the water to reach every [Link] distribution
systems can be classified as follows:
Gravity System
▪ When the distribution reservoir is located at a higher elevation than the target community; then water can be supplied with the
gravity [Link] method is much suitable when the source is the river or impounded reservoir at sufficient height than the target
[Link] pumping water is not required at any stage of this type of distribution.
Advantages of the gravity method
1. No energy is required to operate the system as water is conveyed by gravity.
2. No pump is required.
Disadvantages of the gravity method
1. Not applicable in plain or flat terrain where an elevation source of water supply is not available.
2. Water loss by leakage is comparatively higher.
3. Requirement of break pressure tanks to reduce the pressure in the pipelines.
Pumping System
▪ In this system, water is supplied to the consumers with the help of [Link] extra pumps are installed for emergency causes
like fire hazards, peak water demand, [Link] method is suitable if the source is at a lower elevation than the target
[Link], this system of distribution becomes very expensive for long-term use.
▪ In this system, the water may be insufficient when the power fails. So diesel pumps are also managed as an [Link]
method has no problem with the pressure and maintaining the head at the consumer’s tap.
Advantages
▪ 1. Water can be pumped only when required.
▪ 2. Low water loss due to leakage.

Disadvantages
▪ 1. Break down of system may occur if power fails.

▪ 2. Maintenance and operation cost is high.

▪ 3. During pumping hours, the inflow of water through leaks may cause water
contamination.
Dual System
▪ It is a combination of a gravity system and a pumping system. So it is called the Dual
System.
a. One Way Dual System
▪ In this system, water is pumped to the elevated reservoir and then supplied to the
consumers by the action of gravity. The distribution network is connected with an
elevated reservoir but not with direct distribution pumps as shown in the figure
above.
b. Two Way Dual System
▪ In this system, separate pumps are provided for direct distribution and elevated
reservoir where the elevated reservoir is used for backup in an emergency, power
failure, etc. The distribution network is connected with both elevated reservoir and
direct distribution system.
4.2 Methods of supply – intermittent and continuous
▪ There are two types of water supply systems.
i. Continuous system
ii. Intermittent system
i. Continuous system
▪ This is the best method in which the water is supplied to the community during all 24 hours of the day.
In this system, a sufficient amount of water is always available for consumers to use and also for an
emergency like fire fighting.
▪ Due to the continuous circulation; water remains fresh but the losses will be more if there are leakages in the
system.
ii. Intermittent System
▪ If adequate water is not available, the whole community is divided into several zones, and water is supplied
in each zone for a fixed time in a day or alternate days.
▪ The water flows in the consumer’s tap at certain intervals. So, it is called an intermittent system.
4.3 Distribution system layout – types, comparison, suitability
In general, there are 4 types of a distribution network system. They are:
a. Dead End or Tree system
b. Gridiron System
c. Circular or Ring System
d. Radial System
a. Dead End or Tree System
▪ This system is also referred to as a tree system. It consists of one main pipe from which a
number of sub-mains bifurcate and from each sub-main several branch pipes separate out which
are called [Link] laterals; connections are given to different houses.
▪ This type of distribution system is suitable for old [Link] system is easy to design and is
cheap and [Link] conveyance is only unidirectional in this system, so water can reach a
specific point solely through one route, thus if any fault creep in the water system gets
disturbed in that area.
▪ This system has many dead ends which prevent the free circulation of water, thereby increases
the possibility of contamination of water.
▪ Discharge can’t be increased in case of a fire [Link]-end mains longer than 1,000ft
should be at least 6 inches in diameter.
Advantages of the dead-end system
a. It is relatively cheaper.
b. Design and calculation of the dead-end system is easy.
c. Requires less number of valves; this makes it easier to determine discharges and pressures.
Disadvantages of the dead-end system
a. Single pipeline serves the region. One problem in the pipeline may lead to a cut of the water
supply of a large area.
b. Presence of many dead ends makes stagnation of water in pipes.
c. Discharge of water is quite low.
b. Gridiron System
▪ This system is also referred to as a reticular or interlaced [Link] entire system consists of one main pipe which runs
through the [Link] also consists of branches and laterals which run in a grid pattern. All of these three pipes are
interconnected.
▪ Since the mains, branches, and laterals are interconnected; dead ends are laminated and water reaches at different locations
through more than one [Link] closing cut-off valves of other areas’ pipes, water can be diverted to the affected area at the
time of the fire.
▪ There is a very fewer chance of recontamination because there are no dead [Link] design of this system is complicated
because pipelines get water from different [Link] size of pipes is larger and more sluice valves are [Link] is most
applicable for a planned city where roads and streets are provided in well-planned rectangular and squares grid patterns.
Advantages of the gridiron system
a. The absence of a dead-end reduces the chances of pollution due to stagnation.
b. During repair and maintenance work; the small region is only affected.
c. Availability of enough water at street fire hydrants.
Disadvantages of the gridiron system
a. Requirement of a huge number of cut-off valves.
b. Requirement of longer pipes with a larger diameter.
c. Difficult to determine discharge, pressure, and velocities in the pipelines.
d. Less economical.
c. Ring Water Distribution System
▪ Ring system, can also be called as circular system in which the main pipe line is provided around the city or
area i.e., peripherally. From this main line, the branch lines are projected perpendicularly and they are also
connected with each other.
▪ So, every street of the distributed area will get sufficient quantity of water. For a town with well-planned streets
and roads, Circular system is more suitable.
Advantages of Ring System
1. No stagnation of water
2. Repair works can be done without affecting larger network.
3. Large quantity of water is available for firefighting.
Disadvantages
1. Longer length and large diameter pipes are required.
2. More number of cutoff valves are necessary.
3. Skilled workers are necessary while laying pipes.
d. Radial Water Distribution System
▪ Radial system is quite opposite to the ring system. In this system, whole area is divided into small distribution
districts or zones and an individual distribution reservoir is provided for each distribution zone. The reservoir
provided is generally of elevated type. From this reservoir the pipe lines are laid radially to the surrounded
streets.
▪ All distribution reservoirs are connected with main line which is passing through center of the city. This type of
system is suitable for areas with radially designed roads.
Advantages of Radial System
1. The water distributed with high velocity and high pressure.
2. Head loss is very small because of quick discharge.
Disadvantages
▪ Cost of the project is more because of number of individual distribution
reservoirs.
4.4 Valves-types, features, uses, purpose-sluice valves, check valves, air valves,
scour valves, Fire hydrants, Water meters
▪ In a network of distribution system a number of items are required but mainly Valves, Fire hydrants, and water meter plays a vital role in
the distribution system and they are described as follows.
Valves:-Generally valves are needed to control the flow of water to regulate pressure to release or admit air to prevent flow of water in
opposite direction. Valves are fitted according to the purpose of distribution. Some different types of valves are given below.
a. Sluice valves
b. Check Valves
c. Air valves
d. Scour Valves.
a. Sluice valves:-
▪ These are also known as gate valves and are mostly used in water work. This is cheap and offer less resistance to flow of wat er.
▪ Gate valves control the flow of water through pipes and fixed in the main lines bringing water from the source to a town at 3 to 5 km
interval.
b. Check Valves:-
▪ This is also known as return or non return valves. It automatically allows water to flow only in one direction and prevent it flowing in
reverse direction. This type of valves has typical rises in one directional flow of water.
c. Air Valves:-
▪ When water enters in pipe line some it also carries some air with it which tends to accumulate at high point of the pipe. When the
quantity of air increases it causes seviour blockage to the flow of water therefore it is most essential to remove the accumu lated air from
the pipe line. Air valves are used for this purpose.
d. Scour Valves
▪ Scour valves are located at low points or between valved sections of the pipeline. Their function is to allow periodic flushi ng of the lines
to remove sediment and to allow the line to be drained for maintenance and repair work.
▪ The scour valve should be sized to allow a minimum scour velocity of 0.6 m/s to be achieved in the main pipe.
▪ Fire Hydrants:-
▪ This device are used for tapping water from mains for fire extinguisher, Street washing flushing swear line
etc.. This are generally provided at all junction of road and at 100-130mt apart along [Link] hydrants are of
two types.
1. Flush hydrants:- This type of hydrants are installed in an underground bricks chamber flush with the footpath. It is
covered from top by a C.I. cover. Some distinct sign is provided at it in order to locate the position of hydrant even
at night.
2. Post hydrant:- This type of hydrants barrel is projected about 60-90cm above the ground surface. These hydrant
have a long steam with screw and nut at the top to regulate the flow of water. The post hydrant is connected to the
main pipes through a branch pipes and it is operated by means of a gate valve.
▪ Water meters:-
This types of device are used to determine the quantity of water flowing through pipes. This are usually
installed to measure the water amount supplied to provide house , industries public building etc. Water meters
are of two types:-
▪ The positive displacement type.
▪ The velocity of inferential types.

Uses:-
For the typical use of water meter the wastage of water is reduced.
It mostly used for private building, industries and other public [Link] may be adopted by fire brigade.
WATER SUPPLY &
WASTE WATER ENGINEERING
CHAPTER:- 06

INTRODUCTION
6 Introduction
6.1 Aims and objectives of sanitary engineering
6.2 Definition of terms related to sanitary engineering
6.3 Systems of collection of wastes– Conservancy and Water Carriage System –
features, comparison, suitability
6.1 Aims and objectives of sanitary engineering
Introduction :
Sanitation is a term which reseeds to indicate the proper arrangement for the collection, treatment and disposal of air the
waste water produced from different sources like bathroom, kitchen, lavatory, street wash etc and the science or technique
that stands behind the sanitation is known as sanitary engineering. Proper sanitation is the most essential at every town or city
even at every individual for a sound and safe community.
Aims and Objectives :
The following are the basic aims and object of sanitary engineering.
▪ For the proper collection and disposal of wastes at every individuals house, public sector etc.

▪ To prevent the accumulation of disposed water.

▪ It also makes the final disposal at land or nearly water source after some primary treatment.

6.2 Definition and terms related to sanitary engineering :

▪ Anti-siphonage pipe: A pipe which is installed in the house drainage to preserve the water seal of traps is known as anti-
siphon age pipe. It maintains the metallization and does not allow the siphonic action.
▪ Siphonage: Water seal of traps may break due to siphonic action and it is known as siphon age. It takes place when water is
suddenly discharged from a filterer on ripper flower.
▪ Vent Pipe: The pipe which is reseed for the purpose of ventilation is known as vent pipe.
▪ Refuse: It is reseed to indicate what is left as worthless and for the study of sanitary engineering and it is divided in 5
categories.
▪ Garbage : The dry refuse means decayed fruits, grass, leaves, paper pieces etc.

▪ Sewage : It is the whole liquid waste generated from latrines, urinals, stables etc. It is the combination of sanitary sewage and stor m water.

▪ Fresh Sewage : The sewage which has been recently organized or produced.

▪ Septic Sewage : The sewage which is undergoing the treatment process.

▪ Storm water:-it is used to indicate the rain water of the locality.

▪ Sullage:- It indicate the waste water from bathrooms , kitchens etc.

▪ Swear:- The underground conduits of the drains trough which the sewage is conveyed.

▪ Sewerage:- The entire science of collection and carrying sewage by water carriage system through sewers.

6.3 System of collection of sanitation:-

▪ For the disposal of waste water collection is the primary step and basically the sanitation of a town or city is done by foll owing two methods.
They are
a. Conservancy system
b. Water carriage system.

1. Conservancy System:-
▪ It is actually a out of date system but in some small town , village or underdeveloped area this system is still present. These systems are also
called dry system. In this system various types of refuse and storm water are collected converged and disposed by different method so it is called
conservancy system.
▪ Garbage or dry refuse are collected in the dustbins placed along the roads and streets from where it is conveyed by trucks to the point of
disposal. All the non combustible portion of the garbage are reused for filling of lower level areas to re claim the lands fo r future use. The
combustible portions of the garbage are burnt and the decaying fruits leaves and vegetables are first dried and then disposed of by burning or in
the manufacture of manure.
▪ Similarly, human excreta or night soil is collected separately by human agency and also all the liquid and semi- liquid waste. After
removal of night soil they are brought into trenches which are outside of the town and get buried,. After 2 -3 years they became very
good manure.
▪ In conservancy system the silage and storm water are carried separately in closed or open drums up to the point of disposal where they
are allowed to mix up with streams, rivers or sea without any treatment.
2. Water Carriage System:-
▪ With the development and advancement of cities urgent need was felt to replace the conservancy system with the some more improved
type of system in which human agency should not be used for collection conveyance of sewage.
▪ After many experiments water is found as the cheapest substance for the collection and conveyance of sewage. As in the system water
plays an important role. So it is called water carriage system.
▪ In this system all the refuse liquid and semi liquid waste are mix up with large amount of water and then they are taken out of the city
with planned sewage system, where they can be disposed after necessary treatment in satisfactory manner.
Difference between Conservation and conveyance System:-
Conservation System Water carriage System
Initial cost low Very high initial Cost
Foul smell may found There is no foul smell
Excreta is not removed immediately Excreta removed immediately
Stroam water is carried in ritually surface drains hence no problem Sewage is treated before disposing off. It may or may not require
of pumping the storm water pumping. It depends on topography of town
Dependent on human agency Not dependent on human agency
In this system the sewage is disposed without any treatment. So it In this system sewage is treated upto required degree of sanitation.
may pollute the water course or disposed area.
WATER SUPPLY &
WASTE WATER ENGINEERING
CHAPTER:-07

Quantity and Quality of sewage

BY:- ER. M. S. KAR
 7 Quantity and Quality of sewage
7.1 Quantity of sanitary sewage – domestic & industrial sewage, variation in
sewage flow, numerical problem on computation quantity of sanitary sewage.
7.2 Computation of size of sewer, application of Chazy’s formula, Limiting
velocities of flow : self-cleaning and scouring
7.3 General importance, strength of sewage, Characteristics of sewage-
physical, chemical & biological
7.4 Concept of sewage-sampling, tests for – solids, pH, dissolved oxygen,
BOD, COD
7.1 Quantity of sanitary sewage – domestic & industrial sewage, variation in sewage flow, numerical problem on computation quantity of
sanitary sewage
Quantity of sanitary sewage:-
Introduction
▪ The sewage collected from the municipal area consists of wastewater generated from the residences, commercial centers, recreational
activities, institutions and industrial wastewaters discharge in to sewer network from the permissible industries located wit hin the city limits.
▪ Before designing the sewer, it is necessary to know the discharge i.e., quantity of sewage, which will flow in it after compl etion of the project.

▪ Accurate estimation of sewage discharge is necessary for hydraulic design of the sewers. Far lower estimation than reality will soon lead to
inadequate sewer size after commissioning of the scheme or the sewers may not remain adequate for the entire design period.
▪ Similarly, very high discharge estimated will lead to larger sewer size affecting economy of the sewerage scheme, and the lower discharge
actually flowing in the sewer may not meet the criteria of the self cleansing velocity and hence leading to deposition in the sewers.
Sources of Sanitary Sewage
1. Water supplied by water authority for domestic usage, after desired use is discharged in to sewers as sewage.
2. Water supplied to the various industries for various industrial processes by local authority. Some quantity of this water after use in different
industrial applications is discharged as wastewater.
3. The water supplied to the various public places such as, schools, cinema theaters, hotels, hospitals, and commercial complexes. Part of this
water after desired use joins sewers as wastewater.
4. Infiltration of ground water into sewers through leaky joints.
5. Entrance of rainwater in sewer lines during rainy season through faulty joints or cracks in sewers
Dry Weather Flow
▪ Dry weather flow is the flow that occurs in sewers in separate sewage system or the flow that occurs during dry seasons in combined
system. This flow indicates the flow of sanitary sewage.
▪ This depend upon the rate of water supply, type of area served, economic conditions of the people, weather conditions and infiltration of
ground water in the sewers, if sewers are laid below ground water table.
Evaluation of sewage discharge:
▪ Correct estimation of sewage discharge is necessary; otherwise sewers may prove inadequate resulting in overflow or may prove too large in
diameter, which may make the system uneconomical and hydraulically inefficient.
▪ Hence, before designing the sewerage system it is important to know the discharge / quantity of the sewage, which will flow in it after
completion of the project and at the end of design period.
▪ Apart from accounted water supplied by water authority that will be converted to wastewater, following quantities are considered while
estimating the sewage quantity:
1. Addition due to unaccounted private water supplies:
People using water supply from private wells, tube wells, etc. contribute to the wastewater generation more than the water su pplied by
municipal authority. Similarly, certain industries utilize their own source of water. Part of this water, after desired uses, is converted into
wastewater and ultimately discharged into sewers. This quantity can be estimated by actual field observations.

2. Addition due to Infiltration:

This is additional quantity due to groundwater seepage in to sewers through faulty joints or cracks formed in the pipes. The quantity of the
water depends upon the height of the water table above the sewer invert level. If water table is well below the sewer invert level, the
infiltration can occur only after rain when water is moving down through soil. Quantity of the water entering in sewers depends upon the
permeability of the ground soil and it is very difficult to estimate.
3. Subtraction due to water losses:
▪ The water loss, through leakage in water distribution system and house connections, does not reach consumers and
hence, not appear as sewage.
4. Subtraction due to water not entering the sewerage system:
▪ Certain amount of water is used for such purposes, which may not generate sewage, e.g. boiler feed water, water
sprinkled over the roads, streets, lawns, and gardens, water consumed in industrial product, water used in air
coolers, etc.
Net quantity of sewage:
▪ The net quantity of sewage production can be estimated by considering the addition and subtraction as discussed
above over the accounted quantity of water supplied by water authority as below:
▪ Net quantity of sewage =
Accounted quantity of water supplied from the water works + Addition due to unaccounted private water supplies +Addition
due to infiltration –Subtraction due to water losses –Subtraction due to water not entering the sewerage system
Variation in sewage flow:
▪ Variation occurs in the flow of sewage over annual average daily flow.
Fluctuation in flow occurs from hour to hour and from season to
season.
▪ The typical hourly variation in the sewage flow . If the flow is gauged
near its origin, the peak flow will be quite pronounced. The peak will
defer if the sewage has to travel long distance.
▪ This is because of the time required in collecting sufficient quantity of
sewage required to fill the sewers and time required in travelling.
▪ As sewage flow in sewer lines, more and more sewage is mixed in it
due to continuous increase in the area being served by the sewer line.
▪ This leads to reduction in the fluctuations in the sewage flow and the
lag period goes on increasing.
▪ The magnitude of variation in the sewage quantity varies from place to
place and it is very difficult to predict.
▪ For smaller township this variation will be more pronounced due to
lower length and travel time before sewage reach to the main sewer
and for large cities this variation will be less.
▪ For estimating design discharge following relation can be considered:
▪ Maximum daily flow = Two times the annual average daily flow (Representing seasonal variations)
▪ Maximum hourly flow = 1.5 times the maximum daily flow (Accounting hourly variations) = Three times the annual average da ily flow

▪ As the tributary area increases, peak hourly flow will decrease. For smaller population served (less than 50000) the peak factor can be 2.5,
and as the population served increases its value reduces. For large cities it can be considered about 1.5 to 2.0. Therefore, for outfall sewer the
peak flow can be considered as 1.5 times the annual average daily flow. Even for design of the treatment facility, the peak factor is
considered as 1.5 times the annual average daily flow.
▪ The minimum flow passing through sewers is also important to develop self cleansing velocity to avoid silting in sewers. This flow will
generate in the sewers during late night hours. The effect of this flow is more pronounced on lateral sewers than the main sewers. Sewers
must be checked for minimum velocity as follows:
▪ Minimum daily flow = 2/3 Annual average daily flow
▪ Minimum hourly flow = ½ minimum daily flow = 1/3 Annual average daily flow

▪ The overall variation between the maximum and minimum flow is more in the laterals and less in the main or trunk sewers. This ratio may
be more than 6 for laterals and about 2 to 3 in case of main sewers.
Design Period:
▪ The future period for which the provision is made in designing the capacities of the various components of the sewerage scheme is known as
the design period. The design period depends upon the following:
1. Ease and difficulty in expansion.
2. Amount and availability of investment.
3. Anticipated rate of population growth, including shifts in communities, industries and commercial investments.
4. Hydraulic constraints of the systems designed, and
5. Life of the material and equipment.
▪ Following design period can be considered for different components of sewerage scheme.
1. Trunk or main sewers: 40 to 50 years
2. Treatment Units: 15 to 20 years
3. Pumping plant: 5 to 10 years

Design Discharge of sewage:

▪ The total quantity of sewage generated per day is estimated as product of forecasted population at the end of design period
considering per capita sewage generation and appropriate peak factor. The per capita sewage generation can be considered as 75 to
80% of the per capita water supplied per day. The increase in population also result in increase in per capita water demand and
hence, per capita production of sewage. This increase in water demand occurs due to increase in living standards, betterment in
economical condition, changes in habit of people, and enhanced demand for public utilities.
Problem: A city has a projected population of 60,000 spread over area of 50 hectare. Find the design discharge for the separate sewer
line by assuming rate of water supply of 250 LPCD and out of this total supply only 75 % reaches in sewer as wastewater. Make
necessary assumption whenever necessary.
Solution:
Given data
Q = 250 lit/capita/day
Sewage flow = 75% of water supply = 0.75 × 250 = 187.5 LPCD
Total sewage generated = 187.5 × 60000 / (24×3600) = 130.21 lit/sec = 0.13 m3/s
Assume peak factor = 2
Total design discharge = 0.26 m3/s.
Factors affecting the quantity of storm water:
▪ The surface run-off resulting after precipitation contributes to the storm water. The quantity of storm water reaching to the sewers or drains is very large as
compared with sanitary sewage. The factors affecting the quantity of storm water flow are as below:
1. Area of the catchment
2. Slope and shape of the catchment area
3. Porosity of the soil
4. Obstruction in the flow of water as trees, fields, gardens, etc.
5. Initial state of catchment area with respect to wetness.
6. Intensity and duration of rainfall
7. Atmospheric temperature and humidity
8. Number and size of ditches present in the area

Measurement of rainfall:
▪ The rainfall intensity could be measured by using rain gauges and recording the amount of rain falling in unit time. The rainfall intensity is usually expressed as
mm/hour or cm/hour. The rain gauges used can be manual recording type or automatic recording rain gauges.
▪ Methods for estimation of quantity of storm water:
1. Rational Method
2. Empirical formulae method

▪ In both the above methods, the quantity of storm water is considered as function of intensity of rainfall, coefficient of runoff and area of catchment.

Time of concentration:
▪ The period after which the entire catchment area will start contributing to the runoff is called as the time of concentration.

▪ The rainfall with duration lesser than the time of concentration will not produce maximum discharge.

▪ The runoff will be maximum when the duration of rainfall is equal to the time of concentration and is called as critical rainfall duration.

▪ Time of concentration = Inlet time + time of travel

Inlet Time:
▪ The time required for the rain in falling on the most remote point of the tributary area to flow across the ground surface along the natural
drains or gutters up to inlet of sewer is called inlet time. The inlet time ‗Ti‘ can be estimated using relationships similar to following.
Ti = (0.885L3/H)0.385
Where,
Ti = Time of inlet, minute
L = Length of overland flow in Kilometre from critical point to mouth of drain
H = Total fall of level from the critical point to mouth of drain, meter
Time of travel:
▪ The time required by the water to flow in the drain channel from the mouth to the point under consideration or the point of concentration is
called as time of travel.
▪ Time of Travel (Tt) = Length of drain/ velocity in drain

Runoff Coefficient:
The total precipitation falling on any area is dispersed as percolation, evaporation, storage in ponds or reservoir and surface runoff. The
runoff coefficient can be defined as a fraction, which is multiplied with the quantity of total rainfall to determine the quantity of rain water,
which will reach the sewers.
▪ The runoff coefficient depends upon the porosity of soil cover, wetness and ground cover.

The overall runoff coefficient for the catchment area can be worked out as follows:Overall runoff coefficient,
C = [A1.C1 + A2.C2 + …. + [Link]] / [A1 + A2 + …+ An]

Where, A1, A2 ….An are types of area with C1, C2 …Cn as their coefficient of runoff, respectively.
The typical runoff coefficient for the different ground cover is provide in the following table:

Rational Method:
▪ Storm water quantity can be estimated by rational method. Storm water quantity, Q = C.I.A / 360
Where,
Q = Quantity of storm water, m3/sec
C = Coefficient of runoff
I = intensity of rainfall (mm/hour) for the duration equal to time of concentration, and
A = Drainage area in hectares

▪ Q = 0.278 C.I.A
Where, Q is m3/sec; I is mm/hour, and A is area in square kilometre.
7.2 Computation of size of sewer, application of Chazy’s formula, Limiting velocities of flow : self-cleaning
and scouring :-
Design of sewers:
▪ Generally, sewers are laid at steeper gradients falling towards the outfall point with circular pipe cross section. Storm water
drains are separately constructed as surface drains at suitable gradient, either rectangular or trapezoidal section.
▪ Sewers are designed to carry the maximum quantity of sanitary sewage likely to be produced from the area contributing to
the particular sewer. Storm water drains are designed to carry the maximum storm runoff that is likely to be produced by the
contributing catchment area from a rain of design frequency and of duration equal to the time of concentration.
Requirements of Design and Planning of Sewerage System:
The sewerage scheme is designed to remove entire sewage effectively and efficiently from the houses to the point of
treatment and disposal. Following aspects should be considered while designing the system.
▪ The sewers provided should be adequate in size to avoid overflow and possible health hazards.
▪ For evaluating proper diameter of the sewer, correct estimation of sewage discharge is necessary.
▪ The flow velocity inside the sewer should neither be so large as to require heavy excavation and high lift pumping, nor
should be so small causing deposition of the solid in the sewers.
▪ The sewers should be laid at least 2 to 3 m deep to carry sewage from basement.
▪ The sewage in sewer should flow under gravity with 0.5 to 0.8 full at designed discharge, i.e. at the maximum estimated
discharge.
▪ The sewage is conveyed to the point usually located in low-lying area, where the treatment plant is located.
▪ Treatment plant should be designed taking into consideration the quality of raw sewage expected and to meet the
discharge standards.
▪ Hydraulic Formulae for Determining Flow Velocities: Sewers of any shape are hydraulically designed as open channels,
except in the case of inverted siphons and discharge lines of pumping stations. Following formulae can be used for design
of sewers.
(1) Manning‟s Formula
▪ This is most commonly used for design of sewers. The velocity of flow through sewers can be determined using Manning‘s
formula : V = (1/𝑛 ) × 𝑟2/3 × 𝑠 1/2
Where
V = velocity of flow in the sewer, m/sec r = Hydraulic mean depth of flow, m = a/p a = Cross section area of flow, m2

p = Wetted perimeter, m n = Rugosity coefficient, depends upon the type of the channel surface i.e., material and lies
between 0.011 and 0.015. For brick sewer it could be 0.017 and 0.03 for stone facing sewers.
s = Hydraulic gradient, equal to invert slope for uniform flows.
(2) Chezy‟s Formula: V = C r ½ s ½
Where,
C is Chezy‘s constant and remaining variables are same as above equation.

(3) Crimp and Burge‟s Formula: V = 83.5 r 2/3s ½

(4) Hazen- Williams Formula: V = 0.849 C r 0.63s0.54
▪ The Hazen-Williams coefficient ‘C’ varies with life of the pipe and it has high value when the pipe is new and lower value
for older pipes. For example for RCC new pipe it is 150 and the value recommended for design is 120, as the pipe interior
may become rough with time. The design values of ‗C; for AC pipes, Plastic pipes, CI pipes, and steel lined with cement
are 120, 120, 100, and 120, respectively. Modified Hazen-William‘s equation is also used in practice.
Minimum Velocity: Self Cleansing Velocity
▪ The velocity that would not permit the solids to settle down and even scour the deposited particles of a given size is called as self-
cleansing velocity. This minimum velocity should at least develop once in a day so as not to allow any deposition in the sewers.
Otherwise, if such deposition takes place, it will obstruct free flow causing further deposition and finally leading to the complete
blocking of the sewers. This minimum velocity or self-cleansing velocity can be worked out as below:

Where,
K= constant, for clean inorganic solids = 0.04 and for organic solids = 0.06
f' = Darcy Weisbach friction factor (for sewers = 0.03)
Ss = Specific gravity of sediments
g = gravity acceleration
▪ Hence, for removing the impurities present in sewage i.e., sand up to 1 mm diameter with specific gravity 2.65 and organic particles up
to 5 mm diameter with specific gravity of 1.2, it is necessary that a minimum velocity of about 0.45 m/sec and an average velocity of
about 0.9 m/sec should be developed in sewers.
▪ Hence, while finalizing the sizes and gradients of the sewers, they must be checked for the minimum velocity that would be generated at
minimum discharge, i.e., about 1/3 of the average discharge.
▪ While designing the sewers the flow velocity at full depth is generally kept at about 0.8 m/sec or so. Since, sewers are generally
designed for ½ to ¾ full, the velocity at designed discharge‘ (i.e., ½ to ¾ full) will even be more than 0.8 m/sec. Thus, the minimum
velocity generated in sewers will help in the following ways:
1. Adequate transportation of suspended solids.
2. Keeping the sewer size under control; and
3. Preventing the sewage from decomposition by moving it faster, thereby preventing evolution of foul gases.
Maximum Velocity or Non-scouring Velocity
▪ The interior surface of the sewer pipe gets scored due to the continuous abrasion caused by suspended solids
present in sewage.
▪ The scoring is pronounced at higher velocity than what can be tolerated by the pipe materials. This wear and
tear of the sewer pipes will reduce the life span of the pipe and their carrying capacity.
▪ In order to avoid this, it is necessary to limit the maximum velocity that will be produced in sewer pipe at any
time. This limiting or non scouring velocity mainly depends upon the material of sewer.
▪ The problem of maximum or non-scouring velocity is severe in hilly areas where ground slope is very steep
and this is overcome by constructing drop manholes at suitable places along the length of the sewer.
Limiting or non-scouring velocity for different sewer material
Sizes of sewers:
▪ The minimum size of a sewer depends upon the practice followed in the locality.

▪ Usually the sewers of 100 mm diameter are allowed up to a maximum length of 6 metres or so.

▪ But when the length of sewer line exceeds about 6 metre a sewer of minimum diameter 150 mm is allowed.

▪ The smaller the diameter of sewer the greater will be the slope and hence in order to take advantage of available fall the sewers of larger
diameter are sometimes used.
Design Procedure:
▪ In the design of sewers, the following procedure is generally adopted:

(a) Formation of zones: The area to be served by the drainage system is divided into different zones. The general layout of roads is to be
properly studied for the location of sewers. The zones are marked on the map and contours are also drawn on the map.
(b) Arrangement of sewers: The proposed arrangement for sewers for different zones is then worked out. The low lying areas are isolated and
pumping stations are installed for them. The flow of sewage starts from high level zones. The various sewers such as branch sewers, main
sewers, trunk sewers, outfall sewers etc. are marked on the map.
(c) Quantity of sewage: Depending upon the type of sewer i.e. separate or combined sewer, the quantity of sewage to be carried by the sewer is
determined. After proper study of variations in rate of sewage, a suitable multiplying factor is applied to arrive at the quantity of sewage for
which sewer is to be designed.
(d) Velocity of flow: A suitable value for the velocity of flow is then determined.
This value should fall between the minimum and maximum limits i.e. between self –cleansing and non- scouring velocities.
(e) Section of sewer: The section of sewer is then easily worked out by the relation:
Quantity of sewage = sectional area of sewer x velocity of flow = Q = A x V

(f) Gradient: The slope of sewer line is worked out and longitudinal sections of each sewer are drawn to a suitable scale.
Effect of Flow Variations on Velocities in a Sewer:
▪ The discharge flowing through sewers varies considerably from time to time. Hence, there occur variation in depth of flow and thus,
variation in Hydraulic Mean Depth (H.M.D.).Due to change in H.M.D. there occur changes in flow velocity, because it is proportional to
(H.M.D.)2/3.
▪ Therefore, it is necessary to check the sewer for minimum velocity of about 0.45 m/sec at the time of minimum flow (1/3 of average
flow) and the velocity of about 0.9 to 1.2 m/sec should be developed at a time of average [Link] velocity should also be checked for
limiting velocity i.e. non-scouring velocity at the maximum discharge.
▪ For flat ground sewers are designed for self-cleansing velocity at maximum discharge. This will permit flatter gradient for sewers.

▪ For mild slopping ground, the condition of developing self-cleansing velocity at average flow may be economical. Whereas, in hilly
areas, sewers can be designed for self cleansing velocity at minimum discharge, but the design must be checked for non-scouring velocity
at maximum discharge.
Problem 1: Calculate the velocity of flow in a sewer of diameter 1.2 m. The sewer is laid at a gradient of 1 in 400. What will
be the discharge through this sewer when running one – half full. Assume n= 0.012 in Manning‘s formula.
▪ Solution:

According to Manning‘s formula, V = (1/𝑛)×𝑟2/3 × 𝑠1/2

Where, n = 0.012, s = 1/400

r = a/p = d/4 = 1.2/4 = 0.3 m

Substituting, v = (0.3)2/3 × (1/400)1/2/0.012 = 1.867 m per second
Q = (½)𝜋 (1.22 /4)× 1.867 = 1.056 m3/second.
Problem 2: Calculate the velocity, discharge and Chezy‘s coefficient for a stoneware sewer running full. The diameter of
sewer is 150 mm and it is laid at a gradient of 1 in 60. Assume n= 0.013 in Manning‘s formula.
Solution: According to Manning‘s formula :- v = (1/𝑛) ×𝑟2/3 × 𝑠1/2
Where v = velocity of flow in m per second, n = 0.013, i= 1/60
r = hydraulic mean depth in meters = d/4 for pipe running full = 0.15/4 = 3/80 m

Substituting v = (1/0.013)× (3/80)2/3 × (1/60)1/2 = 1.113 m per second

Then Q = Av, Where Q = discharge in m3per second
A = cross sectional area of sewer = (𝜋/4)0.152 = 0.0176 m2
Q = 0.0176 × 1.113 = 0.02 m3per second
According to Chezy‘s formula v = C (r×s)(1/2)
Here v = 1.113 m per second , r= 3/80 m, s = 1/60
Substituting 1.113 = C ((3/80)×(1/60))(1/2) => C = 1.113 × 40 = 44.52
7.3 General importance, strength of sewage, Characteristics of sewage-physical, chemical & biological
General importance :-
Sewage is dilute mixture of the various types of wastes from the residential, public and industrial places. The characteristi cs and
composition of sewage mainly depend on this source. Sewage contains organic and inorganic matters which may be in dissolved,
suspension and colloidal state. Sewage also contains various types of bacteria’s, virus, protozoa, algae, fungi etc. Some of these are
pathogens and are harmful to the human and animal life.
Strength of sewage:-
Sewage is a water-carried waste, in solution or suspension, which is intended to be removed from a community. Also known as wastewater,
it is more than 99% water and is characterized by volume or rate of flow, physical condition, chemical constituents and the bacteriological
organisms that it contains.
Characteristics of sewage:-
The characteristics of sewage can be classified as
i) Physical characteristics
ii) Chemical characteristics
iii) Biological characteristics
Characteristics of sewage
I. Physical characteristics of sewage:
1. Temperature:
▪ Temperature of sewage depends upon season. However temperature is slightly higher than that of ground water.

▪ High temperature of sewage is due to evolution of heat during decomposition of organic matter in sewage.

2. Color:
▪ Color of sewage indicates its strength and age.

▪ Fresh domestic sewage is grey in color but septic sewage is dark in color

▪ When industrial effluent is mixed it give characteristic color to sewage

3. Odor:
▪ Fresh domestic sewage is almost odorless.

▪ Septic or stale sewage is putrid in odor which is due to generation of H2S during anaerobic decomposition of organic
matters.
▪ When industrial effluent is mixed, it give characteristics odor to sewage
4. Turbidity:
▪ Sewage is highly turbid.

▪ Turbidity of sewage is due to dissolved substances, colloidal matters, suspended solids and microbial cells.
II. Chemical characteristics of sewage:
1. Organic matter:
▪ In general sewage contains large amount of organic matters. However amount of organic matter depends on types and condition of sewage.

▪ Organic matter in sewage may be found in the form of dissolved substances, colloidal matter, suspended or sedimented form.

2. Chloride:
▪ Human beings discharge large amount (8-15gm/day) of chloride in the form of NaCl, especially through urine and sweat. So domestic sewage
from toilet and bathroom contains higher level of chloride.
▪ Sulfite: In sewage sulfite in the form of H2S (hydrogen sulfite) is generated during anaerobic decomposition of organic matters by anaerobic
bacteria.H2S gives putrid odor to sewage.
3. Biological oxygen demand (BOD):
The amount of oxygen needed by biological organisms such as bacteria in a given water sample for a breakdown of organic matter by oxidation process is called the
Biochemical Oxygen Demand.

▪ Sewage usually have high BOD due to presence of large amount of organic matters.

▪ Value of BOD ranges from 100mg/ltr for very dilute sewage to 600mg/ltr or more for concentrated sewage containing industrial effluent mix.

4. Dissolved oxygen (DO):

▪ Due to high level of microbial cells and biodegradable organic matters, sewage have very low level of dissolved [Link] some sewage, DO
is completely absent.
▪ Level of Do depends on age and condition of sewage. Low level DO is also due to lower solubility of oxygen in sewage. Oxygen is only 95%
soluble in sewage than in pure water).
5. pH: sewage is slightly alkaline in pH
6. Nitrogen:
▪ In sewage nitrogen is found in variety of form like organic nitrogen, ammonia, nitrite, nitrate etc
▪ Fresh sewage mainly contains organic nitrogen and very little inorganic form of nitrogen. On the other hand
organic septic sewage contains high inorganic nitrogen and low organic nitrogen.
▪ In sewage nitrite never accumulate in concentration greater than 1mg/ltr because it is intermediate product
during conversion of ammonia into nitrate (NO3).In sewage treatment plant, NH3 and NO2 are finally
converted to NO3.
7. Oxidation-Reduction (O-R) potential:
▪ Oxidation-Reduction potential indicates energy state of sewage in terms of its oxidizing or reducing potential.
▪ O-R potential is very valuable index to monitor sewage treatment plant.
▪ In aerobic treatment process like tripling filters, positive OR potential of about +2 to +600 is needed. In
anaerobic treatment process like sludge digestion, negative OR potential of about -100 to -200 is needed.
III. Biological characteristics of sewage:
1. Bacteria: Two types of bacteria are found in sewage.
▪ Intestinal bacteria:
▪ Non-pathogenic intestinal bacteria are normal flora of gastointestinal tract of human and animals and enter into sewage together
with stool. Examples; faecal coliform, faecal streptococci, Clostridium perfingens, et
▪ Pathogenic intestinal bacteria such as Salmonella, Shigella, Vibrio cholera, Yersenia enterocolitica etc enter into sewage through
stool of patients.
▪ Real sewage bacteria
▪ The natural habitat of these bacteria is sewage.
▪ Both aerobic as well as anaerobic are found in sewage.
▪ Aerobic bacteria play important role in oxidation of organic matter during aerobic process.
▪ Common anaerobic bacteria includes;
▪ Clostridium sporogens
▪ Bifidobacterium
▪ Peptococcus
▪ Methanogenic bacteria like Methanobacterium, methanosarcina
▪ Common aerobic bacteria includes;
▪ Zeoglea remigera
▪ Noacrdia
▪ Flavobacterium
▪ Achromobacter
▪ Nitrosomonas
** Zeoglea remigera is the main organism found in trickling filter.
2. Algae:
▪ Some algae found in sewage includes Chlorella phormidum, Ulothrix etc
▪ Algae are used in trickling filter in sewage treatment plant
3. Fungi:
▪ Fungi like Fusarium and Sporotricum are found in sewage which play important role in trickling filter.
4. Virus:
▪ Some viruses causing human disease such as Poliovirus, Rotavirus, Hepatitis A and E etc are found in sewage which get
access through stool of patients.
5. Protozoa:
▪ Some protozoa that cause disease of intestinal tract enter into sewage together with stool of patient.
Examples: Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia, Balantidium coli etc are pathogenic protozoa
▪ Few protozoa such as Vorticella and Opercularia are found in trickling filter.
7.4 Concept of sewage-sampling, tests for – solids, pH, dissolved oxygen, BOD, COD
▪ Swage Sampling:- Sewage sampling means collection of sewage water for it’s physical, chemical and bacteriological
analysis.
▪ Wastewater sampling is generally performed by one of two methods,
1. grab sampling
2. composite sampling.
1. Grab sampling is just what it sounds like; all of the test material is collected at one time.
▪ As such, a grab sample reflects performance only at the point in time that the sample was collected, and then only if the
sample was properly collected.
▪ Grab sampling allows the analysis of specific types of unstable parameters such as pH, dissolved oxygen, chlorine
residual, nitrites and temperature.
▪ Grab sampling is the most common form of sampling flowing water because it is reliable and easy to [Link] to take
grab samples. No special equipment is needed.
▪ Usually, a sampling container is used to take the [Link] container can be dipped directly into the water or a
sampling rod can be used to collect the water and fill the container. Samples are then packed in a cooler box with ice and
taken for testing.
2. Composite sampling consists of a collection of numerous individual discrete samples taken at regular intervals over a
period of time, usually 24 hours. These are then combined to reflect the overall condition of a water body, like a lake..
These sub-samples are often referred to as aliquota. In the field, aliquota of 200 ml are used to make up an overall sample
of 1 000 ml.. Composite sampling is used frequently.
▪ The material being sampled is collected in a common container over the sampling period. The analysis of this material,
collected over a period of time, will therefore represent the average performance of a wastewater treatment plant during
the collection period.
▪ The most widely used indicators of treatment plant performance, including CBOD5 (five day carbonaceous biochemical
oxygen demand), TSS (total suspended solids) and TN (total nitrogen) require the use of composite sampling techniques.
▪ Composite samples of effluent collected, stored, analyzed, tabulated and averaged over an extended period of time
provide the only verifiable indication of treatment plant performance. Collecting and analyzing these composite samples
is often an expensive and time-consuming process.
Tests for – solids, pH, dissolved oxygen, BOD, COD
▪ pH Test:-
▪ The term “pH” refers to the measurement of hydrogen ion activity in the solution.
▪ Determination of pH plays an important role in the waste water treatment process. Extreme pH levels, presence of particulate matters,
accumulation of toxic chemicals and increasing alkalinity levels are common problems in waste water. This becomes a serious
environmental concern in recent years and hence municipal and industrial waste water treatments are critical before it enters to lakes,
rivers, canals and other water bodies. The pH analyses are important for neutralization, precipitation, coagulation and other biological
treatment process. pH analyses are probably the most recommended method for waste water treatment.
▪ More acid water (pH<5) and more alkaline (pH >9) and other immediate changes in the hydrogen ion concentration (pH) suggest that the
quality of the water is adversely affected due to the introduction of some toxic contaminants in water bodies.
▪ Test process:-
▪ pH is measured using pH meter, which comprises a detecting unit consisting of a glass electrode, reference electrode, usually a calomel
electrode connected by KCl Bridge to the pH sensitive glass electrode and an indicating unit which indicates the pH corresponding to
the electromotive force is then detected. Before measurement, pH meter should be calibrated by using at least two buffers.
▪ Also it is recommended to use hydrated silica gel for the glass electrode, and the electrodes must be soaked with water or in suitable
buffer followed by rinsing in water. Electrode tips should be cleaned after use of wiping with tissue paper to remove adhering
substances.
▪ Potassium level in the calomel electrode is maintained and the cap should be removed during measurement. For the accurate
measurement of pH, the temperature of the buffer should be maintained for standardization of pH meter is same.
▪ Chemical and particulate contaminants in the water sample are thought to be destructive for the standard pH meters and thus some
specialized pH electrodes are favored for determining the pH of waste water samples. For example, a double junction electrode works in
such a way to block any chemical interference in the waste water thereby preventing the common damages to the reference electrode.
Similarly a flushable junction acts on most of the chemical pollutants of the waste water and is ideal for sludge analysis.
▪ In anaerobic treatment of waste water, determination of pH is a critical factor, if the pH reduces below 5 is indicative of accumulation of
acidic substances thus affecting the waste water treatment process. Similarly the shifting of pH beyond 10 also upsets the waste water
treatment. Disinfection, coagulation of water, softening of water is controlled by the pH adjustments. Moreover, the higher pH levels in the
water results in the formation of trihalomethanes, which is a major reason for causing cancer in humans.
Dissolved Oxygen Testing Procedures:-
▪ The dissolved oxygen analysis measure the amount of gaseous oxygen dissolved in water or wastewater. Oxygen
is a necessary element in all forms of life. Oxygen dissolved in wastewater encourages the growth of aerobic
bacteria. Adequate dissolved oxygen is needed to allow natural stream purification processes to proceed and
provide for aerobic life forms in the receiving water.
▪ All other things being equal, the amount of oxygen that can dissolve in pure water (the saturation point) is
inversely proportional to the temperature of the water. In other words, the lower the temperature of the water, the
higher the dissolved oxygen level will be at saturation. Conversely, the higher the temperature of the water, the
lower the dissolved oxygen level will be at saturation. This is particularly important during warm weather periods
when the stream biological activity will be highest but the dissolved oxygen saturation level will be lowest.
▪ There are several laboratory methods to determine dissolved oxygen content. The most commonly used analysis
is a wet chemistry method referred to as the Winkler Method.
▪ The Winkler Method test involves the use of several chemical reagents and a titration procedure.
▪ The normality of the titrant used must be known exactly for accurate determination. Since a sodium thiosulfate
solution is normally used, this becomes a particularly important point as the normality of thiosulfate solutions
continually decrease with age. To overcome this problem it is necessary to determine the normality of thiosulfate
solution daily or before each testing period.
▪ A more stable titrant may be used for the Winkler determination of DO which negates the need for daily
standardization of the reagent. The most common titrant substitute is phenylarsene oxide (PAO). PAO solutions
need only be standardized when initially prepared.
▪ Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Test:-
▪ BOD measurement permits an estimate of the waste strength in terms of the amount of dissolved oxygen required to break down t he
wastewater. The BOD test is one of the most basic tests used in the wastewater field. It is essentially a measure of the biol ogical and the
chemical component of the waste in terms of the dissolved oxygen needed by the natural aerobic biological systems in the wast ewater to
break down the waste under defined conditions.
▪ Generally the BOD test is carried out by determining the dissolved oxygen on the wastewater or a diluted mixture at the beginning of the
test period, incubating the wastewater mixture at 20°C, and determining the dissolved oxygen at the end of 5 days.
▪ The difference in dissolved oxygen between the initial measurement and the fifth day measurement represents the biochemical oxygen
demand.
i) B.O.D is the principal test, which gives an idea of the biodegradability of any sample and strength of the waste.
ii) B.O.D is an important parameter in the design of treatment plant to determine the size of certain units particularly trickling filters and
activated sludge units.
iii) B.O.D is useful to estimate the population equivalent of any industrial wastes, which is useful to collects from industrialists for
purification of industrial wastes in municipal sewage treatment plants.
▪ Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) Test:-
▪ Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is used to determine the quantity of pollution in water after wastewater treatment. The higher value of
chemical oxygen demand indicates the higher organic pollution in the water sample.
▪ Only chemically digest able matter can be determined by the COD [Link] determination takes less time than the Biological Oxygen
Demand test.
▪ COD is recommended where the polluted water has toxicity and organic matter can't be determined by biological oxygen demand and
useful in water effluent treatment plants.

▪ Principle: The organic matter, present in the water sample is oxidized by potassium dichromate in the presence of sulfuric acid, silver
sulfate and mercury sulfate to produce carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and water (H2O).
▪ The quantity of potassium dichromate used is calculated by the difference in volumes of ferrous ammonium sulfate consumed in blank and
sample titrations. The quantity of potassium dichromate used in the reaction is equivalent to the oxygen (O 2) usedto oxidize the organic
matter of wastewater.
Advantages of the COD test over BOD test:-
▪ When toxic matters are present and conditions are not favorable for the growth of microbes BOD can’t be determined accurately.

▪ The COD test gives speedy results as it takes about 3hours as agaisnt 5days for the BOD test.

▪ The COD test determines strength of certain waste which can not be determined by BOD test.

▪ COD test process is very easy compared to BOD test.

Test For Solid:-

The sewage contains organic and inorganic solid. These solid may be in suspension, solutions or colloidal form. It’s necessar y to know the
total solids in sewage to determine the line of treatment. Test for solid is performed for the following solids
1. Total Solid
2. Suspended or Dissolved solid
3. Settleable solid

1. Total solids:
▪ The sample of sewage is taken and most of the liquid is evaporated from it. The residue is dried and its weight represents the amount of
total solids in sewage.
▪ Now the solids may either be volatile or fixed. In order to find out the proportion of volatile and fixed solids in total sol ids, the dry
residue as obtained above is heated or ignited. The loss of weight due to heating represents volatile matter and the rest is fixed matter.
▪ It is generally assumed that the volatile solid represent the organic matter. They have therefore much influence on the strength of
sewage.
2. Suspended and Dissolved Solids :-
▪ The sample of sewage is passed through an asbestos filter. The quantity of Solids in the effluent is then found out as in case of total
solid. The difference with the amount solids obtained in total solid indicates the quantity of suspended solids. The remaining quantity of
total solid indicates dissolved solid.
▪ Therefore Total Solid = Dissolved Solid + Suspended Solid.
3. Settleable Solid:-
▪ To find out the quantity of settleable solids in a sample of sewage, the imhoff cone used. The capacity of cone is 1
litre and it is graduated upto about 50ml.
▪ It is in the from of a specially designed conical glass vessel. The sewage is allowed to stand in the Imhoff cone for a
period of 2 hour and the quantity of settled solids in the cone is then read.
▪ To find out exact proportion of the settleable solid, the liquid should be removed or decanted off and the settleable
solids, collected at the bottom of the cone should be weighted.
WATER SUPPLY &
WASTE WATER ENGINEERING
CHAPTER-08

SEWERAGE SYSTEM
BY:- [Link]
 8 Sewerage system

8.1 Types of system-separate, combined, partially separate , features,

comparison between the types, suitability
8.2 Shapes of sewer – rectangular, circular,features, suitability
8.3 Laying of sewer-setting out sewer alignment
8.1 Types of system-separate, combined, partially separate , features, comparison between the types, suitability
System of sewerage:
Following are the three system of sewerage
▪ Separate system
▪ Combined system
▪ Partially separate system

▪ When only one set of sewers is laid, carrying both the sanitary sewage and storm water, it is called combined system.

▪ When the domestic and industrial sewage are taken in one set of sewers, whereas storm and surface water are taken in another set of sewers, it is called
separate system.
▪ In the separate system, if a portion of storm water is allowed to enter in the sewers carrying sewage, and the remaining storm water flows in separate set
of sewers, it is called partially separate system.
Separate system:-
In this system, the two sets of sewers are laid- one for carrying sewage and the other for carrying storm water. The sewage is carried to the treatment plant
and the storm water is directly discharged into the natural outlet in the form of river or stream.
Suitability :-
1. Where rainfall is uneven.
2. Sanitary sewage is to have one outlet and other outlets for store or surface water are available.
3. Sanitary sewage is to be pumped.
4. Separate sewer must be placed deeper and the stormwater drains nearer the surface to economies excavation.
5. If the ground has steep slopes, it is easier to convert stormwater through an open drain to the natural stream.
6. Finance available are small but sanitary drainage is imperative.
7. If the subsoil is hard, it is difficult and costlier to lay combined sewer of large [Link] the sewers are laid before the area is developed, it is preferable
to adopt a separate system.
Advantages:-
1. The load on treatment unit becomes less.
2. The sewers are small in size.
3. The storm water can be discharged into natural streams without any treatment.
4. The natural water is not unnecessarily polluted as the storm water is not foul in nature.
Disadvantages:-
1. The cleaning of sewer is difficult as they are of small size.
2. The system requires two sets of sewer and hence it may prove to be costly.
3. The sewer line carrying the storm water remains idle in dry period. So it may be clogged by garbage in that period.
Combined system:-
In this system, only one set of sewer is laid and it carries both, namely, sewage and storm water. The sewage and storm water are carried to
the sewage treatment plant.
Suitability:-
The combined system is most suited in areas having small rainfall which is evenly distributed throughout the area, because at such places
self-cleaning velocity will be available in every season. As only one sewer is laid in this system, therefore it can also be used in crowded
areas, where it is very difficult to lay two sewers
1. Rainfall is even throughout the year.
2. Both the sanitary sewage and the stormwater have to be pumped.
3. The area to be severed is heavily built-up and space for laying pipes is not enough.
4. Effective or quicker flows have to be [Link] the sewers are laid along with the overall development of the area, a combined
system is preferred.
Advantages:-
1. It is easy to clean a combined sewer as it is of large size.
2. The storm water reduces the strength of sewage by dilution.
3. This system requires only one set of sewer and it may thus prove to be economical.
Disadvantages:-
1. During extraordinary heavy storms, the combined sewer may overflow and it may thus put public health in danger.
2. The combined sewer, if not properly designed, gets easily silted.
3. The sewers are large in diameter.
4. The treatment plant is unnecessarily loaded with the combined volume of sewage and storm water .it may exceed the normal capacity
of the plant.
Partially separate system:-
This system consists of two sewer lines, one is of large diameter for carrying sewage and the other is of smaller diameter fo r carrying storm
water only. When it rains, the storm water, at the beginning is allowed to flow with the sewage through the large sewer line. When the rain
continues for a long time then the excess storm water is diverted to the smaller sewer line to discharge in the river directl y. Thus the load on the
treatment plant is controlled and kept within the permissible capacity of the plant.
Suitability:-
1. It may raise that a combined system of sewerage has not been found quite suitable under tropical Indian conditions for reasons
outlined [Link] and heavy rainfall during the monsoon period, which at most places last for only 3 to 4 months in a
year. Thus, there is a considerable variation in the quantity of sewerage flow during the twelve months of the year.
2. Inadequate amounts of waste of waters reaching the sewers because of a vast tract of intervening unsewered areas or due to the other
reasons so that the dry weather flow (DWF) is generally a tiny proportion of the total flow.
3. The low economy and limited funds [Link] in the operation and maintenance of the system due to inadequate
supervision of less qualified staff.
4. Local bodies in charge of the work usually do not pay much attention to keeping trained and skilled staff.
Advantages:-
1. The entry of storm water avoiding silting in sewers.
2. The sewers are of reasonable size.
3. It reduces the load on the treatment plant and the excess storm water may be safely discharged in the river.
4. The storm water from individual houses may be safely disposed of to the large sewer.
Disadvantages:-
1. The smaller sewer remains idle in dry season.
8.2 Shapes of sewer – rectangular, circular-features, suitability
Following are the common sections of a sewer:
1. Old Rectangular 5. New Rectangular
2. Circular Brick-Sewer 6. Circular Pipes
3. Semi-Elliptical 7. Horse-Shoe Type
4. Basket Handle Type 8. Egg-Shaped Sewers.
1. Old Rectangular:
▪ These were used in ancient times and are not used nowadays. It was constructed by laying concrete in the bottom and constructing sides with
stone or brick masonry and then plastering.
2. New Rectangular:
▪ This is constructed with R.C.C. which may be precast or cast-in-situ.

3. Circular Brick-Sewer:
▪ This type of section is used under culverts and at such places where big diameter is required for short lengths. These sectio ns are
plastered from inside. In olden days these were common, but now-a-days these are not used due to their much wear and difficult
centring.
4. Circular Pipes:
▪ Precast asbestos cement concrete pipes reinforced with steel are mostly used now-a-days. Sometimes steel pipes with lining of
cement concrete on inside and outside are used. Cast iron pipes are also used on large scale for branch sewers. Laying of these
pipes is very simple.
▪ This section gives the least perimeter for a given area; therefore it has the maximum hydraulic mean depth for running full and
half full depth of the section. This section is also very economical as the quantity of materials required is less.
▪ This section can be easily manufactured in the factories, transported and laid at the required places. But this section is useful in
separate system of sewerage, where discharge is more or less uniform. It is not suitable for combined system, because in dry
weather it is very difficult to develop the self-cleaning velocity.
Sewers are generally circular in shape.
The advantages of circular sewers are:
▪ The perimeter of circular sewer is the least with respect to the sewer of other shape.
▪ The inner surface is smooth hence the flow of sewage is uniform and there is no chance of deposition of
suspended particles.
▪ The circular sewers are easy to construct.
However non-circular shaped sewers are also adopted for the following reasons:
▪ They can be construct in such a convenient shape and size so that a man can enter the sewer for cleaning,
maintenance, etc.
▪ The process of construction is easy.
▪ The structural strength is more.
▪ Cost of construction is low.
8.3 Laying Of Sewer Pipes
All the sewer pipes are generally laid starting from their outfall end towards their starting. The
laying of a new sewer pipes consists of the following 9 steps:
1. Marking Of The Alignment
The center line of the sewer is marked along the road with a theodolite and invert tap. It
may be marked either by reference line or with the help of sight rail. The position of
the manhole is also marked.
2. Excavation Of Trench
After marking the centre line of the sewer, the excavation of trench is started. The
excavation may be carried out either by manual labour or by machines like power
shovels, track excavators etc.
The width of the trench at the bottom is generally kept 15 cm more than the dia of
sewer pipe. At the point of sewer joint, the width of the trench is made 60 cm for a length
of 60 cm. The invert level is fixed by boning rod.
3. Timbering Of The Trench
When, in ordinary soil, the depth of excavation is more than 2 m, timber bracing or sheet
piling is provided on both sides of the trench so that it may not collapse. The extent of
timbering required depends upon the type of soil and the depth of excavation.
4. Dewatering Of Trench
If water is met with during excavation, it is removed by pumping or any other suitable
method.
5. Preparation Of Sub-grade
For soft soil, the bed of the sewer is prepared by plain concrete ([Link]). The thickness of concrete varies from 15 to 20 cm.
The bedding layer is not required in case of rocky or hard soil.
6. Laying And Joining Of Pipes
The sewers are laid along the trench very carefully. Then the joining of the sewer is done as per requirements. After joining,
both sides of the pipe are finished with concrete.
7. Testing Of Leakage
The leakage in the pipe joints or any other points is tested by water test or air test…..Read more(Testing of leakage in the pipe
joint -Air Test & Water Test).
8. Testing of Straightness Of Alignment And Obstruction
The straightness of the sewer pipe and the presence of any obstruction are tested by placing a mirror at one end of the sewer
and a lamp at the other end. If the pipe line is straight, the full circle of light will be observed.
The presence of an obstruction in the pipe can also be tested by inserting a smooth ball at the upper end of the sewer. The dia of
the ball is 13 mm less than the internal diameter of the sewer. If there is no obstruction inside the sewer, the ball shall roll down
and reach the lower end of the sewer.
9. Back Filling
Lastly, the trenches are filled up with the excavated earth in layers of about 15 cm thick. Each layer is properly watered and
rammed.
WATER SUPPLY &
WASTE WATER ENGINEERING
CHAPTER-09

Sewer appurtenances & Sewage Disposal

BY:- ER. M. S. KAR
 9 Sewer appurtenances and Sewage Disposal
9.1 Manholes and Lamp holes – types, features, location, function
9.2 Inlets, Grease & oil trap – features, location, function
9.3 Storm regulator, inverted siphon – features, location, function
9.4 Disposal on land – sewage farming, sewage application and dosing, sewage sickness-causes and
remedies
9.5 Disposal by dilution – standards for disposal in different types of water bodies, self purification
of stream
9.1 Manholes and Lamp holes – types, features, location, function
A manhole or an inspection chamber is a unit constructed underground to provide access to the utilities like a sewer system, drainage
system, etc. Hence, with the help of a manhole, underground utilities are inspected, modified, cleaned and maintained.
Purpose of Manhole:- The main purpose of a manhole is:
▪ To perform inspection, cleaning, and removal of any obstruction present in the sewage line.
▪ The joining of sewers, the change of direction or the alignment of sewers can be performed with the help of manhole.
▪ These have a perforated cover which helps the foul gases to escape. Hence it is a good means of ventilation for the undergrou nd
sewage system.
▪ Manholes help to lay the sewer line in the conventional lengths.

Types of Manhole
The three main types of manhole depending on the depth are:
1. Shallow Manhole
2. Normal Manhole
3. Deep Manhole

1. Shallow Manhole
▪ A shallow manhole has a depth ranging between 75 to 90 cm. These are constructed at the start of a branch sewer or in an area where
there is not much traffic. The shallow manhole is provided with a light cover called as the inspection chamber.
2. Normal Manhole
▪ These are provided at the sewer line with a heavy cover on its top. It has a depth of 150cm. Normal manhole takes a square shape.

3. Deep Manhole
▪ Deep manhole is provided at a depth greater than 150cm with a very heavy cover at its top. The size can be increased and the facility
for going down is also increased.
Location of the Manhole
▪ The manhole construction is performed under the following circumstances:
▪ Where a change of sewer line is necessary
▪ There is a change in sewer size and alignment.
▪ A junction is formed by two or more sewer lines

Drop Manhole
▪ The manhole which is constructed to connect high-level branch sewer to the low-level main sewer with minimum disturbance is called
drop manhole.
Location of Drop Manhole
▪ A drop manhole is provided at the junction point of a high-level branch sewer and a low-level main sewer.

Function of Drop Manhole

▪ The drop manhole serves the following function of drop manhole:
i)It avoids unnecessary steep gradient of branch sewer and thus reduces the quantity of earthwork.
ii)It avoids the possibilities of sewage being thrown on persons entering the working chamber of the manhole.
3) Lamp Holes
▪ A lamp hole is a small opening on sewer for the purpose of lowering a lamp inside it.

Location of Lamp Holes

▪ The lamp holes are provided at places where.
i)A bend in the sewer is necessary.
ii)Construction of manhole is difficult.
iii)The spacing of manholes is more than the usual.
Function of Lamp Holes
▪ The lamp holes serve the following function:

▪ It helps in examining the sewer length between adjacent manholes.

▪ Under some circumstances, it may be used as flushing devices.

▪ If its top cover is kept perforated, it can be used for ventilation of sewer. Such a lamp hole is also known as a fresh air inlet.

9.2 Inlets, Grease & oil trap – features, location, function

Inlet:-
▪ An inlet is an opening through which strom water and surface wash flowing along the streets are admitted and conveyed to the strom
water sewer or combined sewer by means of Pipes.
▪ Location:- inlet are so located that strom water is collected in a short period and there is no flooding on road surfaces.
▪ Placed by road sides at a distance of about 30m to 60m.
▪ Inlets are connected to nearby manholes by pipe lines.

▪ Types:- based on opening direction it is of two types Horizontal & Vertical inlet
Curb Inlet/ Vertical inlet: -
▪ These are vertical opening in the road curbs through which storm water flow enters the storm water drains. These are preferred where
heavy traffic is anticipated.
Gutter Inlet/ Horizontal inlet:-
▪ These are horizontal openings in the gutter which is covered by one or more grating through which storm water is admitted.
Combined Inlets: -
▪ In this, the curb and gutter inlet both are provided to act as a single unit. The gutter inlet is normally placed right in front of the curb
inlets.
Grease and oil Traps:-
Defination:- These are the traps or chambers which are provided on the sewer line to exclude
grease and oil from sewage before it enters the sewer line.
Principle:-
▪ The oil and grease being light in weight float on the surface of sewage. Hence, if outlet
draws the sewage from lower level, the grease and oil are excluded. Thus, the outlet level
is near the bottom of chamber and inlet level is near the top of chamber. If sand is desired
to be excluded from sewage, the space should be kept at bottom of chamber for sand to be
deposited.
Location:-
▪ The grease and oil traps are to be located near the source contributing grease and oil to the
sewage. Ex. Industries, kitchen, hotel, garages, etc.

Reason for excluding grease and oil:-

1. Oil and grease sticks to the side of sewer and consequently the capacity of sewer is
reduced.
2. Presence of oil and grease in sewage also adds to the possibilities of explosion in
sewer.
3. The presence of grease and oil in sewage is also objectionable from the view point
of treatment of sewage. They adversely affect the bio-chemical reaction.
4. The suspended matter which would otherwise have been conveyed also sticks to the
side of sewer due to sticky nature of grease and oil.
5. The layer of oil or grease does not allow oxygen to penetrate. Hence,the aerobic
bacteria will not survive and organic matter will not be decomposed. It will lead to
the malodour.
9.3 Storm regulator, inverted siphon – features, location, function
Storm Regulators:-
▪ Storm Regulators are the sewer appurtenances which constructed for combined sewerage system, so as to permit the diversion of storm water when the
discharge exceeds the certain value. The excess water is thus diverted to a natural stream or
Following are 3 types of Storm Regulator:
(i) Over flow or side flow weirs
(ii) Leaping weirs
(iii) Siphon spillways

i. Side Flow Weir

▪ It is constructed along one or both sides of the combined sewer and delivers the excess flow during storm period to relief sewers or natural drainage courses.
The crest of the weir is set at an elevation corresponding to the desired depth of flow in the sewer. The weir length must be sufficient long for effective
regulation of the flow.

ii. Leaping Weir

▪ The term leaping weir is used to indicate the gap or opening in the invert of a combined sewer. The leaping weir is formed by a gap in the invert of a sewer
through which the dry weather flow falls and over which a portion of the entire storm leaps.
▪ This has an advantage of operating as regulator without involving moving parts. However, the disadvantage of this weir is that, the grit material gets
concentrated in the lower flow channel.
▪ From practical consideration, it is desirable to have moving crests to make the opening adjustable. When discharge is small, the sewage falls directly into the
intercepting sewer through the opening. But when the discharge exceeds a certain limit, the excess sewage leaps or jumps across the weir and it is carried to
natural stream or river.

III. Siphon Spillway

▪ This arrangement of diverting excess sewage from the combined sewer is most effective because it works on the principle of siphon action and it operates
automatically.
▪ The overflow channel is connected to the combined sewer through the siphon. An air pipe is provided at the crest level of siphon to activate the siphon when
water will reach in the combined sewer at stipulated level
 Side flow Weir
Strom water regulator

Leaping Weir

Siphon Spillway
Inverted Siphon :-
▪ An inverted siphon is a sewer section which is constructed lower than the adjacent sewer section and which runs full under gravity with
pressure greater than the atmosphere.
▪ The main purpose if installation of inverted siphons is to carry the sewer line below obstructions such as ground depressions, streams,
rivers, railways etc.
Design Aspects:-
1. Cast iron, concrete, or steel pipes are used.
2. The inverted siphon is constructed between inlet and outlet chambers.
3. If length of siphon is more, it is essential to provide a ventilating shaft along the siphon to avoid the formation of air lo cks in the
siphon.
4. The inlet chamber should provided with screens to remove silt, grit, [Link] sewage before it enters the siphon.
5. Diversion must be provided to avoided choking in any season.
6. Direction change should easy and gradual.

Disadvantages:-
1. As the gradient is not continuous in inverted siphon, the silting takes place, if precautions are not taken in the design of siphon.
2. If inlet chamber is not properly designed,the floating matter contained in sewage will separate out and it will accumulate in the inlet
chamber. The working of inlet chamber will then be seriously affected and it will result in the inefficient functioning of inverted siphon.
3. It is not possible to give side connections to the inverted siphon.
4. When inverted siphon are built on or under river beds,it should be seen that they possess sufficient weight or anchorage to prevent their
flotation when empty.
9.4 Disposal on land – sewage farming, sewage application and dosing, sewage sickness-causes and remedies :-
The sewage begins to cause nuisance as it becomes stale. So the sewage need to be disposed off without treatment or after suitable treatment
. Finally the sewage is disposed off either in natural water course or on land.
DISPOSAL ON LAND :
SEWAGE FARMING
▪ When the sewage is used for growing crops, it is called sewage farming. The nutrients of sewage like nitrogen, phosphorous and
potassium along with micronutrients as well as organic matter are directly utilised by the plant. The sewage increases the fertility of the
soil along with irrigation potential.
▪ The good sewage farm should run on scientific lines with primary objective of disposal of sewage , utilisation to the possibl e extent in a
good sanitary manner without polluting the soil, open water courses or underground water or contamination of the crops or impairing the
productivity of the farm and hygienic safety to the staff against the infection by pathogenic organisms. Under no circumstances raw
sewage should be applied to the farms directly.
SEWAGE APPLICTION AND DOSING
The sewage can be applied to the land by the following methods.
1. Surface Irrigation
▪ The parallel drains are constructed in the fields. All drains are connected to a distributary drain by means of regulating device so that the
sewage can flow in the required drain.
▪ This method is suitable in sloppy areas. The sewage is allowed to overflow through fields from one drain towards another.

2. Subsoil irrigation
▪ In this method a network of porous open joint pipes is laid about 30cm below the ground level. The sewage is allowed to flow through
these pipes which is absorbed by the sub-soil. The remaining quantity of sewage , if any, can be used for irrigation to another place or
discharged in natural water courses.
3. Flooding
The irrigation area is divided into various parts surrounded by dykes. The sewage is filled like small ponds in between the dykes. The
depth of sewage flooded over the fields varies from few centimetres to 50cm depending on the requirement of the irrigation.
4. Ridge and furrow.
▪ In this method the land is first ploughed deep up to 30cm levelled and divided into plots and subplots. Then each subplot is enclosed
by small dykes. Now ridges and follows are formed in each subplot.
▪ The sewage is allowed to flow in furrows, where as crops are grown on rigid . After an interval of 8-10 days the sewage can be again
applied depending on the crops requirement and the nature of the soil.
5. Spray irrigation
This method is not used in India . In this method , first the sewage is filled in tanks so that settleable solids may settle. Then the sewage is
sprayed over the fields by pumping it through pipes fitted with nozzles at the other end.
SEWAGE SICKNESS
▪ When the sewage is continuously applied on the land, the pores of soil continuously go on decreasing and a
stage comes when the soli gets clogged by the deposition of solids of sewage. After reaching this stage , the
air cannot circulate through the soli pores, therefore anaerobic conditions cannot continue, resulting in the
starting of anaerobic conditions.
▪ When anaerobic decompositions start, the hydrogen sulphide gas is produced creating nuisance in the area.
In this condition the sewage treating capacity of the land is exhausted and it cannot accept any more load of
sewage. When such stage is reached the land is aid to be sick.
REMEDIES
▪ By giving primary treatment to the sewage the suspended solids are removed, due to which the pores of the
soil will not be clogged easily.
▪ By giving rest to the land i.e. intermittent application of sewage on land. The land should be ploughed
thoroughly during the non-supply period so that the soil gets aerated.
▪ By planting different crops in the land in rotation, which will aerate the soli and utilise the fertilising
elements of sewage.
▪ By providing under drainage system to collect the excessive quantity of sewage.
▪ By frequent ploughing and rotation of soil.
9.5 Disposal by dilution – standards for disposal in different types of water bodies, self purification of stream
DISPOSAL BY DILUTION:
▪ The disposal of sewage by discharging it into water courses such as streams, rivers or large body of water such as lake , sea is called
dilution. This method is only possible when the natural water in required quantity is available near the town.
▪ If the sewage is to be discharged in sea or tidal river water, the required standards for the polluted water are given in table
SELF-PURIFICATION OF STREAM
▪ When sewage is discharged into natural waters, its organic matter gets oxidised by the dissolved oxygen content in water. The
oxidation of organic matter converts such matter into simple inoffensive substance.
▪ The deficiency of dissolved oxygen thus created in natural waters is filled up by the absorption of atmospheric oxygen. Thus
the oxygen of water is consumed by the sewage and at the same time , it is replenished by the atmosphere. This phenomena
which occurs in all natural waters is known as the self-purification of natural waters.
▪ The rate of self-purification will depend on various factors such as rate of re-aeration , type of organic matter present in
sewage, temperature, velocity of flow, presence of available oxygen in receiving waters, sedimentation etc. The self -
purification process of streams polluted by sewage can be grouped in following four zones.
1. Degradation Zone
▪ This zone is situated just near the point of entering sewage into the stream. The water is turbid with dark colour. The
decomposition of soil matters takes place in this zone and the anaerobic decomposition prevail.
2. Active decomposition Zone
▪ In this zone the water is greyish and darker than the previous zone. The objectionable odours of hydrogen sulphide and other
sulphur compounds prevail and scum may also be seen on the surface in this zone.
3. Recovery zone
▪ In this zone the stabilization of organic matter s takes place and the B.O.D of water is reduced . the contents of dissolved
oxygen start rising up above 40% of the saturation value. The bacterial load decreases as the food supply of bacteria
diminishes.
4. Clear water Zone
▪ In this zone the stream attains normal conditions as were prevailing before sewage is discharged into it.
WATER SUPPLY &
WASTE WATER ENGINEERING
CHAPTER- 10

Sewage treatment
By:- Er. M. S. KAR
 10 Sewage treatment
10.1 Principles of treatment, flow diagram of conventional treatment
10.2 Primary treatment – necessity, principles, essential features, functions
10.3 Secondary treatment – necessity, principles, essential features, functions
10.1 Principles of treatment, flow diagram of conventional treatment :-
PRINCIPLES OF TREATMENT
▪ Sewage contains various types of impurities and disease bacteria. This sewage is disposed of by dilution or on land after its
collection and conveyance. If the sewage is directly disposed of, it will be acted upon the natural forces, which will convert it
into harmless substances. The natural forces of purification cannot purify any amount sewage within specified time. If the
quantity of sewage is more, then receiving water will become or the land will become sewage sick.
▪ Under such circumstances it becomes essential to do some treatment of sewage, so that it can be accepted by the land or
receiving water without any [Link] the main objective of the treatment units to reduce the sewage contents from the
sewage and remove the entire nuisance in such a way that it can be safely discharged in the natural water course applied on the
land.
FLOW DIAGRAM OF CONVENTIONAL TREATMENT:-
10.2 Primary treatment – necessity, principles, essential features, functions
▪ PRIMARY TREATMENT
▪ The sewage contains various suspended, floating, and oily substances. By primary
treatment these substances are removed from the sewage so that the working of the
sedimentary treatment units may be easy and there are no disturbances in the operation
of those units. The units of the primary treatments are as follows:
1. SCREENS
▪ The screen is the first unit of primary treatment plant. The function of screen is to
remove all the floating debris like wood pieces, cloth and paper pieces, decayed fruits
and vegetables etc. If these floating matters are not eliminated, it may choke the pipe
lines or it may cause damage to the pumping unit.
Construction:
The screens may be constructed of M.S bar s or rods, gratings, wire meshes or
perforated plates. The M.S. bar screen is made by placing parallel bars with spacings
according to the following types.
▪ Coarse screen: The spacing of bars is more than 40mm centre to centre.
▪ Medium screen: The spacing of bars is less than 40mm.
▪ Fine screen: The spacing of bars vary from 1.5mm to 6mm.
▪ The screens may be fixed or movable. The inclination of the screen varies from 30° to
60° . The screens are placed at designed inclination in an oblong rectangular chamber.
The ends of the chamber are tapered. It is constructed with brick masonry. The inner
surfaces are plastered and finished with neat cement polish. A perforated rectangular
channel is provided at the top of the screen for collecting floating debris.
Operation:
▪ The raw sewage is allowed to enter the chamber through the inlet pipe. The floating debris are
obstructed by the screen and collected near it. The sewage containing the other suspended
materials passes through the screen and is taken to the next unit.

Cleaning:
▪ The debris may be cleaned by manual labours or mechanical device. In manual system, the
debris are taken by rackers and collected in the perforated channel from where these are
disposed of. In mechanical device system, a raking arm like crane is provided which collect
the debris at regular interval and throws in a collecting basin from where these are disposed of.
Disposal
▪ Dumping : The debris are dumped in low-lying areas far away from the locality.
▪ Burning: After drying the debris are burnt to ashes.
▪ Composting: God quality manure may be obtained by composting the debris in compost plant.

2. GRIT CHAMBER
▪ The function of grit chamber is to remove the inorganic substances like grit, sand and other
suspended materials. The velocity of flow in the grit chamber is kept low so that a detention
period is available for the settlement of the above substances.
▪ Construction
▪ The grit chamber is an oblong rectangular chamber and constructed with brick masonry. The
floor of the chamber is mad sloping for the collection of grits at a particular zone.
▪ The inner surfaces are plastered and finished with neat cement polish. It consists of an agitator
for agitating the deposited grit at the time of cleaning.
▪ A pipe line with valve is provided at the bottom of the chamber for periodical removal of the
grits. The length, width and depth are designed according to the volume of sewage.
Operation:
The sewage from the screen chamber is allowed to enter the grit chamber and flow at a low velocity of 20 cm to 30 cm per sec. Due to the
low velocity; the grits, sands, etc are settled down at the bottom of the grit chamber.

Cleaning:
▪ At the time of cleaning, the deposited grits are agitated by agitator and the muddy water comes out through the removal pipe. The grits
may also be cleared from top by manual labours with the help of buckets.
Disposal :- The grits are generally dumped in low-lying areas for the reclamation of land.
PRIMARY SEDIMENTATION TANK
▪ The function of primary sedimentation tank is to remove colloidal particles like silt and clay and some organic substance. Mo reover it
reduces the load on the secondary treatment. Coagulants may be used, if necessary.
Construction:
▪ It is a rectangular tank constructed with brick masonry. Baffle walls are provided in zigzag way so as to lengthen the path of the flow of
the sewage. Inlet and outlet pipes are provided on opposite corners and these are provided with valves. A sludge removal pipe is provided
at the bottom of the tank.
Operation:
The sewage enters the tank through the inlet pipe and flows along the zigzag path and hence the velocity of flow is reduced. Thus the
sewage is detained for a considerable period in the tank. The colloidal particles and organic substances are settled down at the bottom of the
tank. The comparatively clear water passes out through the outlet pipe.
Cleaning:
The sludge is cleaned periodically through the removal pipe by opening the valve.

Disposal:
The sludge may be disposed of by pumping in ditches or low-lying areas or may be dried in sludge drying beds and can be used as manure.
10.3 Secondary treatment – necessity, principles, essential features, functions
SECONDARY TREATMENT
In the primary treatment, the larger solids in sewage are removed. But the effluent still contains organic matters, bacteria,
colloidal matters etc. Such effluent cannot be discharged into the natural water course. So secondary treatments are given to the
effluent of primary treatment to make it safe in all respects and suitable for discharging it into the river. The units of the
secondary treatments are as follows:
Contact Bed
▪ Contact bed is a method of filtration of sewage. Its rate of filtration is low. In contact bed, the sewage is brought in contact
with the filtering media for some specified period.
▪ During this period, a biological film is formed around the particles of the filter media and the bacterial colonies are formed
in the film.
▪ These bacteria are responsible for the oxidation of organic matters. Again, when the bed is kept empty for some period, the
filter gets oxygen from atmosphere and oxides the organic matters if they remain deoxidised.
Construction:
▪ It is a rectangular tank which is divided into several beds. The depth of bed varies from 1m to 2m. Each bed is filled up with
filtering media of gravel, ballast or broken stones as shown in fig. The effective size of ballast varies from 15mm to 50mm.
▪ A siphonic dosing tank is provided for the supply of sewage to all the bed simultaneously. Generally the rate of filtration is
500 litres per m3 of filter media.
Operation:
▪ The bed is filled with sewage through the siphonic dosing tank and it may take about two hours. The sewage is allowed to
stay in the filter media for about 2 hours. The effluent is allowed to flow through the effluent pipe for the disposal to natural
water course. This may take about 2 hours. The bed is allowed to stay empty for about 4 hours. Thus, the cycle of operation
TRICKLING FILTER
▪ Trickling filter is a method of filtration of sewage. The rate filtration is high as compared to contact bed. The principle o f trickling filter is
that the bacterial film which is formed around the filtering media is the source of formation of the bacterial colonies.
▪ These bacteria decompose the organic matters for their survival. So the trickling filter serves the purpose of breaking the complex organic
matter by fertilising the bacteria.
Elements of trickling filter
1. Construction of filter:
▪ Generally the trickling filter is circular in shape. It consists of 4 nos. of rotary distributing arms which have perforation at the bottom.
The arms are fitted with acentral support which is rotated by a suitable device. The floor of the filter is made of concrete and its slope
is made towards the periphery.
2. Dosing of filter: A siphonic dosing tank is provided with the trickling filter for intermittent supply of effluent over the
filtering media.
3. Filtering media: It consists of broken stones, clinkers etc with their size varying from 20-50mm. The larger size stones are
placed at the bottom layer and the smaller size stones are arranged towards the top. the stones or clinkers should of good
quality.
4. Under drainage system: It consists of a channel along the periphery of the filter. The channel is again connected to the
outlet pipe.
5. Ventilation: The ventilation of the filter is necessary for the smooth working of the filter. The ventilation ids achieved by
providing vent pipes at the periphery.
6. Working: The effluent is spread over the filtering media of broken stones by rotary arms. The effluent trickles down the
media and gets collected in the channel. The channel caries the effluent to the outlet pipe through which the effluent is
taken for chlorination.
7. Cleaning: After working for long period, the upper surface of the media may be clogged by sediments. The rate of
filtration may be decreased or stopped due to this. At that time , the upper layer of stones are scrapped off and fresh layer
of stones of same size are replaced properly.
ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS
Definition:- The sludge which is made powerful by the process of aeration is known as activated
sludge. It contains high content of oxygen and high no. of aerobic bacteria. It possesses unusual
property to oxidise the organic matters.
Action
The following are the actions of activated sludge:
(i) The activated sludge when mixed with sewage, the microorganisms multiply rapidly.
(ii) The activated sludge oxidises the organic substances rapidly.
(iii) It converts the colloidal matters to settleable size rapidly.
▪ Operational features

1. Mixing of activated sludge :

▪ Some portion of the activated sludge settled at the bottom of secondary settling tank is
recirculated and mixed with the effluent of primary settling tank just before its entry to the
aeration tank.

2. Aeration:
▪ Aeration tank is the first unit of the activated sludge process. Here, the effluent of the
primary settling tank and air are brought in intimate contact by agitating with some
mechanical devices. The devices are as follows:
a) Air diffuser system
b) Mechanical aeration system
c) Combination of Air diffuser and mechanical aeration system:-
Air diffuser system may be achieved by (i) Jet diffuser (ii) Plate diffuser (iii) Tube
diffuser
Sludge settlement:
▪ The secondary sedimentation tank is the second unit. After agitation
in aeration tank, the effluent is taken to the secondary settling tank
and detained for a specified period, generally of 1 hr. During this
detention period, the sludge is termed as activated sludge. Some
portion of this sludge is recirculated to aeration tank and the
remaining portion is sent to digestion tank. Thus, the cycle of
activated sludge process goes on working.
AERATED LAGOON
▪ An aerated lagoon is an earthen basin about 2.5m to 4.0m deep, in
which the sewage is filled and aerated by means of diffused air or
mechanical aerators. Commonly mechanical aerators are used. These
are firmly fixed on the permanent foundation. Sewage is sent in the
lagoon after passing through the grit chamber, without giving any
primary treatment.
The aerated lagoon acts as a settling cum aeration tank, where artificial
aeration replaces algae oxygenation of the waste stabilized ponds. The
detention period of 3 to 5 days is provided. The efficiency of aerated
lagoon is 70to 95% B.O.D removal.
▪ These are most suitable for middle size town as the initial cost of
construction varies from Rs. 15 to 25 per capita. The waste water of
industries such as paper , straw board and food industries can also be
easily treated by aerated lagoons.
OXIDATION DITCH
▪ The oxidation ditches are aeration units in the shape of long channels 150 to
1000m long, 1 to 5m wide and 1 to 1.5m deep. mechanical aeration devices
mainly consists of cylindrical cage about 75cm in diameter made of C.I., angle
iron webs on which short (15cmx5cmx5cm), Tees or angle irons are mounted.
▪ These cylinders are kept at such a level that about 10 to 15 cm of them dipped in
sewage. These cylinders are rotated at about 75r.p.m . The rotor aerator aerates
the sewage at a velocity of more than 30 cm/sec and keeps the solid content of
the sewage in suspension condition.
▪ After aeration the sewage is allowed to settle in the settling tanks. The activated
sludge is returned back to the aeration units. No primary treatments are given to
sewage, so the methods are cross simplified. Sometime it acts as a settling unit.
The rotors are stopped for 2 hours and the suspended solids settle in the bed, the
effluent is taken out and disposed.
SLUDGE DISPOSAL:- Before disposing the sludge, the sludge digestion is to be
done.
SLUDGE DIGESTION
The decomposition of complex organic matters in sludge by the bio-chemical
reactions created by anaerobic bacteria is termed as sludge digestion. A portion
of solids is converted into liquid and gases due to which the volume is reduced
by 60-75%.
Necessity of Sludge Digestion: The following are the necessity of sludge digestion
1. To destroy pathogenic bacteria.
2. To reduce the volume of sludge so that it can be disposed of easily.
3. To obtain combustible gases.
4. To obtain good fertiliser.
5. To reduce the moisture content for the facility of handling and transporting.

SLUDGE DIGESTION TANK

Constructional features
[Link] tank :
▪ The enclosure tank is generally circular in shape and is constructed with R.C.C. The diameter of the tank is varies
from 5-20 m and depth varies from [Link] the actual size depends upon in the volume of the sludge.
▪ The floor of the tank is made sloping like hopper and the slope is generally 1:2 or 1:3.

2. Gas Dome:
▪ A gas dome is provided with the floating roof for the collection of gas formed during the process of digestion.

[Link] and Outlet:

▪ An inlet pipe is provided for the entry of raw sludge. A sludge outlet pipe is provided at the bottom. Supernatant
liquid outlets are provided at different levels. A gas outlet pipe is provided at the top for drawing the gases from
dome.
4. Mixing Device:
▪ A suitable mixing device should be provided for mixing the incoming raw sludge with the digested sludge.

[Link] breaking device:

▪ Some devices should be provided to break up the scum which may form at the top surface.
Working principles
1. The raw sludge is allowed to enter the tank through the inlet pipe and is thrown at the centre of the tank.
2. The sludge is digested by the decomposition of complex organic matters by anaerobic bacteria.
3. The digested sludge is settled at the bottom of the tank which is withdrawn through the outlet valve and
left for drying. The gases are collected at the dome. The gases are withdrawn through the outlet pipe and
are used as fuel.
4. The supernatant liquid is collected, at the space between the digested sludge zone and the gas dome.
This illiquid is withdrawn from different levels and disposed of in the natural water course.
IMHOFF TANK: In Inhoff tank, the sedimentation and digestion are carried out simultaneously. The
following are the parts and working of Inhoff tank.
(a) Shape : It is circular in shape with hopper like bottom and constructed in R.C.C.
(b) Sedimentation Chamber: it is the central zone of imhoff tank. The sewage containing heavy sludge
from the secondary clarifier is allowed to enter this chamber and is detained for specified period.
(c) Baffle plates and Slots : The tank consists of baffle plates with hopper like [Link] are provided
between the baffle plates and the body of the tank. The sludge is generally settled down through the slots
and deposited in the digestion chamber.
(d) Digestion Chamber: This is the lower part of the Inhoff tank. In this chamber, the sludge is digested
under anaerobic condition.
(e) Neutral Zone: The space between the slot and the top digestion chamber is known as neutral zone. The
depth of this zone is generally 30m. This zone prevents the entry of digested sludge into the sedimentation
chamber.
(f) Gas Chamber:It is the upper zone of the Inhoff tank. In this chamber, the gases (mainly methane) are
collected which are withdrawn and used as fuel.
(g) Sludge Removal: The digested sludge from the digestion tank is withdrawn through the sludge
removal pipe and taken to the drying bed.
DISPOSAL OF DIGESTED SLUDGE
▪ The sludge obtained from all the sources has an objectionable odour and it
possesses the property of pollution if not properly disposed of. The following
are the methods of sludge disposal.
1. The sludge is disposed by spreading on drying bed to a thickness of 30cm. After
7 days, the sludge is ready to removed and stored suitably for the use as manure. It
should not come in contact with vegetables and fruits directly on soil.
2. The sludge is disposed by spreading over barren land at an interval of about 7
months and ploughed frequently which enhances the fertility of the land.
3. The sludge is disposed by pouring in trenches on barren land. The trenches are
excavated on land perpendicular to each other at an interval of disposal period
(about 1 month).
4. Where there is no utility of sludge, very easy and cheap method of sludge
disposal is throwing the sludge into the deep sea very far away from the shore
ensuring that the sludge may not return to the shore.
5. The sludge is disposed by incineration. The sludge is burnt in incinerator of
flash type (consists of a tower) or multiple hearth type (consists of a furnace).
Ashes from incinerated sludge is used as a landfill .
6. Lagooning is one of the process of sludge disposal. A lagoon is an artificial
pond of depth of about 1m with the embankments on 2 sides. The lagoon is filled
up with wet sludge and left for few months. The sludge is dried and cracks are
formed on the surface. Then the dried sludge is removed and used as manure. This
is a very cheap method, if sufficient land is available.
OXIDATION POND
▪ Theory The oxidation pond is an excavation of rectangular ditch of shallow depth. The
sewage is stored in this pond for a considerable time. During this period, the sewage is
decomposed by the action of aerobic bacteria, algae and sunshine. That means, it is a natural
method of sewage treatment. The aerobic bacteria absorb oxygen from the atmosphere for
their survival and break up the organic matters in sewage to simple stable compounds.
Construction and Operation
▪ The oxidation pond is constructed by excavating a rectangular ditch of shallow depth. The
length varies from 50-100m, the width from 30-50m and the depth varies from 0.9-1.5m.
▪ The pond is divided into several compartments. The sewage is allowed to enter the pond
through the inlet channel at one corner. The sewage flows in a zig-zag manner until the
whole pond is filled up.
▪ The detention period varies from 7-14 days. The decomposition of sewage is achieved by
the aerobic bacteria. After complete decomposition black humus is obtained which may be
used as manure.
Advantages
(a) It is a natural method of decomposition, so it is cheap.
(b) Its operation and maintenance is simple.
(c) It is highly efficient in removing B.O.D.
Disadvantages
(a) Large area is required for treatment.
(b) It creates bad smell and mosquito nuisance.
(c) In rainy season or cloudy weather, the sewage becomes septic and this may cause insanitary
condition.