The Universal Law of Gravitation states that every point mass attracts every other point mass in the universe with a force that is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers. Mathematically, this is expressed as F = Gm1m2 / r², where G is the gravitational constant, m1 and m2 are the masses, and r is the distance between their centers. It helps in understanding gravitational forces and calculating the strength of gravity between any two masses .

Mechanical work is defined as the product of the force applied on an object and the displacement of the object in the direction of the force, and is calculated as W = F × d × cosθ, where θ is the angle between the force and displacement vectors. Power is the rate at which work is done, calculated as P = Work / Time. The angle θ affects the work done; if θ is 0°, the work done is maximal, while at 90°, no work is done as the force is perpendicular to displacement .

Velocity and speed are both measures of how fast an object is moving, but they differ in that velocity is a vector quantity that includes direction, while speed is a scalar quantity with no direction. The formula for speed is Speed = Distance / Time, whereas for velocity it is Velocity = Displacement / Time .

The gravitational constant, denoted as G, is a fundamental constant in the equations of gravitational force. In the formula F = Gm1m2 / r², G determines the strength of the gravitational force between two masses. Its value affects all calculations involving gravity, making it crucial for determining the forces acting between planetary bodies or any two masses in the universe. Without G, it's impossible to accurately calculate the gravitational interactions at any scale .

Newton's Second Law of Motion states that the force acting on an object is equal to the rate of change of its momentum. This relationship is expressed by the formula F = Δp / Δt, where F is the force, Δp is the change in momentum, and Δt is the change in time. Momentum is defined as p = m × v, where m is mass and v is velocity .

Kinetic energy is the energy of motion, calculated with the formula KE = ½mv², where m is mass and v is velocity. Potential energy is the energy stored due to an object's position, calculated using PE = mgh, where m is mass, g is acceleration due to gravity, and h is height above a reference point. Together, they contribute to mechanical energy, which is the sum of kinetic and potential energy: ME = KE + PE .

Pascal's Law states that pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted equally in all directions throughout the fluid. This principle is fundamental in hydraulic systems, allowing force to be multiplied by applying pressure to a small piston, which then exerts the pressure on a larger piston, thus increasing the force. This enables hydraulic systems to lift heavy loads with relatively little input force .

Density is determined by the formula Density = Mass / Volume, and it measures how much mass is contained in a given volume. Relative density is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of water. These measurements are important for identifying substances since they provide information about the compactness of a material, aiding in differentiation between similar looking materials .

Understanding the key kinematic equations of motion—v = u + at, s = ut + ½at², and v² – u² = 2as—is essential for solving problems involving linear and non-linear motions by providing a means to predict the future state of moving objects based on initial conditions. These equations are foundational for calculating variables like velocity, displacement, and time, and are applicable to a variety of scenarios including free fall and projectile motion where acceleration is constant .

In uniform circular motion, an object travels along a circular path with constant speed but changing velocity due to its continuous change in direction. The acceleration is directed toward the center of the circle and is given by a = v² / r, where v is the velocity of the object and r is the radius of the circle. The radius is inversely proportional to the acceleration, meaning that for a smaller radius at constant speed, the centripetal acceleration is greater .