Database Management Systems

7th SEMESTER
OCSE-407T
UNIT II
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 Unit 2
SYLLABUS
Enhanced ER concepts -
• Specialization/Generalization, Aggregation,
• Mapping of ER model to Relational Model

SQL –
• Functions ‐ aggregate functions
• Built‐in functions – numeric, date, string functions, set operations
• Sub queries, correlated sub‐queries
• Use of group by, having, order by,
• Join and its types, Exist, Any, All ,
• View and its types
• Transaction control commands Commit, Rollback, Save point

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 Introduction to RDBMS
 Relational Model was proposed by E.F. Codd to
model data in the form of relations or tables.
 After designing the conceptual model of Database
using ER diagram,
 we need to convert the conceptual model in the
relational model which can be implemented using
any RDBMS languages like Oracle SQL, MySQL
etc. So we will see what Relational Model is.

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 1) What is Relational Model?

2) Relational Model represents how data is stored in

Relational Databases. A relational database stores data
in the form of relations (tables).
3) Consider a relation STUDENT with attributes
ROLL_NO, NAME, ADDRESS, PHONE and AGE
shown in the diagram:

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 Explanation:
 Attribute: Attributes are the properties that define a relation.
e.g.; ROLL_NO, NAME
 Relation Schema: A relation schema represents name of the
relation with its attributes. e.g.; STUDENT (ROLL_NO,
NAME, ADDRESS, PHONE and AGE) is relation schema for
STUDENT. If a schema has more than 1 relation, it is called
Relational Schema.
 Tuple: Each row in the relation is known as tuple. The above
relation contains 4 tuples, one of which is shown as:
 1 RAM DELHI 9455123451 18

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  Relation Instance: The set of tuples of a relation at a particular instance
of time is called as relation instance. Table 1 shows the relation instance
of STUDENT at a particular time. It can change whenever there is
insertion, deletion or updation in the database.
 Degree: The number of attributes in the relation is known as degree of
the relation. The STUDENT relation defined above has degree 5.
 Cardinality: The number of tuples in a relation is known as cardinality.
The STUDENT relation defined above has cardinality 4.
 Column: Column represents the set of values for a particular attribute.
The column ROLL_NO is extracted from relation STUDENT.
NULL Values: The value which is not known or unavailable is called NULL
value. It is represented by blank space. e.g.; PHONE of STUDENT having
ROLL_NO 4 is NULL.

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 Constraints in Relational Model
 While designing Relational Model, we define some conditions which must hold for data
present in database are called Constraints. These constraints are checked before
performing any operation (insertion, deletion and updation) in database. If there is a
violation in any of constrains, operation will fail.

 Domain Constraints: These are attribute level constraints. An attribute can only take
values which lie inside the domain range. e.g,; If a constrains AGE>0 is applied on
STUDENT relation, inserting negative value of AGE will result in failure.

 Key Integrity: Every relation in the database should have atleast one set of attributes
which defines a tuple uniquely. Those set of attributes is called key. e.g.; ROLL_NO in
STUDENT is a key. No two students can have same roll number. So a key has two
properties:

 It should be unique for all tuples.

 It can’t have NULL values.

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  BRANCH_CODE of STUDENT can only take the values
which are present in BRANCH_CODE of BRANCH which
is called referential integrity constraint.
 The relation which is referencing to other relation is called
REFERENCING RELATION (STUDENT in this case) and
the relation to which other relations refer is called
REFERENCED RELATION (BRANCH in this case).


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  After observing the differences between DBMS and RDBMS,
you can say that RDBMS is an extension of DBMS.

 There are many software products in the market today who

are compatible for both DBMS and RDBMS. Means today a
RDBMS application is DBMS application and vice-versa.

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 Relational Model Concept
 Relational model can represent as a table with columns and rows.
Each row is known as a tuple. Each table of the column has a name
or attribute.

 Domain: It contains a set of atomic values that an attribute can

take.

 Attribute: It contains the name of a column in a particular table.

Each attribute Ai must have a domain, dom(Ai)

 Relational instance: In the relational database system, the

relational instance is represented by a finite set of tuples. Relation
instances do not have duplicate tuples.

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  Relational schema: A relational schema contains the name of
the relation and name of all columns or attributes.

 Relational key: In the relational key, each row has one or

more attributes. It can identify the row in the relation
uniquely.

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  In the given table, NAME, ROLL_NO, PHONE_NO, ADDRESS,
and AGE are the attributes.
 The instance of schema STUDENT has 5 tuples.
 t3 = <Laxman, 33289, 8583287182, Gurugram, 20>
 Properties of Relations
 Name of the relation is distinct from all other relations.
 Each relation cell contains exactly one atomic (single) value
 Each attribute contains a distinct name
 Attribute domain has no significance
 tuple has no duplicate value
 Order of tuple can have a different sequence

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 Relational Algebra
 Relational algebra is a procedural query language. It gives a
step by step process to obtain the result of the query. It uses
operators to perform queries.

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 1. Select Operation:

 The select operation selects tuples that satisfy a given

predicate.
 It is denoted by sigma (σ).
 Notation: σ p(r)
 Where:

 σ is used for selection prediction

 r is used for relation
 p is used as a propositional logic formula which may use
connectors like: AND OR and NOT. These relational can use
as relational operators like =, ≠, ≥, <, >, ≤.
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 For example: LOAN Relation

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 Explanation:

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 2. Projection Operation:

• This operation shows the list of those attributes

that we wish to appear in the result. Rest of the
attributes are eliminated from the table.
• It is denoted by ∏.
1. Notation: ∏ A1, A2, An (r)
 Where
 A1, A2, A3 is used as an attribute name of
relation r.

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 Example: CUSTOMER RELATION

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 Explanation:

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 3. Union Operation:

• Suppose there are two tuples R and S. The union

operation contains all the tuples that are either in
R or S or both in R & S.
• It eliminates the duplicate tuples. It is denoted by
∪.
1. Notation: R ∪ S
 A union operation must hold the following
condition:
• R and S must have the attribute of the same
number.
• Duplicate tuples are eliminated automatically.

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 Example:

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 Example:

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 4. Set Intersection:

• Suppose there are two tuples R and S. The set

intersection operation contains all tuples that are
in both R & S.
• It is denoted by intersection ∩.
 Notation: R ∩ S

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 Example
 Using the previous DEPOSITOR table and
BORROW table

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 5. Set Difference:
• Suppose there are two tuples R and S. The set
intersection operation contains all tuples that are
in R but not in S.
• It is denoted by intersection minus (-).
 Notation: R - S

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 Example
 Using the previous DEPOSITOR table and
BORROW table

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 6. Cartesian Product:
•
The Cartesian product is used to combine each
row in one table with each row in the other table.
It is also known as a cross product.
• It is denoted by X.
1. Notation: E X D

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 Example:

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 7. Rename Operation:

 The rename operation is used to rename the

output relation. It is denoted by rho (ρ).
 Example: We can use the rename operator to
rename STUDENT relation to STUDENT1.
1. ρ(STUDENT1, STUDENT)
 Note: Apart from these common operations
Relational algebra can be used in Join
operations.

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 Types of Relational Model:
 Depending on the data you're working with, you can set up
one of several relational database models.
 In each of these models, however, you need to differentiate
between a child table (also called a dependent table or a
controlled table) and a parent table (also called a primary
table or a controlling table).
 The child table is the one that is dependent on the parent
table to fill in the definition of its records.
 The Contacts table, for example, is a child table because it is
dependent on the Companies table for the company
information associated with each person.

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 The One-To-Many Model

 The most common relational model is one where a single record in the
parent table relates to multiple records in the child table.
 This is called a one-to-many relationship. The sales leads example is a
one-to-many relationship because one record in the Companies table can
relate to many records in the Contacts table.
 In these models, the "many" table is the one where you add the foreign
key.

 Another example of a one-to-many relationship is an application that

tracks accounts- receivable invoices.
 You need one table for the invoice data (Invoices) and another for the
customer data (Customers). In this case, one customer can place many
orders, so Customers is the parent table, Invoices is the child table, and
the common field is the Customer table's primary key.

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 I The One-to-One Model

 If your data requires that one record in the parent table be related to only one
record in the child table, you have a one-to-one model.
 The most common use of one-to-one relations is to create separate entity
classes to enhance security.

 In a hospital, for example, each patient's data is a single entity class, but it makes
sense to create separate tables for the patient's basic information (such as the
name, address, and so on) and his or her medical history.
 This enables you to add extra levels of security to the confidential medical data
(such as a password). The two tables then become related based on a common
"PatientID" key field.

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  Another example of a one-to-one model is employee
[Link] separate the less-sensitive information such as
job title and startup date into one table, and restricted
information such as salary and commissions into a
second table. If each employee has a unique identification
number, you use that number to set up a relationship
between the two tables.
 Note that in a one-to-one model, the concepts of child
and parent tables are interchangeable. Each table relies
on the other to form the complete picture of each
patient or employee.
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 The Many-to-Many Model

 In some cases, you might have data in which many records in

one table can relate to many records in another table. This is
called a many-to-many relationship. In this case, there is no
direct way to establish a common field between the two
tables. To see why, let's look at an example from a pared-
down accounts-receivable application.

 Table 3.6 shows a simplified structure of an Invoices table. It

includes a primary key—InvoiceID—as well as a foreign
key—CustomerID—from a separate table of customer
information.

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 Explanation:
 The idea here is that a given product can appear in many invoices,
and any given invoice can contain many products.
 This is a many-to-many relationship, and it implies that both tables
are parents . But relational theory says that a child table is needed
to establish a common field.
 In this case, the solution is to set up a third table—called a
relation table—that is the child of both the original tables. In the
ongoing example, the relation table contains the detail data for
each invoice.
 Table 3.8 shows the structure of such a table. As you can see, the
table includes foreign keys from both Invoices (InvoiceID) and
Products (ProductID), as well as a Quantity field.

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 Tabular Representation:

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 Keys in Relational Model:
 Keys are very important part of Relational database model.
They are used to establish and identify relationships between
tables and also to uniquely identify any record or row of data
inside a table.

 A Key can be a single attribute or a group of attributes,

where the combination may act as a key.

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 Why we need a Key?

 In real world applications, number of tables required for storing the data
is huge, and the different tables are related to each other as well.

 Also, tables store a lot of data in them. Tables generally extends to

thousands of records stored in them, unsorted and unorganised.

 Now to fetch any particular record from such dataset, you will have to
apply some conditions, but what if there is duplicate data present and
every time you try to fetch some data by applying certain condition, you
get the wrong data. How many trials before you get the right data?

 To avoid all this, Keys are defined to easily identify any row of data in a
table.
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 Example:

Let's take a simple Student table, with fields student_id, name, phone and age.

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 Super Key

 Super Key is defined as a set of attributes within a table that can uniquely
identify each record within a table. Super Key is a superset of Candidate key.

 In the table defined super key would include student_id, (student_id, name),
phone etc.
 Confused? The first one is pretty simple as student_id is unique for every row of
data, hence it can be used to identity each row uniquely.

 Next comes, (student_id, name), now name of two students can be same, but
their student_id can't be same hence this combination can also be a key.

 Similarly, phone number for every student will be unique, hence again, phone
can also be a key.

 So they all are super keys.

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 Candidate Key

 Candidate keys are defined as the minimal set of fields which can
uniquely identify each record in a table. It is an attribute or a set of
attributes that can act as a Primary Key for a table to uniquely identify
each record in that table. There can be more than one candidate key.

 In our example, student_id and phone both are candidate keys for table
Student.

 A candidate key can never be NULL or empty. And its value should be
unique.
 There can be more than one candidate keys for a table.
 A candidate key can be a combination of more than one
columns(attributes).
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 Primary Key

 Primary key is a candidate key that is most appropriate to

become the main key for any table. It is a key that can
uniquely identify each record in a table.

For the table Student we can make the student_id column as the primary key.

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 Composite Key

 Key that consists of two or more attributes that uniquely

identify any record in a table is called Composite key. But the
attributes which together form the Composite key are not a
key independentely or individually.

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  In the previous picture we have a Score table which stores the
marks scored by a student in a particular subject.

 In this table student_id and subject_id together will form the

primary key, hence it is a composite key.

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 Secondary or Alternative key
 The candidate key which are not selected as primary key are
known as secondary keys or alternative keys.
 Non-key Attributes
 Non-key attributes are the attributes or fields of a table,
other than candidate key attributes/fields in a table.

 Non-prime Attributes
 Non-prime Attributes are attributes other than Primary Key
attribute(s)..

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 Additional Operations in Relational
Algebra-
 Additional operations in relational algebra are as below –

 Set Intersection operation

 Division operation
 Assignment operation
 Natural Join operation:
 Left Outer Join Operation
 Right Outer Join Operation
 Full Outer Join Operation

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 Tables used for Examples

 Note –We are going to use below relation tables to show

different dbms relational algebra examples. These tables will
be used for different examples shown in this post.

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 Explanation:

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 Types:
 The first additional relational algebra operations in dbms is
Set intersection operation –

 Let’s say you have two relation tables A and B. Now, what if
you are asked to find out the common tuples in tables A and
B. How can you achieve it?

 To make this task easier, there is an operation defined in

relational algebra. This is called set intersection operation.

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 (1) Set Intersection Operation (∩)
 Set Intersection operation selects common tuples from the
two relations. It is denoted by (∩)
 Necessary condition to apply set intersection operation –

 For set intersection operation, the two-argument relation

must be compatible relation.

 So, if R and S are two relations, P = R ∩ S has tuples drawn

from R and S, such that each tuple in P is in R and S.

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 Notation of Set Intersection Operation
 P=R∩S
 Where, P = result of set intersection operation,
 R and S are relations on which set intersection operation has
been applied.

 Consider R and S relation shown at start of the post,

 Result after applying set intersection operation in R and S
relations –

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 (2) Division Operation (÷)
 Division operation is denoted by ÷ sign. It is useful in
queries, which involve the phrase “for all objects having all
the specified properties”.
 Let R (R-Schema) and S(S-Schema) are relations and any
attribute of S – Schema is also in R – Schema. The relation
 R / S is a relation on schema R-Schema – S-Schema i.e. on
the schema containing all the attributes of Schema R that are
not in Schema S.

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  Division operation R ÷ S can only be applied if and only if –

 Attributes of S is proper subset of Attributes of R.

 The relation returned by division operator will have
attributes = (All attributes of R – All Attributes of S)
 The relation returned by division operator will return those
tuples from relation R which are associated to every S’s
tuple.

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 Notation of Division Operation

 P=R÷S
 Where,
 P is result we get after applying division operator,
 R and S stands for relation (name of the tables) on which
division operation is applied.

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 Assignment operation –
 Suppose you wish to assign result of an expression into a relation R. How would
you denote it?
 For such work, we use assignment operator (←).
 Notation of Assignment Operator
 Relational Variable ← Expression.
 R ← E.
 Where,
 R is relation,
 r stands for relation variable.
 E is Expression whose result we wish to assign to relation variable
R.
 The result of the expression to the right hand side of ← is assigned
to relation variable on the left side of ←.

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 4) Natural Join Operation (⋈)
 It is denoted by the join symbol ⋈. The natural join operation
forms a Cartesian product of its two arguments,
 performs selection forcing equality on those attributes that appear
in both relation schema, and finally removes
 duplicate attributes. Natural join can be defined as:

 Notation of Natural Join Operation

 P=R⋈S
 Where,
 Pis resultant relation after applying natural join operation on R
and S,
 R and S stands for relation (name of the table)

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  Employee relation

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 Tabular Representation:

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 (5) Outer Join Operation
 The outer join operation is an extension of the join operation
to deal with missing information.
 Suppose we have the relations with the following schemas
which contain data on permanent doctors.

 Doctors (doc-id, name)

 Permanent-doc (doc-id, address, birthdate, sal)

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 Doctor relation

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 Permanent Document
relation
 It contains id, address, birth date and salary of doctors.

Suppose we wish to generate a single relation with all the information (Name, address, birthdate,
sal) about Permanent doctors.

One approach would be to use Natural-Join operation as follows:

= (Doctors ⋈ Permanent-Doc)
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  It is seen that, we have information about Doctor with docid=3 and his
address, birthdate, sal. Since the tuple describing docid=3, is absent in
Permanent-doc. Similarly we have lost the name of docid=5, since the
tuple describing docid=5, is absent from Doctors relation.

 The outer join operation can be used to avoid this loss of information.
There are 3 forms of the operation.

 Left outer join

 Right outer join
 Full outer join
 All these 3 forms of join compute the join and add extra tuples to the
result of join
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 5.1 Left Outer Join Operation (⟕)
 The left outer join takes all tuples in the left relation that did
not match with any tuple in the right relation pads the tuples
with NULL values for all other attributes from the right
relation, and adds them to the result of natural join.

 Notation of Left Outer Join Operation

 P=R⟕S
 Where,
 Pis resultant relation after applying natural join operation on
R and S,
 R and S stands for relation (name of the table).

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 5.2 Right Outer Join Operation (⟖)
 The right outer join is symmetric with the left outer join.
Tuples from the right relation that did not match any from
the left relation are padded with Nulls and added to the
result of Natural join.

 Notation of Right Outer Join Operation

 P=R⟖S
 Where,
 Pis resultant relation after applying natural join operation on
R and S,
 R and S stands for relation (name of the table).

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 Tabular Representation

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 Introduction to SQL
 SQL is a standard language for accessing and manipulating
databases.
 SQL stands for Structured Query Language
 SQL lets you access and manipulate databases
 SQL became a standard of the American National Standards
Institute (ANSI) in 1986, and of the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1987

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 What Can SQL do?

 SQL can execute queries against a database

 SQL can retrieve data from a database
 SQL can insert records in a database
 SQL can update records in a database
 SQL can delete records from a database
 SQL can create new databases
 SQL can create new tables in a database
 SQL can create stored procedures in a database
 SQL can create views in a database
 SQL can set permissions on tables, procedures, and views

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 SQL Commands

• SQL commands are instructions. It is used to

communicate with the database. It is also used to
perform specific tasks, functions, and queries of
data.
• SQL can perform various tasks like create a table,
add data to tables, drop the table, modify the
table, set permission for users.

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 Types of SQL Commands

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 SQL is a Standard
 Although SQL is an ANSI/ISO standard, there are different
versions of the SQL language.

 However, to be compliant with the ANSI standard, they all

support at least the major commands (such as SELECT,
UPDATE, DELETE, INSERT, WHERE) in a similar manner.

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 Continuation:
 SQL comes in many flavors. Oracle databases use its proprietary PL/SQL.
Microsoft SQL Server makes use of Transact-SQL. All of the variations are
based upon the industry standard ANSI SQL.
 DDL and DML
 SQL commands can be divided into two main sub-
languages.
 The Data Definition Language contains the commands
used to create and destroy databases and database
objects.
 After the database structure is defined with DDL,
database administrators and users can use the Data
Manipulation Language to insert, retrieve and modify
the data contained within it.
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  SQL supports a third type of syntax called Data Control
Language.
 DCL governs security access to objects within the database.
For example, a DCL script grants or revokes specific user
accounts the right to read or write to tables within one or
more defined areas of the database.
 In most managed multi-user environments, database
administrators usually execute DCL scripts.

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 Data Definition Language Commands

 The Data Definition Language is used to create

and destroy databases and database objects.
These commands are primarily used by database
administrators during the setup and removal
phases of a database project. DDL revolves
around four primary commands—
create, use, alter, and drop.

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 Create command

 The create command establishes databases, tables, or queries

on your platform. For example, the command:
 CREATE DATABASE employees;
 creates an empty database named employees on your DBMS.
After creating the database, the next step is to create tables
that contain data. Another variant of the create command
accomplishes this purpose. The command:
 CREATE TABLE personal_info (first_name char(20) not
null, last_name char(20) not null, employee_id int not null);

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  establishes a table titled personal_info in the current
database. In the example, the table contains three attributes:
first_name, last_name, and employee_id along with some
additional information.

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 Use command
 The use command specifies the active database. For example,
if you're currently working in the sales database and want to
issue some commands that will affect the employee database,
preface them with the following SQL command:

 USE employees;

 Double-check the database you're working in before issuing

SQL commands that manipulate data.

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 Alter

 After you've created a table within a database, modify its definition

through the alter command, which changes to the structure of a
table without deleting and recreating it. Take a look at the
following command:

 ALTER TABLE personal_info ADD salary money null;

 This example adds a new attribute to the personal_info table—an

employee's salary. The money argument specifies that an
employee's salary stores using a dollars and cents format. Finally,
the null keyword tells the database that it's OK for this field to
contain no value for any given employee.

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 Drop

 The final command of the Data Definition Language, drop, removes entire
database objects from our DBMS. For example, to permanently remove the
personal_info table that we created, use the following command:

 DROP TABLE personal_info;

 Similarly, the command below would be used to remove the entire employee
database:

 DROP DATABASE employees;

 Use this command with care. The drop command removes entire data
structures from your database. If you want to remove individual records, use
the delete command of the Data Manipulation Language.

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 Data Manipulation Language Commands
 The Data Manipulation Language is used to retrieve, insert and modify database
information. These DML commands offer the typical framework for interacting wihtin
the database on a routine basis.

 Insert
 The insert command adds records to an existing table. Returning to the personal_info
example from the previous section, imagine that our HR department needs to add a new
employee to its database. Use a command similar to this one:

 INSERT INTO personal_info

 values('bart','simpson',12345,$45000);

 Note that there are four values specified for the record. These correspond to the table
attributes in the order they were defined: first_name, last_name, employee_id and
salary.

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 Select

 The select command is the most commonly used command in SQL. It retrieves
specific information from an operational database. Take a look at a few
examples, again using the personal_info table from the employee database.

 The command shown below retrieves all the information contained within the
personal_info table. The asterisk is a wildcard character in SQL.

 SELECT *
 FROM personal_info;

 Alternatively, limit the attributes that are retrieved from the database by
specifying what gets selected. For example, the Human Resources department
may require a list of the last names of all employees in the company. The
following SQL command would retrieve only that information:

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  SELECT last_name
 FROM personal_info;

 The where clause limits the records that are retrieved to those that
meet specified criteria. The CEO might be interested in reviewing
the personnel records of all highly paid employees. The following
command retrieves all of the data contained within personal_info
for records that have a salary value greater than $50,000:

 SELECT *
 FROM personal_info
 WHERE salary > $50000;

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 Update

 The update command modifies the information contained within a table, either in bulk
or individually. Assume the company gives all employees a 3 percent cost-of-living
increase in their salary annually. The following SQL command applies this bump to all
the employees stored in the database:

 UPDATE personal_info
 SET salary = salary * 1.03;

 When the new employee Bart Simpson demonstrates performance above and beyond the
call of duty, management wishes to recognize his stellar accomplishments with a $5,000
raise. The WHERE clause singles out Bart for this raise:

 UPDATE personal_info
 SET salary = salary + 5000
 WHERE employee_id = 12345;

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 Delete

 Finally, let's take a look at the delete [Link]'ll find that the syntax of this
command is similar to that of the other DML commands. The DELETE
command, with a where clause, remove a record from a table:

 DELETE FROM personal_info

 WHERE employee_id = 12345;

 DML supports aggregate fields, too. In a select statement, mathematical

operators like sum and count summarize data within a query. For example, the
query:

 select count(*) from personal_info;

 counts the number of records in the table.

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 3. Data Control Language

 DCL commands are used to grant and take back authority

from any database user.

 Here are some commands that come under DCL:

 Grant
 Revoke

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  a. Grant: It is used to give user access privileges to a
database.
 Example
1. GRANT SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE TO SOM
E_USER, ANOTHER_USER;
2. b. Revoke: It is used to take back permissions
from the user.

3. Example

4. REVOKE SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE FROM

USER1, USER2;

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 4. Transaction Control Language

 TCL commands can only use with DML commands like INSERT,
DELETE and UPDATE only.

 These operations are automatically committed in the database

that's why they cannot be used while creating tables or dropping
them.

 Here are some commands that come under TCL:

 COMMIT
 ROLLBACK
 SAVEPOINT

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 A. Commit
 a. Commit: Commit command is used to save all the transactions
to the database.

 Syntax:

 COMMIT;
 Example:

 DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS

 WHERE AGE = 25;
 COMMIT;

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 B. Rollback
 b. Rollback: Rollback command is used to undo transactions that
have not already been saved to the database.

 Syntax:

 ROLLBACK;
 Example:

 DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS

 WHERE AGE = 25;
 ROLLBACK;

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 c. SAVEPOINT
 c. SAVEPOINT: It is used to roll the transaction back to a
certain point without rolling back the entire transaction.

 Syntax:

 SAVEPOINT SAVEPOINT_NAME;

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 5. Data Query Language

 DQL is used to fetch the data from the database.

 It uses only one command:

 SELECT
 a. SELECT: This is the same as the projection operation of relational algebra. It
is used to select the attribute based on the condition described by WHERE
clause.

 Syntax:

 SELECT expressions
 FROM TABLES
 WHERE conditions;

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 For example:

 For example:

 SELECT emp_name
 FROM employee
 WHERE age > 20;

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 INTRODUCTION TO PL/SQL Concept
 PL/SQL is a combination of SQL along with the procedural
features of programming languages.
 It was developed by Oracle Corporation in the early 90's to
enhance the capabilities of SQL.
 PL/SQL is one of three key programming languages
embedded in the Oracle Database, along with SQL itself and
Java.

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 Facts about PL/SQL
 PL/SQL is a completely portable, high-performance transaction-processing language.

 PL/SQL provides a built-in, interpreted and OS independent programming

environment.

 PL/SQL can also directly be called from the command-line SQL*Plus interface.

 Direct call can also be made from external programming language calls to database.

 PL/SQL's general syntax is based on that of ADA and Pascal programming language.

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 Features of PL/SQL

 PL/SQL is tightly integrated with SQL.

 It offers extensive error checking.
 It offers numerous data types.
 It offers a variety of programming structures.
 It supports structured programming through functions and
procedures.
 It supports object-oriented programming.
 It supports the development of web applications and server
pages.

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 Advantages of PL/SQL

 SQL is the standard database language and PL/SQL is strongly integrated with SQL.
PL/SQL supports both static and dynamic SQL. Static SQL supports DML operations
and transaction control from PL/SQL block. In Dynamic SQL, SQL allows embedding
DDL statements in PL/SQL blocks.

 PL/SQL allows sending an entire block of statements to the database at one time. This
reduces network traffic and provides high performance for the applications.

 PL/SQL gives high productivity to programmers as it can query, transform, and update
data in a database.

 PL/SQL saves time on design and debugging by strong features, such as exception
handling, encapsulation, data hiding, and object-oriented data types.

 Applications written in PL/SQL are fully portable.

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  PL/SQL provides high security level.

 PL/SQL provides access to predefined SQL packages.

 PL/SQL provides support for Object-Oriented

Programming.

 PL/SQL provides support for developing Web Applications

and Server Pages.

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 PL/SQL Syntax
 Tthe Basic Syntax of PL/SQL which is a block-structured
language; this means that the PL/SQL programs are divided
and written in logical blocks of code.
 Each block consists of three sub-parts

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 SYNTAX:

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 Explanation:
 Every PL/SQL statement ends with a semicolon (;). PL/SQL
blocks can be nested within other PL/SQL blocks using BEGIN
and END. Following is the basic structure of a PL/SQL block −

 DECLARE
 <declarations section>
 BEGIN
 <executable command(s)>
 EXCEPTION
 <exception handling>
 END;

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 The 'Hello World' Example

 DECLARE
 message varchar2(20):= 'Hello, World!';
 BEGIN
 dbms_output.put_line(message);
 END;
 /
 The end; line signals the end of the PL/SQL block. To run the code from the
SQL command line, you may need to type / at the beginning of the first blank
line after the last line of the code. When the above code is executed at the SQL
prompt, it produces the following result −

 Hello World

 PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

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 PL/SQL Cursor

 When an SQL statement is processed,

 Oracle creates a memory area known as context area. A cursor is a
pointer to this context area. It contains all information needed for
processing the statement. In PL/SQL, the context area is controlled by
Cursor.
 A cursor contains information on a select statement and the rows of data
accessed by it.

 A cursor is used to referred to a program to fetch and process the rows

returned by the SQL statement, one at a time. There are two types of
cursors:

 Implicit Cursors
 Explicit Cursors

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 1) PL/SQL Implicit Cursors

 The implicit cursors are automatically generated by Oracle

while an SQL statement is executed, if you don't use an
explicit cursor for the statement.

 These are created by default to process the statements when

DML statements like INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE etc. are
executed

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 Explaination:
 Orcale provides some attributes known as Implicit cursor's
attributes to check the status of DML operations. Some of
them are: %FOUND, %NOTFOUND, %ROWCOUNT and
%ISOPEN.

 For example: When you execute the SQL statements like

INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE then the cursor attributes tell
whether any rows are affected and how many have been
affected. If you run a SELECT INTO statement in PL/SQL
block, the implicit cursor attribute can be used to find out
whether any row has been returned by the SELECT
statement. It will return an error if there no data is selected.
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 The following table specifies the
status of the cursor with each of its
attribute.

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 PL/SQL Implicit Cursor Example

 Create customers table and have records:

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  Let's execute the following program to update the table and
increase salary of each customer by 5000. Here,
SQL%ROWCOUNT attribute is used to determine the
number of rows affected:

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 Create procedure:
 DECLARE
 total_rows number(2);
 BEGIN
 UPDATE customers
 SET salary = salary + 5000;
 IF sql%notfound THEN
 dbms_output.put_line('no customers updated');
 ELSIF sql%found THEN
 total_rows := sql%rowcount;
 dbms_output.put_line( total_rows || ' customers updated ');
 END IF;
 END;
 /
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 Output:
 6 customers updated
 PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

 Now, if you check the records in customer table, you will

find that the rows are updated.

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 Representation:

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 2) PL/SQL Explicit Cursors

 The Explicit cursors are defined by the programmers

to gain more control over the context area. These
cursors should be defined in the declaration section of
the PL/SQL block. It is created on a SELECT
statement which returns more than one row.
 Following is the syntax to create an explicit cursor:
 Syntax of explicit cursor
 Following is the syntax to create an explicit cursor:
1. CURSOR cursor_name IS select_statement;;

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 Steps:

 You must follow these steps while working with an explicit

cursor.

 Declare the cursor to initialize in the memory.

 Open the cursor to allocate memory.
 Fetch the cursor to retrieve data.
 Close the cursor to release allocated memory.

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 1) Declare the cursor:

 It defines the cursor with a name and the associated SELECT

statement.
 Syntax for explicit cursor decleration
 CURSOR name IS
 SELECT statement;
 2) Open the cursor:
 It is used to allocate memory for the cursor and make it easy to
fetch the rows returned by the SQL statements into it.

 Syntax for cursor open:

 OPEN cursor_name;

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  3) Fetch the cursor:
 It is used to access one row at a time. You can fetch rows
from the above-opened cursor as follows:
 Syntax for cursor fetch:

 FETCH cursor_name INTO variable_list;

 4) Close the cursor:
 It is used to release the allocated memory. The following
syntax is used to close the above-opened cursors.

 Syntax for cursor close:

 Close cursor_name;

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 PL/SQL Explicit Cursor Example

 Explicit cursors are defined by programmers to

gain more control over the context area. It is
defined in the declaration section of the PL/SQL
block. It is created on a SELECT statement which
returns more than one row.
 Let's take an example to demonstrate the use of
explicit cursor. In this example, we are using the
already created CUSTOMERS table.

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 Department of Electronics and Communication , BVCOE
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 Create procedure:

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 OUTPUT:
 1 Ramesh Allahabad
 2 Suresh Kanpur
 3 Mahesh Ghaziabad
 4 Chandan Noida
 5 Alex Paris
 6 Sunita Delhi
 PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

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