Module – V

Display Devices:​
Introduction, Character formats, Segment displays, Dot matrix displays, Bar graph displays.
Cathode ray tubes, Light emitting diodes, Liquid crystal displays.

Data Acquisition System:

Block diagram of DAS, objectives of DAS, Signal Conditioning of inputs, Single channel
DAS, Multi-channel DAS.

Programmable Logic controller: Introduction, advantages, function of each part in PLC,

PLC Hardware and PLC operation.

Display Devices:
Introduction: The last stage of a instrument system is the data presentation stage which
consists of data presentation elements. This stage consists of display devices and recorders.
In order that the results of a measurement system are meaningful, they must be displayed for
instant observation or for storage for observation at a later stage. The first device is called as
“Display Device” and the second device called as “Recorder”. The data representation
devices may be called as output devices. These output devices may not only be used as
display devices indication the output, but may be used as control devices.
In digital instruments, the output devices of the instrument indicate the value of measured
quantity using the digital display device. This digital display device may receive the digital
information in any form but it converts the information in decimal form. Thus the digital
display device indicates the value in decimal digits directly. The basic element in a digital
display is the display for a single digit. By grouping such displays for single digits, we can
get multiple digit display. There are many ways of classifying the digital display units. One
of the methods of classifying them is based upon the format used. The display can be planar
i.e., the entire read-out characters and in the same plane or non planar, where the characters
are displayed in different planes.
The planar displays may be illuminated segmental type, illuminated dot matrix type,
displaying using rear projection and gaseous discharge type segmental displays. The non
planar displays include gaseous discharge tubes like nixies and displays using illuminated
lucite sheets.
In this chapter we will discuss different display devices. In general, LED’s are most
commonly used in the digital displays. The LED’s have advantages such as low voltages,
long life, high reliability, low cost, fast switching characteristics. The most commonly used
digital displays using LED’s are:
i)​ Seven segment displays and ii) Alphanumeric displays.
i) Seven segment displays: A display consisting of seven LEDs arranged in seven segments
is called seven segment displays. It is shown in Fig.1 The seven LEDs are arranged in a
rectangular fashion and are labelled A through G. Each LED is called a segment because it
forms a part of the digit being displayed. An additional LEDs used for the indication of a
decimal point (DP).
By forward biasing different LEDs we can display the digits 0 through 9. For example, to
display a zero, the LEDs A, B, C, D, E and F are forward biased. To display 5, we need to
forward bias segments A, F, G, C, D. Thus in a seven segment display depending upon the
digit to be displayed, the particular set of LEDs is forward biased. The various digits from 0
to 9 which can be displayed using seven segment display are shown in Fig.2. Microprocessor
kits are often uses seven segment displays.

Fig.1

Types of Seven Segment Displays:

The two types of seven segment display are:
i) Common anode ii) Common cathode

i)​ Common anode : In this type, all anodes of LEDs are connected together and common
point is connected to +Vcc which is positive supply voltage. A current limiting resistor
is required to be connected between each LED and ground. The connection is shown in
the Fig.(11.8)

ii)​ Common Cathode type: In this type, all cathodes of LEDs are connected together and
common point is connected to the ground. A current limiting resistor is connected each
each LED and the supply +Vcc. The anodes of the respective segments are to be
 connected to +VCC for the required operation of LEDs. The connection of common
cathode type display is shown in the fig.11.8 (b)

LED Driver Circuit:

The output of a digital circuit is logical i.e. either ‘0’ or ‘1’. The ‘0’ means low while ‘1’
means high. In the high state the output voltage is nearly 5V while in low state, it is almost 0
V. If LED is to be driven by such digital circuit, it can be connected as shown in the Fig.11.9.
when output of digital circuit is high, both ends of LED are at 5V and it can not be forward
biased hence will not give light. While when output of digital circuit is low, then high current
will flow through LED as it becomes forward biased, and it will give light.

In practice seven segment displays are used at the output of digital integrated circuits, the
output of which is in binary coded decimal form (BCD). Such output has only four lines and
it can not drive seven segments of the display directly. In such a case a driver circuit is used
which is a BCD to 7 segment decoder. It converts 4 BCD lines into 7 lines. A typical LED
seven segment display with its driver circuit is shown in Fig. 11.10. This is a common anode
type. Here a positive voltage is applied to the common anode. Therefore selected LEDs are
illuminated by making their respective cathodes low (0V).
Alphanumeric display: (Fourteen Segment Display) :
For display of Alphanumeric character’s (both numerals as well as alphabets) a 14 and 18
segment display unit which is shown in Fig. are used.

Due to the diagonally arranged LEDs such as j, h, m, k the characters like Y, K, M, etc. can
be displayed with such a display. A separate LEDs are used for the Decimal Point (DP) and
colon Operator (CO).
The various alphanumeric characters are displayed by lighting up the LEDs located in
specific positions.

Dot Matrix Display:

a) A 3 x 5 Dot Matrix: A 3 x 5 dot matrix is shown in fig 28.10 may be used for display of
numeric characters.
b) Dot Matrix utilizing 27 dots is shown in Fig.28.11. this system displays the numeric
characters.
c) A 5 x 7 Dot matrix: For display of alphanumeric characters a 5 x 7 dot matrix is used as
shown in Fig.

Depending upon the required character, the corresponding LEDs switched on, in this display.
The Fig.11.13 shows the display of characters M and Y with the help of 5 x 7 dot matrix
display.
To improve the brightness of display, a dynamic display system is used. In this the LEDs are
not lit continuously but are sequentially lit by scanning in a ‘vertical strobe’ or horizontal
strobe” mode. This is similar to “running lights” used in modern advisements.
Alphanumeric LEDs are normally laid out on a single slice of semiconductor material, all the
chips being enclosed in a package, similar to an IC, except that the packaging compound is
transparent, and not opaque.

Light Emitting Diode (LED): A relatively new family of display utilizes “Light emitting
diodes”. The LED is perhaps the most important of the display devices available today for
use in instrumentation system. The LED is a PN junction device which emits light when a
current passes through it in the forward direction.
Charge carrier recombination occurs at a PN junction as electrons cross from N side and
recombines with holes on the P side. When recombination takes place, the charge carriers
give up energy in the form of heat and light. If the semiconducting material is translucent the
light is emitted, and the junction is source of light. This is the light emitting diode [Link].
Fig.28.15 (a) shows a cross sectional view of a typical LED charge carrier recombination’s
takes places in the P type material. Therefore, the P region becomes the surface of the
devices. For maximum light emission a metal film anode is deposited around the edge of the
P type material. The cathode connection for the device is usually a gold flim at the bottom of
the N type region. This helps in reflecting the light to the surface.
Semiconductor materials used for manufacture of LED are gallium arsenide phosphide which
emits red or yellow light of gallium arsenide which gives green or red light emission. LEDs
are used extensively in segmental and dot matrix displays of numeric and alphanumeric
characters. Several LEDs are used in series to form one segment while a single LED may be
used to form a decimal point. LEDs are available in many colours like green, yellow, amber
and red.
A simple transistor can be used for OFF/ON as shown in fig. (b). When the transistor is
driven into saturation by base current IB, it conducts heavily. The LED current is limited by a
resistance RC.
The advantages of LEDs in electronic displays are:
[Link] are minute in size and they can be stacked together to form numeric and
alphanumeric displays in high density matrix.
2. The light output from an LED is a function of the current flowing through it. Therefore
intensity of light emitted from LEDs can be smoothly controlled.
3. LEDS have high efficiency as emitter of electromagnetic radiation. A typical voltage drop
of 1.2V and a current of 20 mA is required for full brightness.
4. LEDs are available in different colours.
5. The switching time (ON/OFF) is less than 1 ns and therefore they very useful where
dynamic operation of large number of arrays is involved.
[Link] are rugged and can therefore withstand shocks and vibration. They can be operated
over a wide range of temperature say 0 to 70oC.
Disadvantages: They are not suited for large area displays.

Liquid Crystal Diodes:

The liquid crystals are one of the most fascinating material systems in nature, having
properties of liquids as well as of a solid crystal. The terms liquid crystal refers to the fact
that these compounds have a crystalline arrangement of molecules, yet they flow like a liquid.
Liquid crystal displays do not emit or generate light, but rather alter externally generated
illumination. Their ability to modulate light when electrical signal is applied has made them
very useful in flat panel display technology.

The backlight in liquid crystal display provides an even light source behind
the screen. This light is polarized, meaning only half of the light shines
through to the liquid crystal layer. The liquid crystals are made up of a part
solid, part liquid substance that can be "twisted" by applying electrical
voltage to them. They block the polarized light when they are off, but reflect
red, green, or blue light when activated.
Each LCD screen contains a matrix of pixels that display the image on the
screen. Early LCDs had passive-matrix screens, which controlled individual
pixels by sending a charge to their row and column. Since a limited number
of electrical charges could be sent each second, passive-matrix screens
were known for appearing blurry when images moved quickly on the
screen. Modern LCDs typically use active-matrix technology, which contain
thin film transistors, or TFTs. These transistors include capacitors that
enable individual pixels to "actively" retain their charge. Therefore,
active-matrix LCDs are more efficient and appear more responsive than
passive-matrix displays.

The crystal is made up of organic molecules which are rod-like in shape with a length of -20
Ao – 100 Ao. The orientation of the rod like molecule defines the “director” of the liquid
crystal. The different arrangements of these rod-like molecules leads to three main categories
of liquid crystals.
1.​ Smectic
2.​ Nematic
3.​ Cholesteric

[Link]
Fig.11.14 (a) shows smectic structure of liquid crystals. In this structure the rod like
molecules are arranged in layers, and within each layer there is orientational order over a long
range. Thus in a given layer, the rods are all oriented in the same direction. Also, in the
smectic liqud crystals the molecules of different layers are ordered as shown in fig.11.14(a).
Thus both orientation order and positional order is present in the smectic crystals.
2. Nematic: Fig.11.14(b) shows nematic structure of liquid crystals. In the nematic structure
the positional order between layer of molecules is lost, but the orientation order is
maintained.
3. Cholesteric: Fig.11.14(c) shows cholesteric structure of liquid crystals. In these crystals
the rod-like molecules in each layer are oriented a different angle within each layer.
Orientation order is maintained in each layer. The cholesteric liquid crystal is related to the
nematic crystal, with the difference being the twist of the molecules as one goes from one
layer to another.
​ The optical activity of the crystal depends upon the orientation and the twist of the
molecules as one goes from one layer to another.
Types of LCDs: there are two types of liquid crystal displays(LCDs) according to the theory
of operation:
1.​ Dynamic scattering 2. Field effect
[Link] Scattering Type LCDs:
Fig,11,15 shows the construction of a typical liquid crystal display. It consists of two glass
plates with a liquid crystal fluid in between. The back plate is coated with thin transparent
layer of conductive material, where as front plate has a photoetched conductive coating with
seven segment pattern as shown in Fig.11.15.
a

2. Field Effect Display:

In these displays nematic liquid crystals are used. Fig.11.18 shows operation of field effect
liquid crystal display with nematic crystals. It consists of two glass plates, a liquid crystal
fluid, polarizes and transparent conduction. The liquid crystal fluid is sandwiched between
two glass plates. Each glass plate is associated with light polarizer. The light polarizes are
placed at right angle to each other. In the absence of electrical excitation, the light coming
through the front polarizer is rotated through 90o in the fluid and passed through the rear
polarizer. It is then reflected to the viewer by the back mirror as shown in fig.11.18(a)

On the application of electrostatic field, the liquid crystal fluid molecules get aligned and
therefore light through the molecules is not rotated by 90o and it is absorbed by the polarizer
as shown in Fig.11.18(b). This causes the appearance of dark digit on a light background as
shown in Fig.11.18(c).
Advantages of LCDs:
1.​ Less power consumption
2.​ Low cost
3.​ Uniform brightness with good contrast
4.​ Low operating voltage and current.
Disadvantages of LCDs:
1.​ Poor reliability
2.​ Limited temperature range
3.​ Poor visibility in low ambient temperature
4.​ Slow speed
5.​ Requires an a.c. drive.

Cathode Ray Tube (CRT):

Data aquisation system:
[Link]
Signal conditioning is the technique of making a signal from a sensor or transducer suitable for
processing by data acquisition equipment.
For example, if you were measuring a voltage signal smaller than a few millivolts, you might need
to amplify it. If you had a signal contaminated with noise you could filter it.
Proper signal conditioning is essential in getting an accurate measurement of your signal. It is the
first step of computerised data acquisition.

Types of Signal Conditioning

Amplification
Amplification increases a voltage signal to a level suitable for digitisation by the DAQ
equipment. Typically a data acquisition device is calibrated for input voltages in the 0 to 10 V
range. A small voltage, such as that coming from a thermocouple or strain gauge bridge may
need to be amplified 1000 times to make it between 0 and 10 V.
 If your signal is larger than the maximum input range then you will have to divide the signal
down using a resistor network.

Excitation
Many transducers, like strain gauges and RTDs (resistance temperature devices), need a
power supply. The signal from these transducers is either a voltage or a mA current. For many
transducers the supply will be low voltage DC, but for transducers based on capacitance
measurement an AC supply may be required.
systems can be equipped with power supplies suitable for providing the excitation voltage(s)
required. Because the choice of power supply will depend on the number and type of
transducers, you should draw up a list of transducers and their excitation requirements. The
information needed includes voltage range and current requirements, and for AC excitation
voltages, the frequency used.
Excitation is commonly needed for measuring force, pressure, relative humidity, temperature,
level, light level, concentration and vibration.

Linearisation
Linearization is needed when the signals produced by a sensor don't have a straight-line
relationship with the physical measurement, as is the case when using thermocouples to
measure temperature. Linearisation is sometimes achieved using signal conditioning.

Filtering
Filtering reduces noise errors in the signal. For most applications a low-pass filter is used. This
allows through the lower frequency components but attenuates the higher frequencies. The
cut-off frequency must be compatible with the frequencies present in the actual signal (as
opposed to possible contamination by noise) and the sampling rate used for the A-D
conversion.
A low-pass filter that's used to prevent higher frequencies, in either the signal or noise, from
introducing distortion into the digitised signal is known as an anti-aliasing filter. These
generally have a sharper cut-off than the normal low-pass filter used to condition a signal.
Anti-aliasing filters are specified according to the sampling rate of the system and there must
be one filter per input signal. They are commonly used when measuring, for example,
vibration.

Isolation
A high transient voltage at one input may damage not only the input circuit, but an also
propagate to other equipment connected to that input. You can prevent this type of damage by
providing isolation between inputs.

High Impedance
Certain types of transducer have a very high output impedance and are not able to supply
enough current to use a normal voltage input. When connected to a normal amplifier, the
currents drawn from the transducer can seriously distort the input signal. Typically glass
electrodes used to measure pH, or gas concentration probes, are of this type. You should
connect them to a voltage measuring circuit with a very high input impedance.