CHAPTER 7

HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE

• Reproduction is the process by which living organisms produce offspring of their own
kind.
• It is essential for the continuation of a species and the survival of life on Earth.
• Both unicellular organisms (like bacteria and algae) and multicellular organisms (like
plants, animals, and humans) reproduce to maintain their population.
• Organisms have specialized reproductive structures such as spores, flowers, or
reproductive organs to carry out reproduction.
• There are different modes of reproduction in organisms:

o Cell division is the primary method in unicellular organisms (e.g., binary fission
in bacteria).
o Vegetative reproduction occurs in plants using parts like roots, stems, or leaves
(e.g., runners, tubers).
o Asexual reproduction involves a single parent and produces genetically identical
offspring (clones). Examples include:
▪ Binary fission (e.g., in amoeba)
▪ Budding (e.g., in yeast)
▪ Fragmentation (e.g., in spirogyra)
▪ Spore formation (e.g., in fungi)
o Sexual reproduction involves two parents and the fusion of male and female
gametes, resulting in genetically diverse offspring.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
• Asexual reproduction involves only one parent organism.
• A single organism can produce two or more offspring on its own, without the involvement
of gametes.
• It is commonly seen in unicellular organisms (e.g., bacteria, amoeba).
• It also occurs in some multicellular organisms (e.g., hydra, sponges).
• A few plants also reproduce asexually through methods like vegetative propagation.
• Offspring produced are genetically identical to the parent (known as clones).

1. Fission

• Fission is an asexual reproduction that is common in most unicellular organisms.

• When the fission results in two daughter cells, it is binary fission (e.g. paramecium).
• When fission results in many daughter cells, it is called multiple fission (e.g.
Plasmodium).
• Planes of fission may be different for different organisms.
 Binary Fission Multiple Fission
1. The parent produces more than two
1. The parent produces two daughter cells.
daughter cells at a time.
2. Involves a single division. 2. Involves repeated divisions.
3. Nucleus and cytoplasm divide 3. Nucleus divides first, followed by the
simultaneously. division of the cytoplasm.
4. Seen in prokaryotic organisms like 4. Seen in Plasmodium, a malaria-causing
Amoeba and Paramecium. parasite.

2. Budding

• Budding is a type of asexual reproduction in which a small cyst-like structure is formed

on the parent’s body, which gives rise to a new individual.
• Bud may remain attached to the parent (yeast) or may separate and become a new
individual (hydra).

3. REGENERATION

• In this, a differentiated organism is cut into many pieces, and they grow into separate
individuals. E.g., Hydra and Planaria.

• During regeneration, some specialised cells proliferate to form a cell mass. From this, different
cells develop to form various cell types and tissues.
• However, regeneration is not the same as reproduction, since most organisms do not normally
depend on regeneration for reproduction. Also, many organisms use this only to regenerate lost
parts.

4. SPORE FORMATION

 Organisms like fungi produce spores that can grow into new individuals.
 Spores are formed inside specialized structures called sporangia.
 Spores have a thick outer layer that protects them during adverse conditions.
 When spores encounter favorable environmental conditions, they germinate and begin to
grow into new organisms.

Aspect Yeast Mould

Type of Organism Unicellular fungus Multicellular fungus
Asexual reproduction by Asexual reproduction by spore
Method of Reproduction
budding formation
Small outgrowths (buds) Grows as a network of hyphae
Growth Appearance
appear on parent cell (thread-like filaments)
A small bud forms, grows, and Special cells (sporangia)
Reproduction Process detaches to form a new produce spores that disperse
individual and grow into new mould
Moist, sugary environments Damp, warm surfaces (e.g.
Environment for Growth
(e.g. fruit juice) stale bread)
Cellular Structure Single-celled Multicellular, filamentous
Mobility of Reproductive Bud remains attached briefly
Spores are dispersed by air
Units before separating
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Example Rhizopus (bread mould)
(baker’s yeast)

5. VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
 • This is a type of asexual reproduction seen in plants.
• The vegetative parts of the plant, like leaves, stems, and roots, give rise to a new plant.
• Vegetative propagation can be artificial or natural.
• Natural vegetative propagation happens through leaves (e.g. bryophyllum), stem (e.g.
turmeric, ginger), runners/stolon (e.g. grass runners, strawberry), bulbs ( e.g. onion, lily),
etc.
• Artificial methods include cutting, grafting, layering and plant tissue culture.

Tissue Culture

• It is a method of growing tissues or cells from a plant in an artificial medium. Cells are
divided rapidly to form a callus (a small group of

cells). It is transferred to another medium containing hormones for growth and

differentiation. Then, the plantlets are placed in the soil. They grow into mature plants.

Thus, many plants can be grown in disease-free conditions. This technique is commonly
used for ornamental plants.

6. FRAGMENTATION

• In this, an organism simply breaks up into smaller pieces (fragments), and they grow into new
individuals. E.g., Spirogyra (greenish, filamentous multicellular structures seen in ponds or
lakes).

• All multicellular organisms cannot simply divide cell-by-cell because the cells are organised as
tissues and organs. Here, different cell types perform different functions. So, reproduction is also
performed by a specific cell type. It can grow, proliferate, and make other cell types.

REGENERATION AND FRAGMENTATION

Feature Regeneration Fragmentation

Organism breaks into
Regrowth of lost or damaged
Definition fragments, each grows into a
body parts
new individual
Mainly repair, sometimes
Purpose Asexual reproduction
reproduction
Planaria regenerating entire Spirogyra breaking into
Example
body from tail fragments
One organism restored or Multiple new organisms
Result
formed from a part formed from fragments
 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Mitotic Division Meiotic Division
No color change—daughter cells are Noticeable color change—represents
genetically identical to the parent. genetic variation due to recombination.
One round of division resulting in two Two rounds of division resulting in four
diploid cells. haploid cells.
Maintains chromosome number (2n → Reduces chromosome number by half (2n
2n). → n).
Occurs in somatic (body) cells. Occurs in germ cells to form gametes.
Used for growth, repair, and asexual Introduces genetic diversity through
reproduction crossing over and independent assortment.

• Sexual reproduction involves two individuals – one male and one female.
• Both individuals produce sex cells or gametes (sperm and egg).
• The fusion of gametes (fertilization) leads to the formation of a zygote.
• The zygote develops into a new organism.
• Offspring show genetic variation, as they inherit traits from both parents.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Why Sexual Mode of Reproduction?

 It is the reproduction in which both sexes (male and female) are needed to produce new
generations.

• The errors during DNA copying create variations.

• Variations do not protect all individuals in a population but help for survival of the species.
If the DNA copying mechanisms are less accurate, the resultant DNA cannot work with
cellular apparatus and will die.
• Sexual reproduction can generate more variations and speed up the making of new variants
by combining DNA copies from two individuals.
All these variations are accumulated and inherited from generation to generation. It produces
individuals with different patterns of variations in a population.
New generations will not have twice the amount of DNA due to a process of specialised cell
division called meiosis. It occurs in sex organs.
• During meiosis, gametes (germ cells) are formed in which the number of chromosomes and
amount of DNA are half compared to the non- reproductive cells.
Gametes from two individuals combine to form a zygote that becomes a new individual. It
re-establishes the chromosome number and DNA content in the new generation.
• In very simple organisms, the two germ cells are almost similar. In complex organisms, one
germ cell is large and contains food stores. It is called the female gamete. The other is small
and motile, called the male gamete.

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

• Reproductive parts of angiosperms are located in the flower. Parts of a flower: sepals, petals,
stamens, and pistil.

• Sepals: Outermost part which protects the bud.

• Petals: Brightly colored to attract pollinators.
• Stamen: Male reproductive part, formed of anther and filament. It produces yellowish and
sticky pollen grains. Pollen grains produce male germ cells.
• Pistil: Female reproductive part. It has three parts:
• Ovary: The swollen bottom part. It contains ovules. Each ovule has an egg cell (female
gamete).
• Style: Middle elongated part.
• Stigma: Terminal part which may be sticky.
• Unisexual flower: Contains either stamens or pistil. E.g., papaya, watermelon.
• Bisexual flower: Contains both stamens and pistil. E.g., Hibiscus, mustard.

Pollination: It is the transfer of pollen from anther to the stigma. It is two types:

• Self-pollination: Transfer of pollen in the same flower.

• Cross-pollination: Transfer of pollen from anther of one flower to the stigma
of another flower by agents like wind, water, or animals.
After pollination, a pollen tube grows out of the pollen grain, travels through the style, and
reaches the ovary. The male germ cell from the pollen grain reaches the female germ cells
through this tube.

• Male germ cell fuses (fertilization) with the female gamete in the ovule to form a zygote.
• The zygote divides several times to form an embryo within the ovule.
• The ovule develops a tough coat and becomes a seed.
• The ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit.
• Petals, sepals, stamens, style, and stigma shrivel and fall off.
• Seed contains the embryo (future plant) which develops into a seedling under suitable
conditions (germination).
• A cut-open germinated seed (e.g., Bengal gram, chana) shows the seedling parts.

REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN BEINGS

• In early teenage years, the appearance and proportions of the body change, and new
features and sensations appear. These changes indicate sexual maturation.
• All these changes occur slowly and gradually.
• The pattern and duration of these changes vary among different people, resulting in
different patterns of hair growth, size, and shape of breasts or penis.
 • Up to the adult stage, the body's resources are mainly used for growth, not for maturation.
Then the growth rate slows down, and reproductive tissues begin to mature. This period
during adolescence is called puberty.
• Changes during puberty are signals of sexual maturity so that other individuals can
identify them for mating.

Changes Common to Boys and Girls

• Thick hair grows in armpits and the genital area, which becomes darker in color.
• Thinner hair appears on legs, arms, and face.
• Skin frequently becomes oily, which may cause pimples.
Changes in Girls
• Breast size increases, and the skin of the nipples darkens.
• Menstruation begins.
Changes in Boys
• Thick hair grows on the face.
• Voice begins to crack.
• Erection of the penis occurs during daydreams or at night.
(a) Male Reproductive System
• It consists of two testes and ducts to deliver germ cells.

Testes: In these, germ cells (sperms) are formed.

• Testes are located in the scrotum because sperm formation requires a lower temperature
than body temperature.
• Testes also secrete a hormone, testosterone, which regulates the formation of sperms and
changes in boys during puberty.
• Ducts: Include the vas deferens to deliver sperms, which unites with the urethra coming
from the urinary bladder. Thus, the urethra forms a common passage for sperms and
urine.
 • Along the path of the vas deferens, glands like the prostate and seminal vesicles
release fluid secretions. These are mixed with sperms to form semen, which makes
sperm transport easier and provides nutrition.
• A sperm consists of genetic material and a long tail that helps it move toward the female
germ cell (egg).

(b) Female reproductive system

It consists of two ovaries, two oviducts, uterus, vagina etc.

Female germ cells (ovum or egg) are made in the ovaries. They also produce some hormones.
• The ovaries of a newly born girl contain thousands of immature eggs. At puberty, some of them
start maturing. One egg is produced every month by one of the ovaries. It is carried from the
ovary to the womb (uterus)-elastic and bag-like-through a thin oviduct (fallopian tube). • The
uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix.
• During sexual intercourse, sperms are transferred into the vagina through the penis.
Sperms travel from the vagina via the uterus to reach the oviduct, where they meet the egg,
leading to fertilization. This forms a zygote (fertilized egg), which divides to form an embryo.
The embryo implants in the lining of the uterus, where growth continues, and organs develop
into a foetus.
• The uterus prepares every month to receive and nurture the embryo. The lining becomes thick
and spongy with a rich blood supply to nourish the embryo.
Placenta: This is a disc of special tissue embedded in the uterine wall, connecting the foetus to
the mother. It contains villi on the embryo's side, surrounded by blood spaces on the mother's
side. Villi increase the surface area.
Functions of Placenta
• The embryo gets nutrition from the mother's blood.
• Transports glucose and oxygen from the mother to the embryo.
• Removes wastes from the embryo into the mother's blood.
Development of the child inside the mother's body takes about 9 months. The child is born as a
result of rhythmic contractions of the muscles in the uterus.
What Happens When the Egg is Not Fertilized?
If the egg is not fertilized, it lives for about one day.
• The lining of the uterus slowly breaks and comes out through the vagina as blood and mucus.
This cyclic process occurring every month is called menstruation. It lasts for 2-8 days.

Reproductive Health
• A woman's body and mind should be ready for sexual activity, pregnancy, and bringing up
children. If not, her health will be adversely affected.
• There are many sexually transmitted diseases, e.g., gonorrhoea and syphilis (bacterial
infections) and warts and HIV-AIDS (viral infections). They can be prevented by using a
condom for the penis during sex.
Contraceptive Methods to Avoid Pregnancy
• Mechanical barriers: They prevent the meeting of sperm with the egg, e.g., condoms or
coverings worn in the vagina.
• Oral pills: They change the hormonal balance of the body, so eggs are not released, and
fertilization does not occur. They have side effects due to hormonal imbalance.
Loop or copper-T: These are placed in the uterus to prevent pregnancy. They cause side effects
due to irritation of the uterus.
• Surgical methods: Fertilization is prevented by blocking gamete transport. In males, the vas
deferens is blocked to prevent sperm transfer (Vasectomy). In females, the fallopian tube is
blocked to prevent the egg from reaching the uterus (Tubectomy). Surgical methods have long-
term safety but can cause infections and other problems if not performed properly.
• Surgery can also be used to remove unwanted pregnancies. However, it is misused for illegal
sex-selective abortion (female foeticide). Due to this, the female-male sex ratio has declined, so
prenatal sex determination is prohibited.
• By reproduction, the population is increased. The birth and death rates in a given population
determine its size. Population explosion adversely affects people's standard of living. However,
inequality in society is the main reason for poor standards of living.

COMPARISON NOTES

Feature Fertilisation Implantation

Attachment of the developing
Fusion of male (sperm) and female
Definition embryo (blastocyst) to the uterus
(egg) gametes to form a zygote
lining
 Occurs in the oviduct (fallopian
Location Occurs in the uterus (endometrium)
tube)
Formation of a diploid zygote Establishment of pregnancy as the
Outcome
(single cell) embryo embeds in uterus wall
Time Immediately after gametes meet About 6–7 days after fertilisation
Ensures nourishment and continued
Importance Starts the process of new life
development of the embryo

Feature Bacterial STDs Viral STDs

Examples Gonorrhoea, Syphilis HIV-AIDS, Genital warts
Cause Bacteria Viruses
No permanent cure (only
Treatment Curable with antibiotics
control possible)
Prevention Safe sex, condoms Safe sex, condoms

Method Examples How it works Advantages Limitations

Condoms, Block sperm No side effects, Must be used
Mechanical
diaphragm entry prevents STDs every time
Prevent
Chemical Easy to use, Hormonal side
Pills ovulation by
(hormonal) reliable effects
hormone control
Vasectomy Risk of
(male), Blocks gamete Permanent, infection,
Surgical
Tubectomy transport effective irreversible in
(female) most cases

Feature Fertilized Egg Unfertilized Egg

Develops into a zygote →
Fate Lives for ~1 day then dies
embryo → foetus
Thickened & spongy for
Uterus lining Breaks down & sheds
implantation
Process Leads to pregnancy Menstruation occurs
Outcome New individual formed Monthly cycle continues

Feature Male Female

Main organs Testes Ovaries
Produces ova (eggs) &
Produces sperms &
Function hormones (estrogen,
testosterone
progesterone)
Large, immobile eggs with
Gamete type Small, motile sperms
food reserves
 Testes (in scrotum, lower
Site of gamete formation Ovaries
temp.)
Additional structures Vas deferens, urethra, glands Oviducts, uterus, vagina

Feature Self-Pollination Cross-Pollination

Transfer of pollen within Transfer of pollen between
Definition
same flower different flowers
No variation (identical
Genetic variation Promotes variation
offspring)
Agents required Not required Wind, water, insects, animals
Examples Pea, rice Papaya, maize

Feature Mitosis Meiosis

No. of divisions One Two
Cells formed Two diploid (2n) cells Four haploid (n) cells
Genetic identity Identical to parent Genetically varied
Occurs in Somatic (body) cells Germ cells (gamete formation)
Sexual reproduction, genetic
Function Growth, repair, asexual reproduction
diversity

Feature Regeneration Fragmentation

Body breaks into fragments, each

Definition Regrowth of lost/damaged body parts
grows into new organism

Purpose Mainly for repair, sometimes reproduction Purely asexual reproduction

Outcome Restores or forms one organism from a part Produces multiple new organisms

Examples Hydra, Planaria Spirogyra

Feature Binary Fission Multiple Fission

No. of daughter cells Two daughter cells Many daughter cells at a time
Nucleus divides once, followed
Nucleus divides repeatedly first,
Nuclear division immediately by cytoplasmic
then cytoplasm divides
division
 Occurs soon after one nuclear Happens later, enclosing each
Cytoplasmic division
division nucleus into a separate cell
Slower, as multiple nuclear
Speed Relatively faster process
divisions occur first
Examples Amoeba, Paramecium Plasmodium (malaria parasite)