Of course.

Here is a thorough, page-by-page explanation of the provided notes on the Design of

Concrete Structures.

Page 1: Introduction to Materials

This page introduces the fundamental materials used in reinforced concrete: concrete and steel.
 Concrete Properties:
o Grades: Concrete is designated by grades like M20 and M25. The 'M' stands for Mix, and
the number represents the characteristic compressive strength (fck) of a 150mm
concrete cube after 28 days of curing, measured in Megapascals (MPa).
 For M20 grade, fck=20 MPa.
 For M25 grade, fck=25 MPa.
o Flexural Strength (fcr): This is the tensile strength of concrete in bending. It's much
lower than its compressive strength and is calculated using the formula:

fcr=0.7fck MPa

For M25 concrete, the flexural strength is 0.725 =3.5 MPa.

 Steel Reinforcement Properties:
o Purpose: Steel bars are embedded in concrete to resist tensile forces, as concrete is
weak in tension.
o Grades: Steel is designated by grades like Fe 250, Fe 415, and Fe 500. The 'Fe' stands for
Iron, and the number represents the yield strength (fy) of the steel in MPa.
o Types:
 Fe 250: Mild Steel (MS) bars.
 Fe 415 & Fe 500: High Yield Strength Deformed (HYSD) bars. These have ribs or
deformations on the surface for better grip with the concrete.
 Key Concept:
o Neutral Axis (NA): In a beam subjected to bending, there's a layer that is neither in
compression nor in tension. This is the neutral axis. The region above the NA is in
compression, and the region below is in tension.

Page 2: Method of Design - Limit State Method (LSM)

This page explains the design philosophy used for reinforced concrete structures.
 Objective of Limit State Method (LSM): The primary goal is to design a structure that will not
become unfit for its intended use during its lifetime with an acceptable level of probability. In
simple terms, the structure should remain safe and usable.
 Limit States: A "limit state" is a condition where the structure no longer satisfies the design
requirements. They are broadly categorized into two types:
1. Limit State of Collapse: This deals with the safety and strength of the structure under
maximum design loads. Failure in any of these modes means the structure could
collapse.
 Flexure (Bending)
 Compression (in columns)
 Shear
 Torsion (Twisting)
2. Limit State of Serviceability: This deals with the performance and durability of the
structure under normal service loads. It ensures the comfort of the occupants and the
aesthetic appearance of the structure.
  Deflection (Sagging)
 Cracking
 Vibrations
 Concrete Strength Testing: The notes discuss the difference between testing concrete using
cubes (150mm x 150mm x 150mm) versus cylinders (150mm dia x 300mm ht). The strength
obtained from a cylinder test (fc′) is generally considered a more accurate representation of the
concrete's strength within an actual structure.

Page 3: Deriving the Design Strength of Concrete

This page explains how the theoretical strength of concrete (fck) is adjusted to arrive at a safe value for
design calculations.
1. Cylinder vs. Cube Strength: The strength of a concrete cylinder is typically about 80% of the
strength of a cube made from the same concrete mix.
fc′ (cylinder strength)=0.8×fck (cube strength)
2. In-Situ Strength (Strength in Structure): The strength of concrete in a real structure is often less
than what is achieved in a lab-tested specimen due to differences in compaction and curing. This
"size effect" is accounted for by taking the strength in the structure as 85% of the cylinder
strength. However, the note simplifies this by directly stating the strength of concrete in the
structure is taken as 0.67 fck.
Strength in Structure≈0.67×fck
3. Design Strength: To account for uncertainties in material quality and workmanship, a Partial
Safety Factor (γm) is applied to the material strength. For concrete, γm=1.5.
Design Strength of Concrete=γm0.67×fck=1.50.67fck≈0.446fck
This final value, 0.446fck, is the maximum compressive stress we assume concrete can safely take in our
design calculations.

Page 4: Design Strength of Steel & Stress-Strain Curves

This page covers the design strength of steel and introduces the graphical representation of material
behavior under load.
 Design Strength of Steel: Steel is manufactured in factories under controlled conditions, making
its properties more reliable than concrete. Therefore, it requires a smaller Partial Safety Factor
(γs=1.15).
Design Strength of Steel=γsfy=1.15fy≈0.87fy
This means the design stress for steel is taken as 0.87fy.
 Why is the safety factor for concrete higher? Concrete is a heterogeneous material mixed on-
site. Its final strength is subject to many uncertainties, such as quality of raw materials, water-
cement ratio, mixing, placing, and curing. Steel, being a factory-made, homogeneous material,
has more predictable strength.
 Design Stress-Strain Curves: These curves are crucial for design as they show the relationship
between stress (force per unit area) and strain (deformation) for a material.
o Concrete: The curve shows that stress increases with strain up to a point and then
becomes constant before failing at a maximum compressive strain of 0.0035.
o Steel: The curve is a straight line until the yield point and then becomes a flat plateau,
indicating that the steel can deform significantly without taking any extra load.

Page 5: Idealized Stress-Strain Curves (IS 456)

This page details the specific stress-strain curves used for design according to the Indian Standard code
IS 456.
  Concrete Curve:
o Characteristic Curve: The upper curve shows the actual behavior of concrete, where
stress increases to a maximum (fck) and then drops. The note shows the in-situ strength
as 0.67fck.
o Design Curve: The lower curve is the one used in calculations. It's derived by dividing the
characteristic curve by the partial safety factor (1.5). The shape is parabolic up to a
strain of 0.002 and rectangular (constant stress of 0.446fck) from 0.002 to the failure
strain of 0.0035.
 Steel Curve: The design curve for steel is obtained by dividing the characteristic stress (fy) by its
safety factor (1.15), resulting in a design yield stress of 0.87fy.
 Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete (Ec): This property relates stress and strain in the elastic
region. It is not constant for concrete and is estimated by the formula:

Ec=5000fck

Page 6: Analysis of Beams in Bending (Flexure)

This page introduces the terminology and basic assumptions for analyzing a reinforced concrete beam
section.
 Key Terms:
o b: Width of the beam.
o D: Overall depth of the beam.
o d: Effective depth. This is a crucial dimension, measured from the extreme compression
fiber (top of the beam) to the centroid of the tensile reinforcement.
o Ast: Area of steel reinforcement in the tension zone.
o Effective Cover: The distance from the center of the reinforcement bar to the nearest
concrete surface.
 Fundamental Assumption: The primary assumption in flexure theory is that plane sections
remain plane after bending. This means that the strain across the depth of the beam section is
linear, varying from a maximum at the top (compression) to a maximum at the bottom (tension)
and being zero at the Neutral Axis (NA). The strain diagram is therefore a triangle. The
maximum compressive strain in concrete at failure is taken as 0.0035.

Page 7: Principles of Flexural Analysis

This page outlines the core concepts and equilibrium conditions for determining a beam's strength.
 Assumptions for Limit State of Collapse:
1. The maximum compressive strain in concrete is 0.0035.
2. The tensile strength of concrete is ignored. All tensile force is assumed to be carried by
the steel reinforcement alone.
3. The relationship between stress and strain for concrete and steel is taken from their
respective design curves.
 Equilibrium Conditions: For the beam to be stable, the internal forces must balance.
1. Force Equilibrium: The total internal compressive force (C) must equal the total internal
tensile force (T).
C=T
2. Moment Equilibrium: The internal forces C and T form a couple (two equal and
opposite forces separated by a distance). This internal couple resists the external
bending moment applied to the beam. This resisting capacity is called the Moment of
Resistance (MOR).
MOR=Force×Lever Arm=C×(LA)=T×(LA)
 Types of Sections:
o Under-reinforced: The amount of steel is less than that in a balanced section. Steel
yields first, giving a ductile failure with ample warning (large deflections). This is the
preferred design case.
o Balanced: Steel yields and concrete crushes simultaneously.
o Over-reinforced: The amount of steel is high. Concrete crushes before the steel yields,
leading to a sudden, brittle failure without warning. This type of section is not permitted
by the Limit State Method.

Page 8: The Concrete Stress Block

This page details the calculation of the total compressive force (C) from the concrete.
 Stress Block Shape: The design stress-strain curve for concrete is part-parabolic and part-
rectangular. The distribution of stress over the compression zone (above the NA) is called the
stress block.
 Depth of Neutral Axis (xu): This is the depth of the compression zone, measured from the top of
the beam.
 Calculating Compressive Force (C): The total force C is the volume of the stress block. This
involves calculating the force from the parabolic part (C1) and the rectangular part (C2). The
notes show intermediate calculations, but for practical design, a simplified equivalent stress
block is used, which gives the following results:
o Total Compressive Force:
C=0.36×fck×b×xu
o Location of C: This force acts at the centroid of the stress block, which is located at a
distance of 0.42xu from the top of the beam.

Page 9: Moment of Resistance (MOR) Formulas

This page brings together the concepts from previous pages to derive the final formulas for the Moment
of Resistance.
 Lever Arm (LA): This is the distance between the lines of action of the compressive force (C) and
tensile force (T).
LA=d−0.42xu
 MOR Formulas: The moment of resistance can be calculated from either the compression or
tension side.
o From Compression Side:
MuR=C×LA=(0.36fckbxu)×(d−0.42xu)
o From Tension Side:
MuR=T×LA=(0.87fyAst)×(d−0.42xu)
 Classifying the Section: The behavior of the beam (under-reinforced or over-reinforced)
depends on the depth of the neutral axis (xu) compared to its limiting value (xu,max).
o If xu<xu,max: Under-reinforced section (Safe and ductile).
o If xu=xu,max: Balanced section.
o If xu>xu,max: Over-reinforced section (Unsafe and brittle).

Page 10: Calculating the Neutral Axis Depth (xu)

This page provides the formula to find the actual depth of the neutral axis for a given beam section.
 Derivation: The formula is derived from the force equilibrium condition, C=T.
0.36fckbxu=0.87fyAst
  Formula for xu:
xu=0.36fckb0.87fyAst
This formula allows you to calculate the position of the neutral axis if you know the beam dimensions
(b), material properties (fck,fy), and the area of steel (Ast). Once xu is known, you can compare it with
xu,max to determine the section type and then calculate its Moment of Resistance.

Page 11: Limiting Depth of Neutral Axis (xu,max)

This page explains how to calculate the maximum permissible depth of the neutral axis, which defines a
balanced section.
 Concept: For a balanced section, the strain in concrete reaches its maximum (0.0035) at the
exact same time the strain in the outermost tension steel reaches its yield value. The yield strain
for steel is given by Esfy, but for design purposes (HYSD bars), it's taken as Es0.87fy+0.002.
 Derivation: Using the strain diagram and properties of similar triangles, a relationship is
established:
0.0035xu,max=Es0.87fy+0.002d−xu,max
(where Es=2×105 MPa is the modulus of elasticity for steel)
 Values of xu,max: The ratio dxu,max depends only on the grade of steel (fy). The standard
values are:
o For Fe 250: xu,max=0.53d
o For Fe 415: xu,max=0.48d
o For Fe 500: xu,max=0.46d

Page 12: Limiting Moment of Resistance (Mu,lim)

This page provides formulas for the maximum moment of resistance that a singly reinforced section can
safely provide. This corresponds to the MOR of a balanced section.
 Formula: The formula for Mu,lim is obtained by substituting the value of xu,max into the MOR
formula. For example, for Fe 415 steel (xu,max=0.48d):
Mu,lim=0.36fckb(0.48d)(d−0.42×0.48d)
Mu,lim=0.138fckbd2
 Design Aid Table: The notes present a very useful table that summarizes the Mu,lim formulas
for different grades of steel and concrete. For example:
o For a combination of M20 concrete and Fe 415 steel, a commonly used pair:
Mu,lim=0.138×20×bd2=2.76bd2
This allows a designer to quickly calculate the moment capacity of a balanced section.

Page 13: Limiting Percentage of Steel (pt,lim)

This page derives the formula for the maximum percentage of tension steel that can be used in a singly
reinforced beam.
 Concept: pt,lim is the percentage of steel that results in a balanced section.
 Derivation: Again, we start from the equilibrium equation C=T for a balanced section, where xu
=xu,max.
0.36fckbxu,max=0.87fyAst,lim
The reinforcement ratio is defined as pt=bdAst. By rearranging the equation, we get the limiting
percentage of steel, pt,lim(%)=bdAst,lim×100.
 Example Calculation: For M20 concrete and Fe 415 steel:
pt,lim(%)=0.87×4150.36×20×(dxu,max)×100=0.87×4150.36×20×(0.48)×100≈0.96%
 Table: A table summarizes these values for various combinations of materials.
Page 14: Example Problem - Identifying Section Type
This page works through an example to demonstrate how to determine if a section is under-reinforced
or over-reinforced.
 Problem: Given beam dimensions (b=300mm, d=550mm), materials (M20, Fe 415), and area of
steel (Ast=1200mm2).
 Steps:
1. Calculate actual NA depth (xu):
xu=0.36×20×3000.87×415×1200=200 mm
2. Calculate limiting NA depth (xu,max): For Fe 415, xu,max=0.48d=0.48×550=264 mm.
3. Compare: Since xu(200 mm)<xu,max(264 mm), the section is under-reinforced. This is a
valid and safe design.
 Second Case (Over-reinforced): The example then considers a larger area of steel (Ast
=1984mm2). This gives xu=330.7 mm. Now, xu>xu,max, meaning the section is over-reinforced.
The note correctly states that our initial assumption (that steel has yielded and its stress is
0.87fy) is wrong. The actual stress in steel will be less than the yield stress.

Page 15: Analysis of an Over-Reinforced Section

This page demonstrates the correct (but more complex) iterative method needed to analyze an over-
reinforced section. Since these sections are not permitted, this is more of an academic exercise.
 Problem: Find the true neutral axis depth for the over-reinforced section from the previous
page.
 Iterative Process:
1. Assume a value for xu. A value between xu,max (264 mm) and the incorrectly calculated
value (331 mm) is chosen, e.g., xu=298 mm.
2. Calculate strain in steel (ϵs) from the strain diagram using this assumed xu.
3. Calculate stress in steel (fst) corresponding to this strain using the material's stress-
strain curve. The note shows that this stress (353 MPa) is less than the design yield
stress (361 MPa).
4. Check equilibrium: Use the force equilibrium equation C=T with this new steel stress:
0.36fckbxu=fstAst. Calculate a new value for xu.
5. Repeat: If the new xu is different from the assumed xu, repeat the process with an
updated assumption until the values converge.

Page 16: Analysis Problem - Finding Moment of Resistance

This page sets up a standard analysis problem.
 Problem Types: The notes identify two main categories of problems:
1. Analysis (Finding MOR): You are given a section's details (dimensions, materials,
reinforcement) and asked to find its moment capacity.
2. Design: You are given a required moment and asked to determine the dimensions and
reinforcement for the section.
 Example Problem: Find the MOR for a beam with b=250 mm, d=310 mm, M20 concrete, Fe 415
steel, and Ast provided by 3 bars of 12mm diameter (Area = 339 mm2).
1. Find NA Position: First, calculate xu and xu,max.
xu=0.36×20×2500.87×415×339=67.99 mm
xu,max=0.48×310=148 mm
2. Check Section Type: Since xu<xu,max, the section is under-reinforced. The assumption
that steel yields is correct.
3. Calculate MOR: Use the tension-side formula for MOR.
MOR=0.87fyAst(d−0.42xu)
MOR=0.87×415×339×(310−0.42×67.99)

Page 17: Continuation of Analysis Problem

This page completes the previous example and explores variations.
 Case (a) - Under-reinforced: The calculation from the previous page is completed, giving MOR =
34.4 kNm.
 Case (b) - Balanced Section: The MOR is calculated for a balanced section with the same
dimensions. First, the required steel for a balanced section (Ast,lim) is found (744 mm2). For a
balanced section, xu=xu,max=148 mm. The MOR is calculated as Mu,lim.
Mu,lim=0.36fckbxu,max(d−0.42xu,max)=66.3 kNm
 Case (c) - Over-reinforced Section: A larger area of steel (Ast=1000mm2) is considered. The
calculated xu (200.05 mm) is greater than xu,max (148 mm). The notes state that for analysis,
we should assume xu=xu,max to find the section's maximum capacity as per the code, which
would be Mu,lim=66.3 kNm. A real over-reinforced section would fail at a slightly higher
moment but in a brittle manner.

Page 18: A Design Problem Example

This page demonstrates the steps to design a singly reinforced beam.
 Problem: Design a rectangular beam (M20, Fe 415) to resist a service bending moment of 45
kNm. The width (b) is fixed at 200 mm.
 Steps:
1. Factored Moment (Mu): Apply a load factor (typically 1.5) to the service moment.
Mu=1.5×45=67.5 kNm
2. Find Required Depth (d): To ensure a ductile design and find the most economical
depth, we design it as a balanced section. Equate the required moment to the limiting
moment of resistance.
Mu=Mu,lim⟹67.5×106=0.138fckbd2=2.76×200×d2
Solving this gives a required effective depth dreq=349 mm.
3. Determine Overall Depth (D): Add cover and half the bar diameter to the effective
depth. The notes calculate a required D of 387 mm. A practical, rounded-up value like
400 mm or 450 mm would be chosen.
4. Calculate Required Steel (Ast): With the final depth chosen, calculate the required area
of steel using the MOR formula. Since we designed the depth based on a balanced
section, we use xu=xu,max.
Mu=0.87fyAst(d−0.42xu,max)
The calculation shows a required Ast of 646.8 mm2.

Page 19: Introduction to Doubly Reinforced Beams

This page explains why and when beams need reinforcement in both the tension and compression
zones.
 When is it needed? A doubly reinforced beam is required when the applied factored moment
(Mu) is greater than the limiting moment of resistance (Mu,lim) of a singly reinforced balanced
section. This happens when the beam's dimensions (b and d) are restricted by architectural or
other constraints.
 How it works:
o The beam is first designed as a singly reinforced balanced section to resist a moment
equal to Mu,lim. This requires tension steel, let's call it Ast1.
 o The remaining moment (Mu2=Mu−Mu,lim) must be resisted by an additional force
couple.
o This is achieved by adding compression steel (Asc) in the compression zone and
additional tension steel (Ast2) in the tension zone. These two form the required couple.
o Total tension steel is Ast=Ast1+Ast2.
 Other Advantages: Adding compression steel increases the beam's ductility, which is crucial for
earthquake resistance.

Page 20: Analysis of Doubly Reinforced Beams

This page focuses on finding the stress in the compression steel, which is a key step in the analysis.
 Moment of Resistance Formula:
Mu=Mu,lim+Moment from extra steel
Mu=Mu,lim+(Asc×fsc)×(d−d′)
where fsc is the stress in the compression steel and d′ is the effective cover to it.
 Calculating Stress in Compression Steel (fsc): The stress depends on the strain at that level (ϵsc
), which can be found from the strain diagram using similar triangles, assuming the section is at
its limit (xu=xu,max).
xu,max−d′ϵsc=xu,max0.0035⟹ϵsc=0.0035(1−xu,maxd′)
Once ϵsc is known, the corresponding stress fsc can be found from the steel's stress-strain curve.

Page 21: Design of a Doubly Reinforced Beam (Problem Setup)

This page sets up a design example for a doubly reinforced beam.
 Using Design Aids: Instead of calculating fsc from first principles every time, standard design
codes and aids (like IS 456 or SP-16) provide tables that give the value of fsc directly based on
the steel grade and the ratio d′/d. The note highlights a value of 353 MPa for Fe 415 steel for a
specific d′/d ratio.
 Design Problem:
o Given: Service BM = 384 kNm, b = 300 mm, d = 630 mm, M20, Fe 415.
o Step 1: Factored Moment: Mu=1.5×384=576 kNm.
o Step 2: Limiting Moment: Calculate Mu,lim for the given section.
Mu,lim=0.138fckbd2=0.138×20×300×(630)2=328.6 kNm
o Step 3: Compare: Since Mu(576 kNm)>Mu,lim(328.6 kNm), a doubly reinforced design
is necessary.

Page 22: Design of a Doubly Reinforced Beam (Calculations)

This page continues and completes the design calculations from the previous page.
 Step 4: Calculate Steel for Balanced Part (Ast1): This steel balances the concrete compression
block for a moment of Mu,lim.
Mu,lim=0.87fyAst1(d−0.42xu,max)
Solving this gives Ast1=1809mm2.
 Step 5: Calculate Remaining Moment (Mu2):
Mu2=Mu−Mu,lim=576−328=248 kNm
 Step 6: Calculate Compression Steel (Asc): This steel must provide the compression force for
the remaining moment. The stress fsc is taken as 353 MPa (from tables).
Mu2=(fsc×Asc)×(d−d′)
Solving this gives Asc=1239mm2.
 Step 7: Calculate Additional Tension Steel (Ast2): This steel balances the force from the
compression steel.
T2=C2⟹0.87fyAst2=fscAsc
Solving this gives Ast2=1211.3mm2.
 Step 8: Final Reinforcement:
o Total Tension Steel (Ast): Ast=Ast1+Ast2=1809+1211.3=3020.3mm2.
o Compression Steel (Asc): Asc=1239mm2.

Pages 23 to 26: Summary of IS 456 Code Provisions

These pages list important rules and clauses from the Indian standard code for concrete design, IS
456:2000. These rules govern the practical aspects of design and detailing.
 Page 23:
o Deflection Control: Provides basic span-to-effective-depth ratios to limit deflection
without detailed calculations (e.g., 7 for cantilevers, 20 for simply supported beams, 26
for continuous beams).
o Cover: Specifies nominal concrete cover to reinforcement to protect it from corrosion.
o Minimum Reinforcement: A minimum amount of tension steel is required to prevent
brittle failure when the concrete cracks. The formula is:
bdAs=fy0.85
 Page 24:
o Maximum Reinforcement: Limits the maximum tension reinforcement to 4% of the
gross cross-sectional area (0.04 bD) to avoid congestion and ensure proper concrete
compaction.
o Deflection Modification Factors: Explains that the basic span/depth ratios can be
modified based on the amount of tension and compression steel provided.
 Page 25:
o Development Length (Ld): This is the minimum length of a bar that must be embedded
in concrete to develop its full strength without slipping. The formula is given:
Ld=4τbdϕσs
where ϕ is the bar diameter, σs is the stress in the bar, and τbd is the design bond stress (which is higher
for deformed bars).
 Page 26:
o Side Face Reinforcement: For beams with a depth greater than 750 mm, reinforcement
is needed on the side faces to control cracking.
o Shear Reinforcement: Provides rules for the maximum spacing of shear stirrups (the
lesser of 0.75d or 300mm) to ensure any potential shear crack is intercepted.

Pages 27 to 29: Comprehensive Beam Design Example

This is a complete design problem from start to finish, incorporating the principles and code rules
discussed earlier.
 Page 27 (Problem & Load Calculation):
o Problem: Design a simply supported beam of 6m span carrying specified loads (M25
concrete, Fe 415 steel, width = 250 mm).
o Load Calculation: Calculates the self-weight of the beam (based on an assumed depth),
adds the given dead and live loads to find the total load per meter (18.75 kN/m).
o Bending Moment: Calculates the maximum factored bending moment, Mu=126.5 kNm.
 Page 28 (Section Design):
o Depth Calculation: The required effective depth is calculated by equating Mu to Mu,lim,
giving dreq=383 mm. An overall depth D=450 mm is provided, and the actual effective
depth is recalculated as d=400 mm.
 o Steel Calculation: The required area of steel (Ast) is calculated for the provided section
to resist the moment Mu. Ast,req=1067mm2.
 Page 29 (Reinforcement Detailing & Checks):
o Provide Steel: The designer decides to provide 4 bars of 20mm diameter, which gives an
area of Ast,prov=1256mm2.
o Checks: The provided steel area is checked against the minimum and maximum limits
specified by the code.
o Spacing Check: The spacing between the bars is checked to ensure it is large enough for
concrete to flow between them. The provided spacing is adequate.

Pages 30 to 34: Design for Shear

This section covers the design of shear reinforcement (stirrups) for the beam designed in the previous
section.
 Page 30 (Concept of Shear): Explains that shear forces cause diagonal tension cracks. Vertical
reinforcement, called stirrups, are provided to stitch these cracks and prevent failure. The Shear
Force Diagram (SFD) shows that shear is maximum at the supports and zero at the center of a
simply supported beam.
 Page 31 (Shear Calculation):
o Factored Shear Force (Vu): Calculates the maximum shear force at the support and
applies the load factor (1.5), giving Vu=84.375 kN.
o Nominal Shear Stress (τv): This is the average shear stress on the section.
τv=bdVu=250×39984.375×103=0.845 N/mm2
o Concrete Shear Strength (τc): This is the shear stress the concrete can resist on its own.
It is found from a code table based on the concrete grade (M25) and the percentage of
tension steel provided.
 Page 32 (Shear Design Logic):
o The design must ensure that τv is less than a maximum permissible value, τc,max, to
prevent crushing of the concrete.
o If τv>τc, the concrete is not strong enough to resist the shear alone, and shear
reinforcement must be designed to carry the excess shear.
o If τv≤τc, the concrete can handle the shear, but a minimum amount of stirrups must still
be provided.
 Page 33 (Stirrup Calculation):
o The shear force to be resisted by stirrups (Vus) is calculated.
o The formula relating Vus to stirrup spacing (sv) is used:
Vus=sv0.87fyAsvd
o Assuming 2-legged 8mm diameter stirrups (Asv=100mm2), the required spacing is
calculated.
 Page 34 (Finalizing Stirrups):
o The calculated spacing (sv=450 mm) is compared with the maximum allowable spacing
from the code (0.75d = 300 mm).
o The final provided spacing must be the minimum of these values. Therefore, 8mm 2-
legged stirrups are provided at a spacing of 290 mm (a practical value less than 300
mm).

Pages 35 to 36: Serviceability Check - Deflection

This section demonstrates how to check if the designed beam will have excessive deflection under
service loads.
  Page 35 (Deflection Check):
o Basic Ratio: The actual span/depth ratio (3996000=15) is checked against the basic
permissible ratio for a simply supported beam (which is 20). Since 15<20, the beam is
likely safe.
o Modification Factors: For a more accurate check, the basic ratio is modified by factors
K1 (for tension steel) and K2 (for compression steel).
o K1 is found from a graph in the code based on the steel stress fs and percentage of
tension steel. The note calculates fs and finds K1=1.45.
 Page 36 (Final Check):
o Since there is no compression reinforcement, K2=1.
o Permissible Ratio: 20×K1=20×1.45=29.
o Final Check: Actual ratio (15) < Permissible ratio (29). The beam is safe in deflection.

Pages 37 to 40: Second Comprehensive Design Example (Doubly Reinforced)

This is another complete design problem, this time resulting in a doubly reinforced section.
 Page 37 (Problem & Design): A beam is designed for a factored moment Mu=133.5 kNm. Its
Mu,lim is only 84.5 kNm. Since Mu>Mu,lim, it is designed as a doubly reinforced beam following
the steps outlined on Page 22. The required steel areas are calculated: Ast=1268mm2 and Asc
=440mm2.
 Page 38 (Detailing & Checks): Reinforcement is provided (e.g., 4 bars of 22mm for tension
steel). Checks for minimum/maximum steel and bar spacing are shown to be satisfactory.
 Page 39 (Shear Design): Shear reinforcement is designed for this beam. The nominal shear
stress τv is calculated (1.52 N/mm²), and the concrete's shear strength τc is determined (0.75
N/mm²). Since τv>τc, stirrups are designed to carry the balance shear.
 Page 40 (Finalizing Stirrups & Deflection): The required stirrup spacing is calculated and
checked against code limits. A final spacing of 260 mm is provided. A deflection check is also
performed. This time, a modification factor K2 for the compression steel is included, which
increases the permissible span/depth ratio, making the beam safer against deflection.

Pages 41 to 42: Anchorage and Bond Check

This section covers an important check to ensure that reinforcement bars do not pull out of the concrete
at critical locations like supports.
 Page 41 (Concept): Introduces the code requirement at a simple support to prevent bond
failure. The development length (Ld) must be less than a calculated anchorage value.
Ld≤VM1+L0
o Ld: The length required to anchor the bar.
o M1: The moment capacity of the bars that are continuing into the support.
o V: The shear force at the support.
o L0: Additional anchorage provided by bends or hooks.
 Page 42 (Check): The check is performed for the previous design example.
o The required development length (Ld) is calculated as 806 mm.
o The available anchorage value (VM1+L0) is calculated as 1254.15 mm.
o Since 806<1254.15, the bars are safe in anchorage. The note also mentions that if this
check fails, bond strength can be improved by using a larger number of smaller diameter
bars.

Pages 43 to 44: Using SP-16 Design Aids

This section demonstrates a shortcut method for beam design using a popular Indian design aid, SP-16
(Design Aids for Reinforced Concrete).
 Concept: Instead of using the long formulas, a designer can calculate the non-dimensional
parameter bd2Mu.
 Procedure:
1. Calculate bd2Mu for your beam.
2. Look up this value in the tables of SP-16 (for the specific concrete and steel grades).
3. The table directly gives the required percentage of tension steel (pt) and compression
steel (pc, if any).
 Example: For a beam, bd2Mu is calculated as 3.16. The note refers to a table which shows that
for M20/Fe415, the maximum value for a singly reinforced beam is 2.76. Since 3.16 > 2.76, this
instantly confirms that a doubly reinforced beam is required, matching the conclusion from the
long-form calculation.

Pages 45: Slab Load Distribution to Beams

This page illustrates how the load from a two-way slab is transferred to its supporting beams.
 Concept: A two-way slab (supported on all four sides) transfers its load to the four supporting
beams in triangular and trapezoidal areas, as shown in the diagram.
 Load Calculation: The shorter beams receive a triangular load, while the longer beams receive a
trapezoidal load. The note shows a calculation to find the total load on a beam from its tributary
area and then convert it into an equivalent uniformly distributed load (UDL) for easier beam
design.

Pages 46 to 48: Design of Continuous Beams

This final section introduces the analysis of continuous beams (beams spanning over multiple supports).
 Page 46 (Concept): The bending moment diagram for a continuous beam is more complex than
for a simple beam. It has:
o Positive (Sagging) Moments near the middle of each span, causing tension at the
bottom.
o Negative (Hogging) Moments over the supports, causing tension at the top of the
beam. This means continuous beams require reinforcement at the bottom in the spans
and at the top over the supports.
 Pages 47 & 48 (Code Coefficients): For continuous beams with uniform loads and roughly equal
spans, IS 456 provides coefficients to quickly calculate the design moments and shear forces at
critical locations (mid-spans and supports).
o The notes list the formulas from the code (Table 12 and 13 of IS 456) for calculating span
moments, support moments, and shear forces using these coefficients. This method
avoids complex structural analysis for common cases.