Mid-Semester Solutions Industrial

Refrigeration & HVAC Systems

Modules 1 & 2 (Aligned)

Prepared by a Broke Student

September 24, 2025

Abstract
Complete, exam-ready solutions for problems based on:
• Module 1: Industrial Refrigeration Fundamentals (thermodynamic princi-
ples; components & layout; classification and building applications).
• Module 2: Industrial Vapour Compression & Absorption Systems (industrial
VCR, absorption LiBr–H2 O chillers; case studies).
Each question includes: (i) theory and justification bullets to impress a professor,
(ii) stepwise procedure, (iii) governing equations, and (iv) worked numeric examples
with intermediate arithmetic.

Notation & Typical constants

• ṁ – mass flow (kg/s), V̇ – volumetric flow (m3 /s).
• cp – specific heat (liquid water) ≈ 4180 J/kg K.
• ρ – density (water) ≈ 1000 kg/m3 .
• g = 9.81 m/s2 .
• Temperatures in ◦ C; when required for thermodynamic cycles use K = ◦ C + 273.15.
• Q in W (or kW), COP = coefficient of performance (dimensionless).

Q1. Non-Zero Building using Natural Refrigeration

(Module 1 alignment)
(A) Theory professor-level bullets
• Thermodynamics principle: Building cooling demand is an energy balance:
remove sensible and latent gains so indoor conditions meet comfort setpoints. Con-
servation of energy & mass govern all passive and active cooling methods.
• Definitions:
– Net-zero: annual onsite renewables ≥ annual energy consumption.
– Non-zero: generates surplus (exports energy) while meeting comfortrequires
both demand reduction and generation beyond loads.

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 • Why natural refrigeration: uses external sinks (wet-bulb, river, sky, ground)
to provide cooling with very low electrical input (fans/pumps), yielding effectively
high system-level COP compared to compression-based systems.
• Key trade-offs: water consumption (evaporative systems) vs energy saved; IAQ
impact (direct evaporative adds humidity); site constraints (river flow, diurnal tem-
perature swing).
• Performance metrics to present: Energy Balance Index (EBI), EUI (kWh/m2 /yr),
water-use intensity (L/kWh saved), PMV/PPD comfort indices.

(B) Stepwise design / assessment procedure (explicit)

1. Site & climate inventory: hourly dry-bulb Tdb (t) and wet-bulb Twb (t), river
temperatures (if any), solar insolation, wind.
2. Load estimate (hourly): compute


Qenv (t) = U A Tout (t) − Tin , Qsolar (t) = Ag · SHGC · Isolar (t),

and internal gains Qint (t).

3. Passive measures: quantify Qpassive (shading, insulation, mass).
4. Natural refrigeration selection: pick IEC, radiative cooling, earth tubes, river
heat sink depending on wet-bulb and water availability.
5. Integration and control logic: prioritize free cooling sources (night radiative →
river/ground → IEC) then mechanical chillers only as backup.
6. Hourly simulation: run combined energy balance and compute annual EBI:
Erenewables,annual
EBI = .
Edemand,annual
7. Iterate on area/tilt of PV, additional passive features, or TES (thermal energy
storage).

(C) Governing equations summary

Qcool (t) = Qenv (t) + Qsolar (t) + Qint (t) − Qpassive (t).
Energy Balance Index (annual):
P
EPV (t)
EBI = P t .
t Qcool (t)∆t

If EBI ≥ 1 ⇒ net-zero; EBI > 1 ⇒ non-zero.

(D) Worked numeric example (concise, stepwise)

• Assume: hourly aggregated simple case where daily demand = 45 kWh/day (i.e.
averaged power 1.875 kW over 24 h) and PV daily generation = 50 kWh/day.
• Compute EBI:
50
EBI = = 1.111 . . .
45
(Exact division: 50 ÷ 45 = 1.1)

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 • Conclusion: EBI > 1 ⇒ building qualifies as ‘non-zero’ in this simplified account-
ing.

Q2. Centralized Refrigeration/HVAC Plant layout,

sizing, distribution to PPA auditorium (Module 1)
(A) Theory / justification bullets
• Central chilled-water plants are standard for campuses: economies of scale, shared
maintenance, and central control.
• Key components: chillers, primary/secondary chilled-water pumps, distribution
headers, air-handling units (AHUs)/FCUs, condenser water loop and cooling towers
(for water-cooled chillers), chemical treatment, TES (if used).
• Design rules: N–1 redundancy (no single failure should bring plant down), variable-
speed drives for part-load efficiency, ∆T optimization for lower pumping energy.
• Controls: chilled-water reset, staging of chillers by PLR, pressure-independent bal-
ancing of distribution using differential pressure sensors and VFDs.

(B) Governing equations and design formulas

lQ m
peak
Chiller count (N–1): nc = + 1. (1)
Qchiller
Q
Chilled-water flow: V̇ = (m3 /s). (2)
ρcp ∆T
Pump hydraulic power (ideal): Phyd = V̇ ρgH (W). (3)
Phyd
Electrical motor power: Pmotor = . (4)
ηpump ηmotor
Qchilled
Chiller electrical: Pchiller = . (5)
COP
 1 
Condenser heat rejection: Qcond = Qchilled + Pchiller = Qchilled 1 + . (6)
COP

(C) Stepwise sizing procedure (practical exam checklist)

1. Determine Qpeak from detailed building load (sensible + latent) at design conditions.
2. Choose a standard chiller size Qchiller and apply (1).
3. Choose ∆T (typical campus design: 5–7 K) and compute V̇ using (2).
4. Estimate head H from pipe friction and system layout; compute pump sizing via
(3)–(4).
5. Size condenser/cooling tower using (6).
6. Provide redundancy, controls (VFDs), and thermal storage options if peak shaving
is desired.

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(D) Worked numeric example (detailed arithmetic shown)
Assumptions (typical campus example):

Qpeak = 2000 kW, Qchiller = 500 kW, ∆T = 6 K, COP = 6.0.

Chiller count:
Qpeak 2000
= =4 ⇒ nc = d4e + 1 = 4 + 1 = 5 (N–1 redundancy).
Qchiller 500

Chilled-water volumetric flow per chiller: Using (2), for one chiller Q = 500 000 W,

denominator = ρcp ∆T = 1000 × 4180 × 6 = 1000 × (4180 × 6).

Compute 4180 × 6:
4180 × 6 = 25080.
Hence denominator = 1000 × 25080 = 25 080 000 (units J/(m3 s) effectively). Now
500000
V̇ = = 0.019940 m3 /s.
25 080 000
Convert to m3 /h: 0.019940 × 3600 = 71.784 m3 /h.

Chiller electrical power (per chiller): Using (5),

Qchilled 500
Pchiller = = = 83.333 . . . kW.
COP 6
(Exact: 500 ÷ 6 = 83.333 . . .)

Condenser heat per chiller: Using (6),

Qcond = 500 + 83.333 . . . = 583.333 . . . kW.

Pump hydraulic and motor power (example head): Assume system head H =
30 m and overall pump + motor efficiency product ηsys = 0.70.

Phyd = V̇ ρgH = 0.019940 × 1000 × 9.81 × 30.

Compute stepwise:
0.019940 × 1000 = 19.940 (kg/s),
19.940 × 9.81 = 195.6114 (N/s),
195.6114 × 30 = 5868.342 W = 5.868342 kW.
Now motor input power:
Phyd 5868.342
Pmotor = = = 8383.3457 W ≈ 8.383 kW.
ηsys 0.70

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Summary (per chiller): Flow ≈ 0.01994 m3 /s (71.78 m3 /h), chiller electric ≈ 83.33
kW, condenser heat ≈ 583.33 kW, pump motor ≈ 8.38 kW (example head assumed).

Q3. Counterflow Cooling Tower & Counterflow Evap-

orative Cooling (Module 2)
(A) Theory compact professor-level bullets
• Cooling towers transfer heat from condenser water to ambient air by combined
sensible and latent processes; the ultimate thermodynamic limit is ambient wet-
bulb temperature (Twb ).
• Approach: Tcold,out −Twb ; smaller approach ⇒ better performance but larger tower
(area/UA) needed.
• Range: Thot,in − Tcold,out is the range across which water is cooled.
• Evaporative coolers (direct) cool air toward Twb ; indirect systems (IEC) provide
sensible cooling without humidifying supply air.
• Use enthalpy and mass balances (accounting for latent heat of vaporization) for
accurate performance predictions.

(B) Governing equations: energy & mass balances

Water energy balance (bulk):

ṁw cpw (Tw,in − Tw,out ) = Q̇ (W).

Air enthalpy balance:

ṁa ha,out − ha,in = Q̇.

Moisture mass balance:

ṁa (ωout − ωin ) = ṁv (kg/s evaporated).

Where moist-air specific enthalpy (per kg dry air) is:

h = cpa T + ω hf g + cpw T ,

with hf g the latent heat at the relevant temperature (kJ/kg).

(C) Effectiveness / Efficiency definitions

Tw,in − Tw,out
εT = (0 < εT < 1)
Tw,in − Twb
This is numerically equal to tower “efficiency” in many practical contexts because Twb is
the limiting sink.
Moisture effectiveness (how close air humidity approaches saturation corresponding
to water temperature):
ωout − ωin
εM = .
ωsat (Tw,in ) − ωin

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(D) NTU concept (sketch of method)
Coupled heat+mass transfer can be linearized and cast into an NTU–effectiveness frame-
work:
UA Cmin
NTU = , Cr = ,
Cmin Cmax
and ε = f (NTU, Cr ) where f (·) is obtained by solving the differential balance equations.
For exam purposes, identify Cw = ṁw cpw and Ca = ṁa cpa (sensibly) and show the method
detailed derivation requires solving coupled ODEs.

(E) Worked numeric example (counterflow tower)

Given: Tw,in = 35 ◦ C, Twb = 26 ◦ C, εT = 0.70, ṁw = 10 kg/s.

Compute Tw,out :

Tw,out = Tw,in − εT (Tw,in − Twb ) = 35 − 0.70 × (35 − 26).

Compute stepwise:

35 − 26 = 9, 0.70 × 9 = 6.3, Tw,out = 35 − 6.3 = 28.7 ◦ C.

Heat removed :

Q = ṁw cpw (Tw,in − Tw,out ) = 10 × 4180 × (35 − 28.7).

Compute stepwise:
35 − 28.7 = 6.3,
4180 × 6.3 = 4180 × (6 + 0.3) = 4180 × 6 + 4180 × 0.3 = 25080 + 1254 = 26334,
Q = 10 × 26334 = 263340 W = 263.34 kW.

Evaporated mass (approx): use latent heat hf g ≈ 2430 kJ/kg = 2430 kJ/kg (value
at ∼30◦ C; used here for estimation).

Q (kJ/s) 263.34 kJ/s

ṁv ≈ = .
hf g (kJ/kg) 2430 kJ/kg

Compute:
263.34 ÷ 2430 ≈ 0.1084 kg/s.
Water loss ≈ 0.1084 kg/s × 3600 ≈ 390.2 kg/h ≈ 0.390 m3 /h.

(F) Part (b) Counterflow evaporative cooling system & impor-

tance of the M-cycle
• IEC model: treat IEC as a heat exchanger with the wet-bulb as the limiting sink:
Ta,in − Ta,out
effectiveness εIEC = .
Ta,in − Twb

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 • Mass (M)-cycle importance: track water evaporation ṁv , humidity ratio change
∆ω, and latent enthalpycritical for IAQ, mold control, and sizing dehumidification
or latent capacity.
• Balance equations:

ṁa (cpa ∆Ta + hf g ∆ω) = ṁw cpw ∆Tw

and
ṁa ∆ω = ṁv .

Q4. Ventilation types for Mechanical Building, Admin

Building, Lecture Hall (Module 1 applications)
(A) Theory & classification bullets
• Natural ventilation: driven by wind and stack effects; low energy but limited
control and not suitable for process/lab spaces.
• Mixed-mode (hybrid): uses natural ventilation when conditions are favorable;
mechanical supply/exhaust for peak/contaminant control.
• Fully mechanical (central AHU): required for lab, cleanrooms, high-occupancy
spaces; can provide controlled filtration, humidity, and pressurization.
• Displacement ventilation: supply low-velocity cool air at floor level; good for
lecture halls as it reduces mixing and improves air quality in occupied zone.
• Demand-Controlled Ventilation (DCV): CO2 sensors modulate ventilation to
occupancyexcellent energy savings for auditoria and lecture halls.

(B) Stepwise selection logic for each building

1. Mechanical/Workshop: Process exhaust (hoods), supply with AHU using high
outdoor air fraction; local capture = priority; use VAV where variable process loads
exist.
2. Admin: Central AHU with VAV boxes, economizer for free cooling; filtration
MERV-rated as required.
3. Lecture Hall (PPA): Central AHU + displacement ventilation or stratified sup-
ply; DCV via CO2 sensors to save ventilation energy during low occupancy.

(C) Representative ventilation rate formula (exam-friendly)

V̇OA = N · vper + A · varea
Where N = occupants, vper = outdoor air per person (L/s per person), A = floor area,
varea = outdoor air per area (L/s per m2 ). (Use code values in exam if given; otherwise
state assumed values.)

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Q5. If building is beside a river: recommended system
(Module 2)
(A) Recommendation (concise)
Preferred system: Closed-loop river-water heat exchanger (plate HX) + IEC + Radiative

(B) Theory & professor-level justification

• River water often provides a stable low-temperature heat sink (better than ambient
air on hot days) enabling free cooling or dramatically reduced chiller lift.
• Closed-loop plate heat exchanger avoids thermal pollution and reduces fouling of
plant equipment (compared to direct open-intakes).
• Combining with IEC gives high sensible-cooling while minimizing introduced hu-
midity; radiative night cooling reduces building thermal mass overnight.
• Environmental considerations: always confirm minimum flow/temperature con-
straints and obtain permits for any intake/discharge; closed loop typically eases
permitting.

(C) Worked numeric example (river side free-cooling flow esti-

mate)
Assume: required cooling Q = 500 kW to be rejected to river side via plate HX; allow-
able river-side ∆Triver = 3 K (keep river thermal impact small).

Q 500000
V̇river = = .
ρcp ∆Triver 1000 × 4180 × 3

Compute denominator:

1000 × 4180 × 3 = 1000 × (4180 × 3) = 1000 × 12540 = 12 540 000.

Now volumetric flow:

500000
V̇river = = 0.039872 m3 /s.
12 540 000
Convert to m3 /h:
0.039872 × 3600 = 143.5392 m3 /h.
Result: river-side closed-loop flow ≈ 0.0399 m3 /s (143.54 m3 /h) for ∆Triver = 3 K.

(D) Practical constraints

• Check seasonal low-flow conditions: ensure minimum river flow still allows heat
rejection.
• Install coarse filtration and inline backwash to control fouling.
• Use heat exchanger materials resistant to biofouling and corrosion; schedule cleaning
cycles and monitoring.

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(Optional but high-value) LiBr–H2O Absorption Sys-
tem (Module 2 extra: impress the professor)
(A) Cycle description and thermodynamic principle
• Absorption chillers use a refrigerant–absorbent pair (water as refrigerant and LiBr
as absorbent) and a heat source (waste heat or solar thermal) to drive the refriger-
ation cycleno mechanical vapor-compression compressor is used.
• Key components: evaporator (produces cooling Qevap ), absorber (absorbs refriger-
ant vapor into solution), pump (circulates solution, small electrical input), generator
(provides heat Qgen to desorb refrigerant), and condenser (rejects heat Qcond ).
• Single-effect LiBr chillers have typical COP in range ∼ 0.6 (varies with temperatures
and design); double/triple-effect configurations achieve higher COP but require
higher-grade heat.

(B) Energy balance and COP

Overall energy balance on the working fluid loop (neglecting small pump work Wp ):

Qgen + Qevap = Qcond + Qabs + Wp ,

where Qgen is heat input to generator (fuel/solar/waste heat). The practical COP (by
convention for absorption chillers) is:
Qevap
COPabs = .
Qgen

Note: Electrical work is small (pump + controls) compared to Qgen but should be included
for precise energy accounting.

(C) Worked numeric example (single-effect illustration)

Assume: required cooling Qevap = 500 kW and a single-effect generator input Qgen =
900 kW (typical order-of-magnitude). Then:
500
COPabs = = 0.555 . . .
900
(Exact arithmetic: 500 ÷ 900 = 0.55 ≈ 0.5556.)

Interpretation: For every 1 kW of thermal input to the generator, the chiller produces
≈ 0.556 kW of refrigeration. Compare this to a vapour-compression chiller (COP ∼ 3–
6 electrically) choose absorption when low-cost thermal energy (waste heat or solar
thermal) is available to maximize primary-energy efficiency.

Exam-ready summary & professor-impress checklist

• Always state assumptions explicitly (climate data, ∆T , COPs, efficiency val-
ues).

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 • Show energy and mass conservation (entire system) this demonstrates funda-
mental understanding.
• Use symbolic formulae first, then substitute numbers with step-by-step arith-
metic (professors expect both).
• Discuss control strategies (VFDs, ∆T reset, DCV with CO2 sensors, chiller
staging, TES integration) and trade-offs (water use vs energy).
• Mention environmental and operational issues: water treatment, biofouling,
permit needs (river usage), IAQ implications.
• Close with indices: EBI, EUI, water intensity, PMV/PPDquantify when possible.

Good luck on your midterm Prepared by a Broke Student.

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