CLASS-XII

COMPUTER SCIENCE-PYTHON (083)

UNIT-II COMPUTER NETWORKS
S. No. Topic Page No.

8.1 Evolution of Networking 2

8.2 Switching Techniques 2

8.3 Data Communication Terminologies 3

8.4 Networking Concepts 4

8.5 Transmission Medium 5

8.6 Network Devices 6

8.7 Network Topology 10

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 CHAPTER-8 COMPUTER NETWORKS

8.1 Evolution of Networking:

ARPANET: The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) was an early
packet switching network and the first network to implement the protocol suite TCP/IP. Both
technologies became the technical foundation of the Internet.

Internet: A network of networks.

WWW: World Wide Web started on 6th August 1991, started by ‘ Berners Lee’ .

Interspace: Interspace is a client/server software program that allows multiple users to

communicate online with real-time audio, video and text chat in dynamic 3D environments.
Interspace provides the most advanced form of communication available on the Internet
today.
8.2 Switching Techniques:
It is a way to send a message from sender to receiver. Information may be switched as it
travels through various communication channels. There are three typical switching
techniques available for digital traffic.

• Circuit Switching
• Packet Switching
• Message Switching

Circuit Switching Packet Switching

Sends data in small blocks, called packets.

Requires point to point connections during
Packets reassembled in proper sequence at
calls.
the receiver end.

Required dedicated connection Not required dedicated connection

Circuit-switched networks were used for

packet-switched networks handled data
phone calls

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 Packet Switching

8.3 Data Communication Terminologies:

Channel: A channel is a separate path through which signals can flow. A channel has a certain
capacity for transmitting information, often measured by its bandwidth in Hz orits data
rate in bits per second.

Bandwidth: Bandwidth refers to the amount of information that can be transmitted over a
network in a given amount of time, usually expressed in bits per second or bps.

Data Transfer Rate: The data transfer rate of a computer network connection is normally
measured in units of bits per second (bps).

Larger units are Kbps, Mbps and Gbps, KBps, MBps,GBps

bps means bit per second.

Bps means Byte per second

1 kilobit per second (Kbps) = 1000 bits per second (bps).

1 megabit per second (Mbps) = 1000 Kbps or 10002 bps.
1 gigabit per second (Gbps) = 1000 Mbps
1 Terabit per second (Tbps) = 1000 Gbps

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8.4 Networking Concepts:
Network:- To connect the more than one devices via a medium, is called network.

Why do we need network?

1. Communication
2. Resource sharing
3. Reduce Cost

Types of Network:
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
3. Wide Area Network (WAN)
4. Personal Area Network (PAN)

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 1. LAN:

*Use in small local area, like in an institute or an organization.

* Devices are connected via physical medium.
* Limited distance, up to 150 Meter.
* Example – Intranet
2. MAN:
* Larger than LAN.
* Used in Metropolitan cities.
*Range up to 50 KM.
3. WAN:
* Large network
* Public
* Example – Internet
4. PAN:
* For very small distance
* Private Communication
* Example: Bluetooth

8.5 Transmission Medium:

A medium, which is used to connect the devices and transfers the data from one device to
another device.

Medium

Wired Wireless
(Guided) (Unguided)

Twisted Co-axial Optical Radio Micro Satellite Wi-Fi, infrared,

Pair Cable Cable Fiber wave wave Comm. Bluetooth

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 What is Transmission Media in Computer Network?
Transmission media is a communication channel that transmits information from the source/transmitter to the
receiver. It is a physical path for data transfer through electromagnetic signals. Information is carried over in
the form of bits through LAN. It can mediate the propagation of signals for telecommunication. Signals are
imposed on a wave that is suitable for the chosen medium. These media lie underneath the physical layer that
regulates them. While designing a transmission, it is important to keep the following pointers in mind:
 The bandwidth should be greater since it will result in a higher data transmission rate of a signal.
 Noise should be less. Otherwise, data signal can be distorted.
1. Guided Transmission Media
Guided media is a type of transmission media which is also known as wired or bounded media. These
transmission media consist of wires through which the data is transferred. Guided media is a physical link
between transmitter and recipient devices. Signals are directed in a narrow pathway using physical links.
These media types are used for shorter distances since physical limitation limits the signal that flows
through these transmission media.

1.1 Twisted Pair Cable

In this type of transmission media, two insulated conductors of a single circuit are twisted together to
improve electromagnetic compatibility. These are the most widely used transmission medium cables.
These are packed together in protective sheaths. They reduce electromagnetic radiation from pairs and
crosstalk between the neighbouring pair. Overall, it improves the rejection of external electromagnetic
interference. These are further subdivided into unshielded and shielded twisted pair cables.

1.1.1 Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable(UTP): These consist of two insulated copper wires that are
coiled around one another. These types of transmission media block interference without depending on
any physical shield. The unshielded twisted pair are very affordable and are simple to set up. These
provide a high-speed link.

1.1.2 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): This twisted cable consisted of a foil shield to block external
interference. The insulation within these types of twisted cable allow greater data transmission rate.
These are used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in data and voice channels of telephone lines.
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 1. 2 Optical Fibre Cable
Also known as fiber optic cable, these type of transmission media are thin strands of glass that guide
light along their length. These contain multiple optical fibers and are very often used for long-distance
communications. Compared to other materials, these cables can carry huge amounts of data and run for
miles without using signal repeaters. Due to lesser requirements, they have less maintenance costs and
it improves the reliability of the communication system. These can be unidirectional as well as
bidirectional in nature.
1.3 Coaxial cable
These guided transmission media contain an insulation layer that transmits information in baseband
mode and broadband mode. Coaxial cables are made of PVC/Teflon and two parallel conductors that
are separately insulated. Such cables carry high frequency electrical signals without any big loss. The
dimension of cable and connectors are controlled to give them constant conductor spacing for efficient
functioning as a transmission line.

2. Unguided Transmission Media

Also known as unbounded or wireless media, they help in transmitting electromagnetic signals without
using a physical medium. Here, air is the medium. There is no physical connectivity between
transmitter and receiver. These types of transmission media are used for longer distances however
they are less secure than guided media. There are three main types of wireless transmission media.
2.1 Radio Waves
Radio waves are transmitted in every direction throughout free space. Since these are
omnidirectional, sent waves can be received by any antenna. These waves are useful when the data
is to multicasted from one sender to multiple receivers. Radio waves can cover large areas and even
penetrate obstacles such as buildings and walls. The frequency of these waves ranges between 3
kHz to 1GHz. Due to its omnidirectional nature, issues such as interference might arise when another
signal with the same bandwidth or frequency is sent.
2.2 Infrared
These waves are useful for only very short-distance communication. Unlike radio waves, they do not
have the ability to penetrate barriers. Their range varies between 300GHz – 400THz. Since they have
larger bandwidth, the data rate is very high for infrared waves. These have less interference and are
more secure.
2.3 Microwaves
For these waves, it is important for the transmitter and receiver antenna to be aligned. This is why it
is known as line-of-sight transmission. Due to this, they are suitable for shorter distances. They
comprise of electromagnetic waves with frequencies ranging between 1-400 GHz. Microwaves

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provide bandwidth between the range of 1 to 10 Mbps. Distance covered by the signal is proportional
to the height of the antenna. For travelling to longer distances, the height of the tower should be
increased. These are further sub categorized as terrestrial and satellite type microwave transmission.
2.3.1 Terrestrial type microwave transmission: In this type, high directional antennas are
used for line of sight propagation paths that use frequency between 4-12 GHz. These are parabolic
antennas having diameters that range from 12 inches to feet depending on their spacing.
2.3.2 Satellite type microwave transmission: Signals are transmitted to those spaces
where satellites are positioned and they retransmit the signal to appropriate locations. Since they only
receive and retransmit the signal, they act as repeaters. It is a much more flexible and reliable method
of communication in comparison with cables and fiber systems.
Pros and Cons of Transmission Media in Computer Networks
The following table summarises the advantages and disadvantages of transmission media:
Type of Transmission Media Advantages Disadvantages
Attenuation leads to short-
Less expensive,
distance communication,
Unshielded Twisted Pair Easy to install,
Susceptible to external
High speed
interference
Reduced crosstalk, Bulky and expensive,
Shielded Twisted Pair
Faster than UTP Difficult to install
Increased bandwidth,
Optical Fibre Cable High-cost, Fragile
Immunity to interference
High bandwidth, Complete disruption due to
Coaxial Cable
Noise immunity single cable failure
Better isolation, Complex troubleshooting,
Stripline
Less loss of radiation Expensive
Easy interconnection and adjustments,
Microstripline Major fabrication advantage over Only for a short distance
stripline due to its open structure
Easy to generate,
Radio More interference
Can penetrate obstacles
Infrared Less interference Cannot penetrate obstacles

8.6 Network Devices:

1. Modem
2. Hub
3. Switch
4. Gateway
5. Bridge
6. Router
7. Repeater
8. NIC (Network Interface Card)
9. RJ45 Connector
1. Modem:
 The full form of modem is Modulator and demodulator.
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  A modem is a device or program that enables a computer to transmit data over
telephone or cable lines.
 A modem converts analog signal to digital signal and vice- versa.
 Modem connects computer to internet.
 There are two types of modem:
a. Internal Modem
b. External Modem

Telephone pole

Modem

Fig. : Working of Modem

2. Hub:
 A network device that contains multiple ports.
 Provides multiple connections.
 When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to the other ports so that all
segments of the LAN can see all packets.
 Two types of hub :
a. Active Hub
b. Passive Hub

Fig: Hub Fig. : Active and Passive Hub

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 3. Switch:
 A switch is called smart hub.
 Provides multiple connections
 A device that filters and forwards packets between LAN segments.

Fig: Switch

HUB SWITCH

Passes the frame to a specific port,

Hub passes the frame to every port.
because it keeps a record of MAC address.

Creates lot of traffic on network Less traffic

Hub shares its bandwidth with each and
Switch allocates full bandwidth to each of
every port, so bandwidth divided among
its port. So user always access maximum
all the nodes, which will degrade
amount of bandwidth.
performance.
Slow speed Fast speed

4. Gateway:
 A gateway is a network point that acts as an entrance to another network.
 Used to connect two dissimilar networks.

WAN LAN

5. Bridge:
A device that connects two local-area networks (LANs), or two segments of the same
LAN that use the same protocol, such as Ethernet.

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 LAN-1

LAN-2

6. Router:
A router is a device that forwards data packets along networks. A router is connected
to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs. Routers are located
at gateways, the places where two or more networks connect.
A router acts as a dispatcher, choosing the best path for information to travel so it’s
received quickly.

7. Repeater:
Network repeaters regenerate and amplify the weak signals to transmit the information
for long distance.

8. NIC (Network Interface Card): NIC card has a physical address of a system; this
physical address known as MAC address.

A MAC address is a 6- byte address with each byte separated by a colon. First 3-bytes have
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Manufacturer id and last 3-bytes represent Card id.

[Link]
Manufacturer id Card id

9. RJ45 Connector: It is used for connecting computers onto Ethernet-based local area
networks (LAN). RJ stands for Registered Jack. It is a standardize networking interface. 45
is the number of the interface standard. It has 8-pins.

8.7 Network Topology:

The term Topology refers to the way/layout in which the various nodes or computers of a
network are linked together.
The following factors are considered while selecting a topology:
1. Cost
2. Reliability
3. Scalability
4. Bandwidth capacity
5. Ease of installation
6. Ease of troubleshooting
7. Delay involved in routing information from one node to another.
Types of Topologies

1. Bus Topology
It consists of one continuous length of cable (trunk) that is shared by all the nodes in the
network and a terminating resistor (terminator) at each end that absorbs the signal when it
reaches the end of line. Without a terminator the electrical signal would reach the end of
copper wire and bounce back, causing errors on the network.
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Data communication message travels along the bus in both directions until it is picked up by
a workstation or server NIC. If the message is missed or not recognized, it reaches the end of
the cabling and dissipates at the terminator. Bus Network Topology requires a multipoint
connection.

Advantages Disadvantages
1. Easy to install and the use for small 1. If the main cable fails the entire network
networks. collapses.
2. Requires less cable 2. Difficult to reconfigure, due to more
connections.
3. Failure of one node does not affect thenetwork
functioning. 3. Difficult to troubleshoot
4. Cost is less 4. Slow, due to traffic on single cable
5. New node can be easily added 5. Only one device transmits at a time, other
devices wait for their turn.
2. Ring Topology
The physical ring Topology is a circular loop of point-to-
point links. Message travel around the ring from node to node
in a very organized manner. Each workstation checks the
message for a matching destination address. If the address
doesn’t match the node simply regenerates the message and
sends it on its way. If the address matches, the node accepts
the message and sends a reply to the originating sender.

Advantages Disadvantages
1. Easy to troubleshoot 1. Requires more cable
2. There is no master computer on controller. 2. More Expensive
3. There are no collisions. 3. A break in cable ring brings down entire
4. Fast speed network
5. Easy fault detection and isolation 4. Data flows in single direction
3. Star Topology
The physical star Topology uses a central controlling hub with dedicated legs pointing in all
directions – like points of a star. Each network
device has a dedicated point-to-point link to the
central hub. There is no direct link between these
computers and the computers can communicate via
central controller only.
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 Advantages Disadvantages

1. Easier to add new node or modify any 1. Central node dependency. If the central
existing node without disturbing network. controller or hub fails, entire system
2. Fast Speed collapses.

3. If any local computer or link fails, the entire 2. Cabling cost is more
system does not collapse 3. Difficult to install
4. Easy fault detection and isolation
5. Central node control

4. Mesh Topology
In mesh topology, each node is connected to every other
node in the network i.e. each node has a dedicated point
to point link to every other node as shown. Dedicated
means that the link carries the traffic only between two
devices it connects.
In this way there exist multiple paths between two nodes
of the network. In case of failure of one path, the other
one can be used.

Advantages Disadvantages

1. It is robust. Failure of one node does not 1. Network installation and reconfiguration
collapse the entire system. difficult.
2. No traffic congestion 2. High cabling cost. If there are n nodes in
3. Dedicated links ensure faster transmission the network then each node has (n-1)
connections.
4. Point to point links makes fault
identification and isolation easier.

5. Tree Topology
This topology has Hierarchical structure. This topology connects the node via hubs. Hub,
which is present at top level, is called root hub or active hub. Another hub is called
secondary hub or passive hub.

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 Advantages Disadvantages
1. New node can be added easily. 1. If the backbone line breaks, the entire
2. Signal can travel for long distance. segment goes down.
3. Isolate and prioritize communication. 2. More difficult to configure
3. Higher cabling cost

6. Hybrid Topology:
It is a composition of more than one topology.

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