Assessment and Evaluation:

Assessment Percentage score

Discussion Forum Participation etc 15%
CAT 15%
Exam 70%
Total: 100%

Letter Grade Distribution

Grade Range
A 70% -100%
B 60%- 69%
C 50%- 59%
D 40%- 49%
F 39% and
Below
Minimum performance requirement for this course
The Pass Mark is 40%
Must have done all the assignments
Your Participation in forums is mandatory
Course Policies
i. General Academic Policies:

It is the student’s responsibility to be familiar with and adhere to the TMUC Academic
policies. These policies can be found in the TMUC website
ii. Supplementary Policies:

 Participation in forums is compulsory

 Assignments must be submitted in time
 Fees and levies must be cleared before sitting for exams.
Additional Information/Frequently Asked Questions:

 Is psychology a science?
 Is psychology a study of mind?
 Are psychologists mind readers?
Course Outline Schedule
LECTURE TOPIC WEEK SCHEDULED
ACTIVITY

LECTURE 1 MEANING OF PSYCHOLOGY 1 Define

i. Definition Psychology.
ii. Goals Describe body-
iii. Historical perspective mind
iv. Importance connection.

LECTURE 2 METHODS OF STUDYING 1 Explain research

PSYCHOLOGY Describe Methods
i. Experimental research of studying
ii. Non-experimental research psychology.
iii. Ethics in psychological research
Explain
personality
development.
Explain learning
theories.

LECTURE 3 MAJOR BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY 3 Discuss Major

Branches of
i. Physiological Psychology Psychology.
ii. Developmental psychology
iii. Social psychology
iv. Personality
v. Clinical psychology
vi. Counselling psychology
vii. Industrial psychology
viii. Education psychology
ix. Environmental psychology
x. Forensic psychology
xi. Criminal psychology
LECTURE 4 BIOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL 4 Discuss the
BASIS OF BEHAVIOUR biological and
i. Genetic influence environmental
ii. Environmental influence basis of
iii. Nervous system behaviour.
iv. Endocrine system
LECTURE 5 INTELLIGENCE 5 Relate
i. Definition intelligence to
ii. Measuring Intelligence memory.
LECTURE 6 SENSATION AND PERCEPTION 5 Discuss sensation
i. Sensation and perception.
ii. Attention
iii. Perception
LECTURE 7 EMOTIONS 6 Explain emotions
i. Definition and describe how
ii. Physiology of Emotions emotional issues
iii. Gender Difference in Emotions relate to
iv. Common Emotions psychopathology
and
v. Effects of Emotions on Behaviour
psychotherapy.
LECTURE 8 DRIVES AND MOTIVATION 7 Describe
i. Definitions motivation and
ii. Types of motives drives.
iii. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
iv. Theories of motivation
LECTURE 9 HUMAN LEARNING 8 Explain what
i. Definition entails learning
ii. Types of learning and discuss how
iii. Theories of learning it can be
iv. Reinforcement and punishment enhanced.
LECTURE MEMORY AND FORGETTING 9 Discuss how
10 i. Stages of Memory memory can be
ii. Memory retrieval measured
iii. Theories of forgetting Give a detailed
iv. Measuring memory account of how to
v. How to improve memory improve memory.

LECTURE HUMAN PERSONALITY 10 Discuss theories

11 i. Definition of personality
ii. Theories of personality development.
development
LECTURE ABNORMAL BEHAVIOUR 11 Discuss
12 i. Definition approaches and
ii. Approaches and Therapies of therapies of
Abnormal Behaviour abnormal
iii. Medical disorders behaviour.

LECTURE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY AND GROUP 12 Discuss how

13 DYNAMICS Group dynamics
i. Group norms affect behaviour.
ii. Conformity
iii. Obedience
iv. Group cohesiveness
v. Group decision making
vi. Leadership
vii. Power
viii. attitude
 LECTURE 1
THE MEANING OF PSYCHOLOGY
1.1 Introduction
In this lecture, an attempt will be made to introduce you to the broad field of psychology.
Psychology as a discipline will be defined and the major goals of psychology explained. We
shall also discuss the historical origins of psychology. Finally, we will look at the reason why
the study of psychology can be useful to you as teachers.

1.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
 Define psychology.
 Explain the major goals of psychology.
 Give a brief history of the development of psychology as a science of
human behaviour.
 Explain the importance of psychology to the teaching profession.

1.3 Definition of Psychology

The term psychology may not be new to you but your understanding of the term might be
different from that of psychologists. Psychologists define it as the scientific study of human and
animal behaviour. Behaviour here means what people do, their thoughts, feelings, perceptions,
reasoning processes, memories, emotions and so on. It encompasses both covert (indirectly
observable) and overt (directly observable) behaviours.
As a science, psychology is empirical, that is, it is based on experimentation and observation
rather than on opinion, belief or intuition. A science is a body of systematized knowledge that is
gathered by carefully observing and measuring phenomena. Psychologists carry out experiments
and make observations, which others can repeat; and they obtain data which others can verify.
This scientific approach is different from forming opinions on the basis of individual experiences
or arguing from premises that no one can test.

Research in psychology follows scientific procedures to collect, analyse, and interpret

information regarding the behaviour under study. Psychology is considered a science because it
uses systematic and precise methods of observation and measurement. Now that you have an
idea of what psychology is, we will now look at the basic goals of psychology.

Learning Activity:
Define psychology and give five reasons why it is a science.

1.4 Goals of Psychology

Psychology has four basic goals: to describe, explain, predict and change or modify behaviour.
In some studies psychologists attempt to describe behaviours by making careful scientific
observations. In other studies, they try to explain behaviour by conducting experiments to
determine their causes. For example, you may conduct a study to find out why teachers solicit
for bribes.

Learning Activities:
 What is a goal of psychology?
 State and explain the four major goals of psychology.

Psychologists use research information or findings to predict future behaviour. By knowing the
factors related to a particular behaviour, it is possible to predict when the behaviour is likely to
occur. Psychologists apply research findings to modify or change inappropriate behaviour or
circumstances. For example, by knowing that a teachers solicits for bribes because of poor pay,
you can try to encourage him or her to go for further studies so that he/she can get a salary
increment. Nevertheless, we can conclude by observing that the ultimate goal of psychology is
to gather knowledge for the benefit of humanity through research.

1.5 Historical Perspective of Psychology

Psychology emerged as a formal science slightly over a century ago. However, this does not
imply that psychology never existed before. Prior to the time it became a formal science; issues
related to psychology were studied as part of philosophy, sociology, and also physiology.

The development of psychology as a separate discipline was stimulated by the development of

research methodology appropriate to psychological questions. Thus, it became a separate
discipline when it acquired its methods of research. The contents of psychology have emerged
from the application of these methods. We shall discuss these methods in the subsequent lecture.

Psychology started as a formal discipline in the year 1879 when the first psychological
laboratory was established at the University of Leipzig by a German philosopher/psychologist
namely, Wilhelm Wundt. At about the same time, an American – William James set up his
laboratory in Cambridge, Massachusetts. These two are considered to be the founders of
experimental psychology.

Learning Activities:
 Who were the founders of experimental psychology?
 What factors contributed to the evolvement of experimental psychology?

Through all these years, psychology has evolved as a true science. It has also developed
different approaches/perspectives or conceptual models that have been used to study
behaviour. Each of the approaches provides a different perspective (way of explaining
behaviour) emphasizing different factors. These approaches which are also referred to as schools
of psychology will be discussed in a later lecture.
1.6 Importance of Psychology to teachers
Can the knowledge of psychology improve the way you deliver services to the public? Having
defined and seen the origin of psychology, we will now look at why it is an important area of
study for prospective teachers. The knowledge you are going to acquire in psychology can help
you as teachers to:
 Understand some of the problems related to teaching. For example, lack of morale among
teachers.
 Understand cause of behaviour, good or bad/criminal.
 Understand the factors that contribute to the learning of various behaviours according to
various theories of learning.
 Understand and appreciate individual differences among leaners. Teachers are different in
terms of intellectual, emotional, social and moral behaviour.
 Offer guidance and counselling to leaners on matters pertaining to their behaviours, career
development, social behaviour and so on.
 Identify learners’ problems and their causes. By knowing why a learner behaves the way
he/she does you can make an attempt to rectify the situation.
 To make attempt to correct criminal behaviour and rehabilitate criminals.
 Understand and appreciate the principles involved in teaching practices. You will be able to
apply these principles in the work environment.
 1.7 Summary

 Psychology is the scientific study of human behaviour and experience.

 Psychologists use scientific methods to investigate overt (observable) and covert
(unobservable) behaviours. The scientific approach insists on precision, consistency,
objectivity and reliability.
 The basic goals of psychology are to describe, explain, predict and change behaviour.
 Psychology emerged as a formal scientific discipline in the year 1879 when a German
philosopher/psychologist Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychological laboratory at
Leipzig in German.
 The teaching profession requires psychological knowledge such as information on
? Self-Assessment
behavioursQuestions
related to learning.

1. Explain the reasons why psychology is a scientific discipline

2. Identify and explain the major goals of psychology.
3. Give a brief account of how psychology evolved as a formal science.
4. As a prospective or practicing teachers, discuss how the knowledge of psychology can be
useful to you.

References

Bandura, A. and Walters, R. H. (1963). Social Learning and Personality Development. New
York: Holt, Reinhart and Winston.
Bateson, G., Jackson, D. D. Halley, J. and Weakland, J. H. (1956).Toward a theory of schizophrenia.
Behavioural Science, 1, PP 257 – 264.
Brain, C. (2002). Advanced psychology: Application, issues and perspectives. London: Nelson
Thornes Ltd.
Ellis, A. (1962). Reason and Emotion in Psychotherapy. New York: Stuart.
Fiedler, F. E. (1967). A theory of Leadership. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Frankl, V. E. (1960). Paradoxical intention: A Logotherapeutic technique.
 American Journal of Psychotherapy, 14, PP.520 – 535.
Gagne, R. Brigg, L. and Wagner, W. (1988). Principles of Instructional Design. New York:
Holt, Rinehard and Winston.
Gardner, H. (1986). From Testing Intelligence to Assessing Competencies: A Pluralistic View.
Roeper Review, 8(3), 147 – 150.

LECTURE 2

METHODS OF STUDY IN PSYCHOLOGY

2.1 Introduction

In the previous lecture, we defined psychology and discussed how it developed into a true
science with its own methods of study. In this lecture, we are going to discuss some of the
methods that have contributed to the knowledge we have in psychology today. The methods that
we are going to discuss are experimental and non-experimental methods.

2.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lecture you should be able to:

 Differentiate between various methods of studying behaviour.
 Give the advantages and disadvantages of various methods of studying human
behaviour.
 Discuss some of the ethical considerations to be made when studying human
behaviour.
 Apply various methods of study in the investigations of problems in the
profession of a police.
2.3 Experimental Research

What is experimental research? Weiten (1989) defines experimental research as a “Method in

which the investigator manipulates a variable under carefully controlled conditions and
observes whether there are changes in a second variable as a result”. Through an experiment a
researcher is able to isolate a single factor and examine its effect on a particular behaviour. Let
us look at some of the major components of experimental research.

The Hypothesis

Research in psychology begins by formulating a hypothesis which is an educated or informed

guess or a possible explanation for a behaviour being studied. It is usually expressed as a
prediction or a statement of cause and effect. A scientific hypothesis is based on facts and
theories that have been gathered and investigated by previous researchers. A theory is an
interrelated set of concepts that is developed in an attempt to explain a body of data and generate
testable hypotheses (Huffman, Vernoy, M. and Vernoy, J., 1995). A hypothesis is posed in a
way that indicates how the results can be measured. It may or may not be correct because it is
just a possible explanation of behaviour. Thus, it is subject to proof/verification through
scientific study. For example, there is a relationship between a teachers’ morale and
performance at the work place.

Learning Activity:
Give more relevant examples of hypotheses.

Variables
A variable is a factor that may vary or change. It can assume more than one value, for example
factors such as, weight, height, scores on a test, motivation, and so on. An independent variable
is the factor that is selected and manipulated by an experimenter and is independent of anything
the subject does. The experimenter can vary it as he thinks is necessary in terms of what he
wants to achieve. The second variable is the dependent variable. Dependent variable refers to
a measurable behaviour or outcome exhibited by the subject and is affected by the independent
variable. In other words, its value is dependent on the independent variable. It is what you
measure after varying or manipulating the independent variable. For example, let us assume that
the level of professional training of teachers have a direct effect on their performance in law
enforcement. The level of training would be the independent variable whereas the performance
in the battle field would be the dependent variable.

Learning Activities:
Give a definition and examples of the following components of experimental research:
 Hypothesis
 Dependent, independent and extraneous variables
 Experimental controls

The third type of variables is extraneous variable, that is, factors that may influence the results
if they are not adequately controlled. In the example given, such factors would include
intelligence, age, past experience and fatigue. Extraneous variables get in the way of the study
and make it look as though we found what we expected, even though we did not. They
confound (confuse) the results.

Experimental Controls

In an experiment, the researcher randomly assigns subjects to experimental and control groups.
The experimental group receives treatment with the aim of discovering whether the treatment has
a predictable effect on some outcome or behaviour (dependent variable). The control group
(non-treatment group) does not receive such treatment so as to ensure that any changes in the
dependent variable are due to the treatment administered. The two groups are expected to have
similar attributes or characteristics. The effect of the treatment is assessed by comparing the two
groups after treatment is given to the experimental group.

2.4 Non-Experimental Research Methods

What are the non-experimental research techniques and what are their advantages and
disadvantages? Sometimes it may not be feasible for ethical or practical reasons to study
behaviour experimentally. For this reason, a number of non-experimental techniques have been
devised. These include naturalistic observations, surveys, case studies and correlational studies.
Although none of these techniques can be used to determine cause and effect in behaviour
beyond doubt, they are useful in determining relationships between variables and in providing
information vital to make predictions about future behaviour.

Learning Activity:
List the risks of carrying out a study to find out how confinement of an innocent person to jail
could affect behaviour.

Naturalistic Observation
Naturalistic observation involves observing subjects without interfering with their natural situations or
environments. For example, observing the behaviour of police manning a road block. The researcher,
systematically records the behaviour of the subjects in their natural state or habitat. The subjects should
not detect that they are being observed or studied because their behaviour becomes unnatural when they
know that they are being observed. However, in other cases the observer may interact with the subjects
being observed in which case the behaviour may change and consequently lower the reliability of the
findings.

Learning Activity:
Make an observation checklist that you can use to differentiate between an innocent and a
guilty suspect.

Survey Research Method

In this method, a relatively large number of cases are studied in less depth. In a survey, the
subjects are asked specific questions about their behaviour or opinion, attitudes etc. Although a
small portion of the population is studied, a careful survey can provide accurate information
about how the large group of people feel about a particular issue. For example, one can conduct
a survey to find out how Kenyans feel about the behaviour of teachers, free education, and
examination system.
This method employs various techniques of data collection such as telephone, questionnaires and
interviews.

Learning Activities:
Respond to the following survey questions:
i. Have you ever solicited for a bribe? YES/NO
ii. Have you ever lied to you partner? YES/NO
iii. Have you ever forced a suspect to give evidence? YES/NO
iv. Why would a suspect be tempted to give false information?

In a survey, it is important that the sample used is representative of the target population to
which the results are going to be generalized.

Case Study Method

A case study involves an in-depth or detailed investigation of a single research subject or a
limited number of subjects. In a case study, many aspects of a subject are studied in detail in
order to account for the possible causes and effects of the behaviour under investigation. For
example, you may conduct a case study to find out why teachers go wild and kill themselves. In
your study, you may try to gather information about his/her home background, intellectual
ability, professional habits and skills, peer influence, motivation, interests and aspirations and so
on. Another good example is that of studying the behaviour of a teachers suffering from work
related trauma.

Correlational Studies
What is involved in the correlational method of studying behaviour? A correlation study
involves finding out the extend to which two sets of variables or factors are related. Correlation
refers to the relationship between variables. It looks at whether two variables are correlated or
associated and provides information about cause-and-effect. The correlation between the two
sets of variables is indicated by means of a correlation coefficient (numerical index of the
degree of relationship between two variables) which may be either positive or negative. A
correlation coefficient of zero indicates lack of relationship between the two sets of variables. A
positive correlation ranges from 0 to +1.0, whereas a negative one ranges from 0 to –1.0. A
correlation coefficient of +1.0 indicates perfect positive relationship. A correlation coefficient of
–1.0 indicates perfect negative relationship. The method of calculating correlation coefficient
will be discussed in a different module in the course of your study. However, if you are
interested on how it is done, you can refer to any statistics book.
A positive correlation implies that scores of both variables increases correspondingly as opposed
to negative correlation in which an increase in scores of one variable means a decrease in scores
of the other variable. For example, a positive correlation would be expected between:

 level of training and efficiency of the teachers

 high morale and the efficiency of the teachers
 performance in Kenya Certificate of Education (K.C.S.E.) examination and academic
performance in teachers science programme.
 learning facilities and academic performance.
 level of education and one’s income.
 Condition of working environment and job satisfaction.

Learning Activity:
List as many factors as possible that may correlate positively with criminal behaviour.

On the other hand, a negative correlation may be expected between:

 Low morale and the efficiency of the teachers

 Indiscipline and academic performance.
 Cost of education and learners’ dropout. This implies that the higher the cost of education
the bigger the number of children who will drop out of school.
An example of a situation where you may expect zero correlation would be between a
policeman’s height and accuracy in shooting. This means that one’s knowledge about a
policeman’s height cannot be used to predict his/her accuracy in shooting. However, a
correlation between two variables does not necessarily imply that one variable causes the other.
A third variable that was not taken into account may have contributed to the observed
relationship.

2.5 Ethics in Psychological Research

Why should study in psychology be governed by various ethics? Psychologists mostly use
human beings in their investigations. Experiments involving human beings may often entail
exposing them to painful, stressful or unpleasant experiences. The nature of a research may
expose subjects to risk or negatively affect the lives of the research participants. For example, it
would be unethical to conduct experiments to find out how false accusation and confinement can
affect a person.

To deal with problem of ethics in research, organizations such as the American Psychological
Association (APA) have developed a code of ethics for research in order to protect the subjects
and avoid violating human rights.

Some of the ethical considerations are:

 The right to privacy: Subjects have a right to conceal information about themselves that they
feel may be sensitive and private. To safeguard the privacy of subjects, the researcher should
obtain consent for participation from adults and consent from parents or teacherss for
children.
 The right to non-participation: A subject has the right to decline or discontinue from
participating in a research at any time.
 The right to remain anonymous: Subjects have the right to insist that their identities be
concealed. The identities of participants should not be a salient feature of the research. To
ensure this, researchers focus their interest in group data rather than individual data. Subjects
can also be identified by numbers rather than by names.
 The: Participants have a right to insist that data collected from them be treated with
confidentiality. To ensure this, researchers should list data by numbers rather than by names
and destroy the original questionnaires as soon as the study is completed.
 The right to be protected from physical or psychological harm: The researcher should be
sensitive to human dignity. He/she should ensure that subjects are not hurt by their
participation.
 The researcher should be open and honest to the participants. If the study requires
concealment or deception, the investigator should explain to the subjects the reasons for this
action and make an attempt to correct any undesirable consequences on the side of the
participants.
Psychologists who conduct research on animals are supposed to ensure that animals are not
subjected to unnecessary suffering unless the research findings are going to alleviate human
suffering.

2.5 Summary

 Research methodology includes the experimental approach that is used to investigate cause-
and-effect relationships and non-experimental approaches that provide description of
behaviour.
 An experiment begins with a hypothesis or possible explanation of behaviour. Independent
variables are the factors the researcher manipulates. Dependent variables are measurable
behaviours of the subjects resulting from the manipulation of the independent variable.
 Experimental controls includes assigning subjects to treatment and non-treatment groups
and holding extraneous variables constant.
 Naturalistic observation is used to study behaviour in its natural habitat.
 Surveys use mainly interviews or questionnaires to obtain information on a sample of
subjects selected from a large population.
 Case studies are in-depth investigations of single subjects.
 Experiments enable us to determine causes of behaviours.
 Correlational relationships enable us to predict behaviours and not to prove causation.
 Psychologists are expected to observe certain ethical guidelines to ensure that subjects do
? Self-Assessment Questions
not suffer unnecessarily.
1. Identify and discuss factors in your working environment that are likely to be correlated
positively to efficiency.
2. (a) Giving relevant examples, explain the following major components of the
experimental method of study:
 hypothesis.
  variables.
 experimental controls.
(b) Identify a problem in the teaching and explain how you can investigate it using
the experimental method of study.
3. (a) Why do psychologists who carry out studies on human beings
prefer the non-experimental research methods?
(b) What ethical considerations would you take into account when
studying problems related to the behaviour of Leaners?
4. Discuss the merits and demerits of the following methods of study:
 experimental
 naturalistic observation
 survey
 case study
 correlational
5. Explain four major methods of psychological research.

References

Berger, K. S. (2001). The Developing Person: Through the Life Span. New York: Worth
Publishers.
Burger, J. M. (1993). Personality (3rd ed.) Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Carver, C. S., &Scheier, M. F. (2000). Perspectives on Personality (4th ed.) Boston:
Allyn and Bacon.