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 ACHARYA N G RANGA AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE

STUDY MATERIAL
COURSE NO: PATH 373
CREDITS: 2 (1+1)

PRINCIPLES OF INTEGTRATED PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT

2019-20
(Entomology Portion)

EDITOR
Dr. CH. V. NARASIMHA RAO
Professor (Entomology)

Co - Editors
Dr S. Dayakar, Professor (Entomology) & Head
Dr P. Radhika, Professor (Entomology)

PREPARED AT
DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, RAJAMAHENDRAVARAM
 PATH 373 2 (1+1): PRINCIPLES OF INTEGTRATED PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT

Entomology Portion:

Theory - Entomology

9. Economic importance of insect pests. Pest risk analysis - Calculation and dynamics of
economic injury level and importance of Economic threshold level.

10. Methods of detection and diagnosis of insect pests – types of insect damage on crop plants
based on the types of mouth parts ( biting and chewing, piercing and sucking, lacerating and
sucking, siphoning and degenerate types)

11. Ecological management of crop environment - Ecological principles – importance of

ecosystem concept – ecological niche – Agro ecosystem components and services in
management of crop environment.

12. Introduction to conventional and botanical pesticides for the insect pests and disease
management.

13. Survey & surveillance and forecasting of Insect pests, Case histories of IPM programmes
– success stories. Development and validation of IPM modules for major crops – problem
identification – Research and development of IPMs – Modules for major Agricultural and
horticultural crops and validation.

14. Implementation and impact of IPM (IPM module for Insect pest) - IPM modules for major
field crops (paddy, sugarcane, cotton, pulses and ground nut) major vegetables (brinjal,
tomato, okra, cabbage and cauliflower), mango and coconut – Impact studies of IPM modules
and constraints in implementation.

15. Political, social and legal implication of IPM - Safety issues in pesticide uses – legislative
measures – Awareness about IPM, Farmers participation – Government support.

16. Safety issues in pesticide uses – Pesticide risk assessment, management and
communication, use in agriculture. Environmental impact – health effects – residues,
resurgence and resistance – effect on non target organisms – Strengths and weaknesses of
pesticides.

Practicals: Entomology

9. Methods of diagnosis and detection of various insect pests.

10. Identification, nature of damage and dynamics of important insect pests and their
management in different major crop ecosystems (paddy, maize, cotton, sugarcane,
groundnut, castor, mango, citrus, coconut, brinjal and tomato).

11. Agro Eco System Analysis in major field crops (paddy and cotton).
12. Ecological engineering for rice.

13. Methods of assessment of insect pests population, damage and crop yield losses and
calculation of cost benefit ratios (paddy/cotton).

14. Identification of natural biocontrol agents in different crop ecosystems.

15. Planning and assessment of insect pest preventive strategies (IPM module) and
decision making.

16. Awareness campaign at farmer’s fields.

References:

1. Dhaliwal, G. S. and Ramesh Arora 2001. Integrated pest management: Concepts

and approaches, Kalyani Publishers Ludhiana.

2. Metcalf, R. L .and Luckman, W. H. 1982. Introduction to insect pest management.

Wiley inter science publishing, New York.

3. Larry P Pedigo 1991. Entomology and pest management, Prentice Hall of India Private Ltd.,
New Delhi.

4. Venugopala Rao, N., Umamaheswari, T., Rajendraprasad, P., Naidu, V.G and Savithri, P.
2004. Integrated Insect Pest Management. Agrobios (India) Limited, Jodhpur.
Lecture No 9: Economic importance of insect pests. Pest risk analysis -
Calculation and dynamics of economic injury level and importance of Economic
threshold level.

A. BENEFICIAL INSECTS:
Insects which produce honey, wax, lac, dyes and silk are commercially beneficial.
Some insects are very helpful in destroying injurious insects.
1. Commercial Products:
Apis, the honeybees produce millions of tons of honey every year, it also gives bees
wax from its combs. Benefits of bees are cosmopolitan, not only in producing honey
and wax, but also in bringing about cross-pollination of many fruits and flowers
without which these plants could not exist.
Tachardia, the lac insect secretes commercial lac produced from integumentary
glands as a protective covering by females, shellac is made from lac in India.
Dactylopius, the cochineal insect of Mexico is found on cacti, dried bodies of females
of this scale insect are used for making cochineal dyes.
Bombyx and Anthareae are silk moths, they are reared in India, China, Japan and
Europe, their larvae called silk worms spin cocoon of raw silk. The silk fibre is reeled
off and used for making silk.
The larvae of two flies, Lucilla and Phormia are used in healing such wounds of
bones which do not respond to medicines, the larvae are put in wounds of bones
and bone marrow, they clear away suppurating and dead tissues, prevent bacterial
growth and excrete allantoin which heals the wounds.
2. Useful Predaceous Insects:
Some insects are predaceous, they feed upon and destroy a large number of
injurious insects. Stagomantis, a mantis is voracious, it feeds on flies, grasshoppers
and caterpillars, some of which are injurious to crops. The larvae and adults of
Chilomenes, a lady-bird beetle, feed on aphids which infect cotton plants.
Novius, a lady-bird bettle, destroys scale worms which are pests of orange and
lemon trees. Epicauta is a blister beetle, it deposits eggs where locusts occur, the
larvae on hatching enter egg capsules of locusts and eat up masses of eggs.
Calasoma, a ground beetle preys upon many kinds of lepidopterous larvae which
destroy cereals and cotton.
3. Beneficial Parasitic Insects:
Some insects parasitize injurious insects, they usually lay eggs in the bodies of
larvae and adults of harmful insects; the young on hatching from eggs finally kill
their hosts. The larvae of Tachina and related flies are parasites of injurious
lepidopterous larvae, such as army-worms which are injurious to cereals.
Larvae of hymenopteran flies and carnivorous wasps devour aphids in large
numbers. Chalcids and ichneumon flies are parasitic, laying eggs in cocoon and
larvae of phytophagous Lepidoptera. Apanteles, a hymenopteran fly lays eggs in
army-worms and boll worms, the parasitic larvae gnaw their way through the skin
of the host.
4. Scavengers:
Some insects are scavengers, they eat up dead animal and vegetable matter, thus,
they prevent decay. Some ants and larvae of some flies can devour entire animal
carcasses.

B. INJURIOUS INSECTS:
Compared with beneficial insects the number of injurious insects is very large.

1. Disease Transmitting Insects:

Many types of mosquitoes, flies, fleas, lice and bugs transmit diseases to man and
domestic animals, they have been described earlier in insects and diseases.

2. Household Insects:
Human food is spoiled by cockroaches, ants, flies and weevils. Tinea, Teniola and
Trichophaga are clothing moths, they lay eggs on warm clothes, the larvae on
hatching eat and destroy clothes, and they also feed on furs, carpets and dry fruits.
Anthrenus is a carpet beetle, it is a scavenger eating decaying animal matter, but its
larvae destroy carpets and preserved biological specimens.
Tenebrio is the mealworm beetle, its larvae are mealworms, and they eat meal, flour
and stored grains, such as rice. Lepisma, the silver fish and Liposcelis, the book louse
live in and destroy books and old manuscripts. Termites, the white ants cause
untold destruction of books, carpets, furniture and wood-work of buildings.

3. Injurious to Domestic Animals:

Glossina, the tsetse fly transmits Trypanosoma brucei which causes nagana in horses.
Tabanus and Stomoxys, the blood sucking flies inject Trypanosoma evansi into horses
and cattle which causes surra in India.
The larvae of Hypoderma, the warble fly bore below the skin of oxen and make holes
for breathing, then they pass through the gullet and again pierce the skin on the
sides of the spine to form swellings, they not only injure the hide but also reduce the
meat and milk supply.
Gasterophilus, the bot-fly lays eggs on hair of horse; the larvae enter the stomach in
large numbers. Melophagus, the sheep tick and Hippobosca, the forest fly of cattle
and horses suck blood of their hosts and often cause haemorrhage. Menopon, the
chicken louse sucks blood and causes destruction of fowls.

4. Injurious to Crops:
Many insects damage forest trees, growing farm crops, fruits and stored grain, the
damage they cause annually runs into millions of rupees.
The number of such insects is innumerable, they are mostly Lepidoptera,
Coleoptera, Diptera and Hemiptera. Euproctis, the brown tail moth and Lymantria,
the gypsy moth are serious pests of shade and foliage trees, their larvae are a
menace and destroy forest trees. Myetiola, the Hessian fly is a small sized midge, its
larvae damage wheat plants.
The larvae of two Lepidoptera Chilo in India, and Diatraea in America bore into
stems of sugar-cane and cause a great deal of damage. Pyrilla, a hemipteran sugar-
cane leaf hopper sucks the juice of sugar-cane, both as adult and nymph, causing
great loss of sugar.
Nephotettix, the Indian rice leaf- hopper and Leptocorisa, the oriental pest of rice
and millet are Hemiptera, they attack rice in very large number eating the leaves
and ears. Nymphs and adults of Hieroglyphus, an orthopteran eat up the growing
shoots of rice plants, thus, preventing formation of grain.
Dysdercus, the Indian cotton bug, Oxycarenus, the Egyptian cotton bug, and
Anthonomous the cotton-boll weevil are very injurious to cotton, they stain and
destroy cotton- bolls, Aphis, a hemipteran is a serious cotton pest in India, the pests
often attack cotton plants in large numbers causing the plants to wilt and die.
The larvae of two Lepidoptera, Agrotis and Phthorimae are potato cut-worms in
India, the former feeds on potato leaves and cuts off the stems, while the larvae of
the latter eat the potatoes in the field and stores, larvae also attack tobacco and
tomatoes. Larvae of Agrotis are also destructive to peas, cabbage, tobacco, ground
nuts, wheat and cauliflowers.
The larvae of some Coleoptera are called wire-worms, such as Agrotis and
Holotrichia, they are root-feeders and are extremely destuctive to cereals, root
crops and grasses. Many insects and their larvae destroy vegetables in India.
Earias the spotted bollworm destroys ladyfingers; Aulacophora, the red beetle feeds
on pumpkins; the larvae of Bruchus, a beetle bore into pods of beans and peas killing
the seed.
Many insects attack fruit trees, they damage roots, trunks, stems, leaves,
inflorescence and fruit. Drosicha, a mealy bug causes destruction of mangoes, plums,
papaya, jack fruit, pears and citrus fruits in India. The nymphs and adults of
Ideoscopus, a mango leaf hopper attack the inflorescence and suck the sap, thus, they
cause tremendous damage by preventing formation of mango fruit.

The larvae of Stenodiplosis fly feed on young pears which soon decay. Psylla, an
apple bug, lays eggs on apple and pear tree, the nymphs on hatching damage the
blossom and shoots; the larvae of Anthonomus, a beetle also destroy apple blossoms
and prevent formation of the fruit.

Many moths, caterpillars and beetle cause a great deal of damage to stored
grains:
Two beetles Tenebrio and Tribolium have similar habits and are commonly found
in stores and granaries, the former is found in all stages in meal, flour and stored
goods, its larvae are known as meal worms. Tribolium eats stored wheat and grain.
 Pest Risk Analysis (PRA)
Risk:-
✓ Combination of likelihood and impact
✓ How likely an event is to happen, and how much of an effect it would
have.
✓ So…
If an event cannot occur it cannot have an impact and there is no risk.
If an event is likely to occur but it will have no impact then there is no risk.

Risk analysis:-
A systematic way of gathering, evaluating, and recording information leading to
recommendations for a position or action in response to an identified hazard.

Pest risk analysis (PRA):-

The process of evaluating biological or other scientific and economic evidence to
determine whether a pest should be regulated and the strength of any phytosanitary
measures to be taken against it.
Pest risk analysis is set of activities, in which-
• The probability and the severity of impact of a particular pest is assessed
• The means of reducing these are evaluated, and the results of this review are
shared with those involved
• It helps to ensure that decisions on the control of imports and exports are
based on sound science, are related to the risks involved and have minimal
impact on trade.

Why is PRA done?

• To protect the country‟s agriculture from damages that can be caused by
harmful (quarantine) pests which can be brought in along with imported
commodities.
• To evaluate and manage risk from specific pests and internationally traded
commodities.
• Identify and assess risks to agricultural and horticultural crops forestry and
the environment from plant pests.
• To create lists of regulated pests.
• To produce lists of prohibited plants and plant products.
• To assist in identifying appropriate management options.

PRA Process

PRA is done in three stages:

Stage 1: Initiation
Stage 2: Pest Risk Assessment
Step 1: Pest Categorization
Step 2: Assessment of the Probability of Introduction
• Entry
• Establishment
• Spread
Step 3: Impacts
Step 4: Overall Assessment of Risk
Step 5: Uncertainty
Stage 3: Pest Risk Management
PRA Stage 1: Initiation
The initiation stage involves four steps:
✓ Determination whether an organism is a pest
✓ Defining the PRA area
✓ Evaluating any previous PRA
✓ Conclusion of initiation

Determination whether an organism is a pest

Pest identified or detected likely to pose threat to the agricultural economy and it
requires Phytosanitary Measures.
Identification of a pathway that presents a potential pest hazard like
augmentation of International Trade of a new variety of a commodity.
Review or revision of phytosanitary policies and priorities by the Government of
a country.

Defining the PRA area

PRA area to be defined normally the whole importing country information
gathering is an essential element of all stages of PRA.
To clarify the identity of the pest(s), its/their present distribution and association
with host plants, commodities, etc.
Information for PRA may come from various sources.
Official information regarding pest status is an obligation under the IPPC (Art.
VIII.1c) to be provided by the NPPO or Official contact points.

Conclusion of initiation
At the end of Stage 1, the pests and pathways of concern and the PRA area would
have been identified.

Relevant information has been collected and pests have been identified as
possible target for phytosanitary measures, either individually or in association
with a pathway.

PRA Stage 2: pest risk assessment

There are three steps to the assessment of pest risk.
Step 1: Pest categorization
The purpose of pest categorization is to determine whether a pest identified during
the initiation stage satisfies the criteria of being a quarantine pest. A quarantine pest
is a pest of potential economic importance to the area endangered thereby and not
yet present there, or present but not widely distributed and being officially
controlled.

The categorization step provides an opportunity to eliminate a pest from analysis

at an early stage in the pest risk analysis process thus avoiding unnecessary in-
depth examination. Pest categorization can be done with relatively little
information, provided that the information available is sufficient to carry out the
categorization.

Step 2: Assessment of pest entry, establishment and spread.

In a pest risk analysis initiated by a specific pathway, often an imported commodity
or goods associated with an imported commodity, e.g. packing materials, the
probability of pest entry is evaluated for that specific pathway. For a pest risk
analysis initiated for a specific pest, all probable pathways are evaluated for that
individual pest.
To estimate the likelihood of establishment of a pest, biological information about
the pest including its life cycle, its hosts or habitat needs, or a diseases epidemiology,
together with characteristics of the abiotic environment affecting pest survival such
as temperature, precipitation and perhaps soil type affecting its geographic range
limit need to be considered.

Step 3: Assessment of potential consequences resulting from pest entry,

establishment and spread.
In this step the potential impacts that could be expected to result from a pest's
introduction and spread is identified, described and, as much as possible, quantified.
Information on the species impacts in areas where it is already present, and
particularly in areas where it has already spread to, together with information
influencing the elements of risk in the pest risk analysis area, inform the assessment
of potential consequences.
Recognising that risk is a combination of likelihood and consequences, the results
of steps 2 and 3 are combined to provide an overall estimation of pest risk.
 Fig 1: Pest Risk Analysis Flow Chart
PRA stage 3: Pest Risk Management
Pest risk management to protect the endangered areas should be proportional to
the risk identified in the pest risk assessment. In most respects it can be based on
the information gathered in the pest risk assessment. Phytosanitary measures
should be applied to the minimum area necessary for the effective protection of the
endangered area.
Risk Management Options
A list of options for reducing risks to an acceptable level should be assembled. These
options will primarily concern pathways and in particular the conditions for
permitting entry of commodities. Examples of the options to consider are:
• inclusion in list of prohibited pests
• phytosanitary inspection and certification prior to export
• definition of requirements to be satisfied before export (e.g.
treatment, origin from pest free area, growing season inspection,
certification scheme)
• inspection at entry
• treatment at point of entry, inspection station or, if appropriate, at
place of destination
• detention in post-entry quarantine
• post-entry measures (restrictions on use of commodity, control
measures)
• prohibition of entry of specific commodities from specific origins.
CALCULATION AND DYNAMICS OF EIL AND IMPORTANCE OF ETL
Economic injury level:
The lowest population density that will cause economic damage or The smallest number
of insects (amount of injury) that will cause yield losses equal to the insect management
costs.
Economic threshold:
The pest density at which management action should be taken to prevent an increasing
pest population from reaching the economic injury level."
The pest population at which control measures should be initiated to prevent
population rising above economic injury level also called as action threshold level.
EILs are usually expressed as a pest density and are developed from yield-loss
relationships derived from field research studies. The EIL has been described as the
break-even point, the level of pest a plant can tolerate, among other things. The main
thing is that we want to manage the pest population before it reaches the EIL. That is
where the ET comes in.

Economic damage:- Economic damage is the most elementary of the EIL elements, being
defined as "the amount of injury which will justify the cost of artificial control
measures."

GEP (General equilibrium position):- The average density of a population over a long
period of time, around which the pest population tends to fluctuate due to biotic and
abiotic factors and in the absence of permanent environmental changes.
or
The average population density of insect population over a long period of time
unaffected by temporary interventions of pest control. ETL<EIL

Diagram showing relationship of the damage

boundary to economic loss and the gain threshold
Another useful damage level to consider is the damage boundary, also called the damage
threshold. The damage boundary is the lowest level of injury that can be measured.
This level of injury occurs before economic loss. Expressed in terms of yield, economic
loss is reached at the gain threshold, threshold is beyond the damage boundary. For high
value commodities, the damage boundary may be very close to the gain threshold.
The density at which control measures should be applied to prevent an increasing pest
population from attaining the EIL is referred to as the economic threshold (ET) (or an
“action threshold”). Although the ET is defined in terms of population density, it actually
represents the time for instigation of control measures.

Insect pests may be described as being one of the following:

Fig.3. Schematic graphs of the fluctuations of theoretical insect populations in relation to
their
general equilibrium population (GEP), economic threshold (ET), and economic injury
level (EIL).
From comparison of the general equilibrium density with the ET and EIL, insect
populations
can be classified as: (a) non-economic pests if population densities never exceed the ET
or EIL;
(b) occasional pests if population densities exceed the ET and EIL only under special
circumstances; (c) perennial pests if the general equilibrium population is close to the ET
so that the ET and EIL are exceeded frequently; or (d) severe or key pests if population
densities always are higher than the ET and EIL. In practice, as indicated here, control
measures are instigated before the EIL is reached.

Economic Injury level (EIL): It is defined as the lowest population density that will
cause economic damage or the critical density where the loss caused by the pest
equals the cost of control measures. It is the minimum pest population which causes
economic injury. The pest population level at which expenditure on control measure
is just balanced by value of increased yield resulting from control of pest.
EIL can be calculated by using the following formula

𝐶
EIL =
𝑉𝐼𝐷𝐾
EIL = Economic Injury level in insects / Production or insects / ha
C= cost of management activity per unit production (Rs/ha)
V= Market value per unit yield (Rs/tonne)
I = Crop injury per insect (percent defoliation or percent fruit change)
D= Damage or yield loss per unit injury ( Tonne loss or % defoliation)
K= proportional reduction in injury from pesticide use.

Worked Ex.
Calculate EIL in terms of pest population/ ha with the following figures.
C= management cost per unit area = Rs 3000/ha
V= market value (in Rs/ unit product) =Rs 1000/tonne
I= crop injury / Pest density = 1% defoliation /100 insect
D= Loss caused by unit injury = 0.05 tonne loss/ 1%defoliation
K = Proportionate reduction in injury by pesticide application = 0.8 (80% control)

𝐶 3000
EIL = 𝑉𝐼𝐷𝐾 = 1000×0.01×0.05×0.8

EIL is influenced by the

a) Market value of the crop (C): When crop volume increases, EIL decreases and
vice versa
b) Management of injury per insect (I): When management cost increases, EIL
also increases
c) Degree of injury per insect (D):
a) Insect damaging leaves or reproductive pest have different EIL(Lower EIL for
pest damages).
b) If insects are vectors of diseases EIL is very low (1 or 2).
c) If insects are found on fruits – EIL low.
d) Crop susceptibility to injury (I):
• If the crop can tolerate the injury and gives good yield. EIL can be fixed
at higher volume.
• When the crop is older, it can with stand high population- EIL can be
high.

Pests:- A pest is any organism whose population increases to the extent that it starts
causing annoyance, inconvenience or injury to man, his animals, plants and materials
possessions. A pest may be an insect, mite, nematode, bird, rodent, fungus, bacterium,
weeds or any other organisms.
CATEGORIES OF PESTS
Based on occurrence, following are pest categories
1. Regular pest: Frequently occurs on crop - Close association e.g. Rice stem borer,
Brinjal (eggplant) fruit borer
2. Occasional pest: Infrequently occurs, no close association e.g. Caseworm on rice,
Mango stem borer
3. Seasonal pest: Occurs during a particular season every year e.g. Red hairy caterpillar
on groundnut, Mango hoppers
4. Persistent pests: Occurs on the crop throughout the year and is difficult to control e.g.
Chilli thrips, mealy bug on guava
5. Sporadic pests: Pest occurs in isolated localities during some period. e.g. Coconut slug
caterpillar

Based on level of infestation

1. Epidemic Pest: Sudden outbreak of a pest in a severe form in a region at a particular
time e.g. Whitefly outbreak in Punjab, Sugarcane woolly aphid in Karnataka
2. Endemic pest: Occurrence of the pest in a low level in few pockets, regularly and
confined to particular area e.g. Rice gall midge infestation in coastal Karnataka, Red
headed hairy caterpillar on groundnut (peanut) in Karnataka
Lecture No.10: Methods of detection and diagnosis of insect pests – types of insect
damage on crop plants based on the types of mouth parts ( biting and chewing, piercing and
sucking, lacerating and sucking, siphoning and degenerate types)
Damage caused by insect pests having different types of mouth parts and the
damage symptoms:
Insects utilize the plants to derive their nutrition or as a habitat. The plants sustain
injury to satisfy the requirements of insects. Such injury to the plants by the insects is
reflected as economic loss to the farmers. The nature of injury/damage to the plant is
related to the feeding habits of the insect. The peculiarity of mouth parts and
mechanism/type of feeding determine to a larger extent the pest management
strategies including the type of pesticide to be used. The nature and symptoms of
damage caused by insects based on their feeding habits according to the modification
of their mouthparts is furnished hereunder.
1. Biting and Chewing type:
They are adapted for biting and chewing of the plant material. They bite leaves, buds,
bracts, slender twigs etc, chew the bitten portions and swallow them. Leaves may be
eaten up completely leaving only a network of veins.
Eg: Grasshoppers, caterpillars, beetles. They can be controlled effectively with
stomach poisons when taken in along with food. Based on the nature of damage,
chewing insects can be classified into different groups as mentioned below.

1. Stem borers:
Larvae enter in to the stem and feed on internal contents. As a result, damaged part
is cut off from the main plant and affected part wilts, dries up and exhibits symptoms
like dead heart during vegetative stage and white ear during reproductive stage in
case of paddy due to larval feeding inside the stem and they can be easily pulled out
and bunchy top in case of sugarcane (destruction of growing point results in the
activation of side buds, just below the growing point and produces a bunch of side
shoots called bunchy top).
Eg: Stem borers of paddy, millets, sugarcane and brinjal
2. Shoot borers:
Larvae attack tender shoots and bore inside during vegetative stage of crop growth
and cause wilting, drooping of terminal plant parts which later dry up.
Eg: Shoot borers of brinjal, bhendi, cotton and castor
3. Defoliators/Skeletonizers:
Larvae feed on the leaves completely leaving only midrib/veins or scrape the
chlorophyll content of leaves or cause numerous holes.
Eg: Castor semilooper, ash weevils, tobacco caterpillar, epilachna beetle on brinjal.
4. Leaf miners:
Larvae mine leaves/leaflets between the epidermal layers and feed on greenish
matter, resulting in the appearance of translucent mines/white patches/zig-zag
galleries
Eg: leaf miners of citrus, Cashew and Rice hispa.
5. Leaf Webbers:
Larvae webs leaves/leaflets by means of silken threads and feed on the chlorophyll
content by remaining within the web. Often faecal pellets/frass are found within the
web. Eg: Leaf Webbers on gingelly, groundnut, sapota, mango and cashew shoot and
blossom webber.
6. Leaf folders:
Larvae fold leaves from tip to base /longitudinally /margin to margin there by giving
appearance of a fold/roll and scrape the chlorophyll content remaining within the fold.
Eg: rice leaf folder, Cotton leaf roller (Bell shaped rolling of leaf).
7. Gall makers:
Larvae feeding inside the stem/tiller/leaf/flower bud stimulates excessive growth of
cells at the affected portion and distorts normal growth. It results in malformation of
plant parts, exhibiting gall formation and gives shelter for the pest.
Examples:
Sunhemp stem borer: caterpillar causes gall like swelling on stem and profuse
branching occurs at affected portion of stem.
Tobacco stem borer: caterpillar mines into the leaf axil and then in to stem, bored
stems become hollow, swollen and forms a gall.
Cotton stem weevil: Grub tunnels round the stem feeding on the soft tissue and this
results in the formation of gall like swelling at the site of injury.
Amaranthus stem weevil: Hypolixus truncatulus twisting and swelling of branches
and stems.
8. Pod/capsule borers/boll worms:
During the reproductive stage of the crop larvae enter in to the pods, capsules and
feed on the seeds/lint exhibiting symptoms like webbed condition of pods /bolls or web
few pods/capsules with frass and excreta or holes of different sizes and
shapes/damaged tissues (chilli/lint on Cotton).
Examples:
Spotted pod borer: It enters into pod near the pedicle and feeds on the ripening seeds
by remaining inside the pod, at the entrance hole , a mass of dried excreta can be
seen.
Capsule borers of castor and gingelly: Webbing of capsules and holes on pods
plugged with excreta.
Tobacco caterpillar: Irregular holes on pods with excreta inside.
Gram caterpillar: Damaged pods with round holes.
Pink bollworm: Rosette flower and double seed.
9. Fruit borers:
Larvae enter into the tender fruits and feed on fresh matter/pulp and plug the larval
burrow with excreta. Eg: Fruit borer of brinjal/bhendi/tomato, mango stone weevil,
Cashew apple and nut borer.
10. Bark borers:
Larvae remain in a small tunnel at the axils of branches, under the bark constructing
galleries of frassy web on the stem and near bark/angles of branches and move about,
conceal inside the silken gallery and feed on the bark by scraping.
Eg: Bark eating caterpillars of citrus, mango, guava, casuarina, jack etc.
11. Tree borers:
Larvae bore deep into the tree trunk, make the tunnels in zig-zag manner and feed on
inner tissues, arresting translocation of sap to top portions of tree, there by the tree
exhibits symptoms like yellowing, withering of leaves, drying of twigs or complete
drying of tree. Sometimes, gummy material oozes from the affected portion on the tree
trunk. Eg: Tree borers of mango, cashew, coconut red palm weevil etc
12. Root feeders:
Larvae feed on roots/root nodules resulting in stunted growth/poor tillering /drying of
plants in isolated patches.

Examples:
Rice root weevil: Grub feeds on epidermis of stem and later enters in to soil and
feedon roots. Affected plant turns yellow and stunted. Tillering is poor.
White Grubs: Devour secondary roots leaving supporti ng root only. As a result leaves
of affected plants turn pale, droop down and ultimately wither off. Cut end of affected
stem of collapsed plant swells, a characteristic diagnostic symptom .Drying of plants
in patches.
Banana Rhizome weevil: grubs tunnel through pseudo stem and rhizome making
circular hole, which increase in size with the growth of grubs. Plants break down at
tunneled portion/ plant bears few fruits and suckers. Circular holes with black rotten
tissue of rhizome plugged with excreta.
Termites in:
Paddy - feed on roots, foliage, stem and fallen heads
Sorghum - feed on roots and stem resulting in wilting and death of plant
Groundnut- feed on main stem which is bored at or just below the ground level.
Mature and developing pods are also penetrated and filled with mud.
Sugarcane- enter the sets through buds and cut ends and devour the inner portion,
roots are also damaged. Sometimes earthen sheeting at the base of plant, mud filled
galleries in shoots, drying of shoots.
Potato- tubers are damaged
Mango- construct mud galleries on tree trunk, if earthen sheet is removed, eaten bark
of trees is observed. Young plants will die and dry up.
Coconut –construct mud galleries on trunk. Bark and stem are eaten below the mud
galleries. Nursery and transplanted fields show wilting of central shoot and stunted
growth.
13. Seed feeders (Stored grain pests):
Grubs/larvae and adults feed on stored seeds either internally /externally by webbing
the food [Link]: Rice weevil, red flour beetle, rice moth etc.,

The symptoms of damage caused by biting & chewing insects is furnished

below.
a) Defoliation/Skeletonization/ Scraping of leaves:
Early larval instars of large number of Lepidopteron pests with gregarious behavior
feed on leaves by scraping the chlorophyll content and gives papery/scorched
appearance leaving membranous cuticular layer and stout veins. Such feeding leads
to skeletonization. Eg:Tobacco caterpillar,Bihar hairy caterpillar, Red hairy caterpillar
b) Uneven cuts on leaf margins:
Eg: Grasshoppers on various crops, larvae of mustard saw fly on cruciferous crops
c) Uneven scraping of leaf surface (lace like):
Eg: Grubs and adults of Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata on cucurbits,
solanaceous and leguminous crops.
d) Small white streaks parallel to midrib on rice leaves: Eg: Adults of Rice Hispa
e) Tubular cases attached to leaf/ floating in water in rice fields:
Eg: Larvae of case worm
f) Shot holes on leaves:
Eg: Larvae of sorghum and sugarcane stem borers, Adults of flea beetle on
blackgram/greengram ,Phyllotrea sp on crucifers , Larvae of Anomis sabulifera on jute
g) Scraping and gnawing of base of stem:
Eg: Plutella xylostella on mustard and rape, Spodoptera litura on potato.
2. Piercing and Sucking Type
Planthoppers, leafhoppers, thrips, paddy gundhy bug, red cotton bug, sorghum ear
head bug, aphids, mealy bugs, scales and whiteflies possess piercing and sucking
type of mouth parts. However, they cause different types of symptoms on different
crops based on their site and extent of feeding. Both nymphs and adults suck sap from
base of the plant /leaves /tender terminal plant parts and thereby affect the vigour and
growth of plants. In case of severe infestation, sooty mould develops on plant parts
covered with honey dew excreted by insects while feeding.
Different insects exhibit different symptoms.
These insects cause hopperburn, discolouration, curling of leaves, necrosis on leaf
margins and their eventual weakening and death of plant parts. They may also attack
young twigs and other parts of the plant and cause them to dry up. As these insects
take their food from inside the plant, stomach poisons are not effective, unless
insecticide is a systemic toxicant. Contact poisons are more effective.
a) Hopper burn:
Plant hoppers viz Nilaparvata lugens and Sogatella furcifera of Delphacidae are
known to cause hopper burn on Rice, a monocotyledon crop .
Leafhoppers belonging to the genus Empoasca of Cicadellidae are known to cause
hopper burn on dicotyledon crops like cotton, okra, castor, brinjal, potato, beans etc.
The general symptoms of hopper burn caused by planthoppers and leaf hoppers is
furnished hereunder.
Plant hoppers:- Yellowing of older leaf blades, progressive yellowing of all the plant
parts, plants turn brown and die in patches.
Leaf hoppers: -Wilting of leaf tips in very young plants, chlorosis/necrosis on leaf
margins, complete drying of leaves & wilting, premature leaf drop, stunted growth of
plants.

Differences in feeding behavior between Plant and leafhoppers

Plant Hoppers (Delphacidae) Leaf hoppers (Cicadellidae)

Suck sap from phloem element of Suck sap from mesophyll paranchymatic
monocotyledons cells/phloem elements either from
stems/from veins
The damage is mainly through No such true salivary sheaths. The
mechanical plugging of sieve elements damage is mainly through mechanical
with salivary sheaths (true sheaths were wounding of cells.
formed)
Confined only to stems Change their feeding sites
according to the situation
Hind tibia contain a movable spur

Hopper burn in Groundnut:

a)Whitening of veins is the first symptom due to feeding from lower surface of leaflets,
chlorotic (yellow) patches then appear especially at the tips of leaflets, probably
caused by a reaction between jassids salivary secretion and plant sap. Under severe
infestation, the leaf tips become necrotic in a typical “V” shape, giving the crop a
scorched appearance known as hopper burn.
Eg: Groundnut jassids
b) Curling of leaf margins/with necrotic patches Starting from leaf margin –Cotton leaf
hopper
c) Uniform yellowing of leaves from mid half -Paddy leaf hopper
d) Reduced vigour/sooty mold, squaer/bolldrop -White flies on cotton
e) Yellowing /reduced/stunted growth/sooty mould -Aphids
f) Shriveled/chaffy and discolored grains/sooty mould on grain -Sorghum ear head
bug/rice gundhy bug
g) Mottled appearance with yellow patches on infested leaves/sooty
mould/undeveloped grains on infested ear heads -Sorghum aphids
i) Gradual wilting and drying of ragi plants in patches -Ragi root aphids
3. Rasping and Sucking / Lacerating and Sucking Type:
Thrips are characterized by this type of mouth parts. Due to the peculiarity of mouth
parts and their mechanism of action in rasping the tissues, exudation of juice from
inside the plant takes place and it is sucked by thrips. The damaged part of the plant
exhibit a whitish mottled/silvery appearance. Such insects can be controlled both by
stomach and contact poisons.
a) Groundnut:
Nymphs and Adults suck sap from the surface of the leaf lets. This results initially in
white patches on the upper surface and necrotic patches on lower surface of the
leaves. It consists of distortions of the young leaflets and patchy areas of necrotic
tissue that puncture and split as leaf lets grow. Injury is normally seen in seedlings. In
severe infestation, particularly in winter crop (November sown in South India) , leaf
distortion causes stunted plants. The effect of such damage on yields is not precisely
known, but is not serious.
b) Onion:
Presence of pale white blotches on leaves, gradually change to brown spots followed
by gradual drying of leaves from tip down wards. Growth of tubers decreases resulting
in yield loss –Onion thrips
c) Chillies:
Infested leaves start curling upward, crumbling and drop down. Wilting and drying of
plants under severe infestation
d) Blackgram:
Leaves curl up, crumble, become brittle and plant growth retards .Infested flower buds
do not develop in to pods.
e) Rice:
Rolling of leaf terminals/yellow reddish and scorched leaf tips/rolling of entire length of
all leaves.
4. Sponging and sucking or Lapping and sucking Type:
Dipterans (Houseflies) possess above mentioned type of mouth parts. These are not
pests of Agricultural importance.
5. Chewing and Lapping Type: Hymenopterans (Honey bees) possess above
mentioned type of mouth parts. These are not pests of Agricultural importance.
6. Siphoning/simple sucking Type:
Adult stages of moths and butterflies possess this type of mouth parts, while the
caterpillars possess the biting and chewing type of mouth parts. In larval stage they
cause extensive damage. Stomach poisons can effectively control the larval stages.
In general, adult stages of moths and butterflies are not harmful. However, adults of
certain moths can cause damage to certain fruits.
Fruit feeders: Adults suck juice from ripened fruits with the help of proboscis resulting
in minute holes consequently resulting in rotting due to infections whereas larvae feed
on the weeds belonging to the family Menispermaceae.
Eg: Adults of Citrus fruit sucking moths and Castor semilooper

7. Degenerate type of mouth parts:

Maggots of Diptera possess above mentioned type of mouth parts

Gall formers:

Paddy Gall Midge: Maggot feeds on growing point which stimulates the leaf sheath
to form a hollow pale green cylindrical tube similar to onion leaf/ silver shoot /gall.
Affected tiller do not bear panicles. Infestation in early period of crop induces vigorous
subsidiary tillering.
Gingelly gall fly: Maggots feed on the ovary which results in the malformation of pod
without proper setting of seeds.
Mango inflorescence midge: Three species of midges damage the inflorescence
Procystiphora mangiferae: The maggots feed on stalks of stamens, anthers, and
ovary.
Dasineura amaramanjarae: The maggots feed inside the buds and they fail to open
and drop down.
Erosomyia indica: The maggots attack the inflorescence stalk, flower buds and small
developing fruits. The inflorescence becomes stunted and malformed and the buds do
not open.
Mango leaf galls: Procantarina matteriana Small raised wart like galls on tender
leaves. Affected leaves deformed and drop prematurely.
Chilli Midge: Asphondylia capsici
Unopened buds are affected. Flowers dry and drop . Pods are deformed.
Coccinia gall fly: Neolasioptera cephalandrae
Elongated galls/swelling of distal stems in between the nodes. If cut open, gall shows
maggots presence.
Jasmine blossom midge: Contarinia maculipennis Swelling at the base of buds.
Stunting, finally drying of plant.
Shoot borers: Larvae attack tender shoots and bore inside during vegetative stage
of crop growth and cause wilting, drooping of terminal plant parts which later dry up.
Eg: Shoot fly of sorghum and black gram stem fly
Pod Borers: Maggot feeds under the epidermis for some time then enters the seed
and consumes only part of the seed. Affected seed gets discoloured due to bacterial
and fungal infections and becomes unfit for consumption. No visual symptoms are
present on pods initially, but only after adult emergence, a minute hole can be seen
on pod. Eg: Redgram Pod fly
Fruit feeders: Larvae feed on fruits resulting in holes plugged with excreta/ forming
necrotic patches /rotting. Eg: Fruit flies on cucurbits, Mango fruit fly, Ber fruit fly
Rhizome borers: Maggots mine into mid rib of leaves and enter in to rhizome through
petiole resulting in rotting of rhizome and dead hearts. Eg: Turmeric rhizome fly.

Lecture No 11. Ecological management of crop environment - Ecological principles –

importance of ecosystem concept – ecological niche – Agro ecosystem components and
services in management of crop environment.
 In addition to natural enemies, many other aspects of the crop environment
greatly influence insect numbers and have the potential to aid in pest management. To
understand these other factors, we must recount the ecological basis of insect problems.
Crop production in an area alters the species occupying the space, modifies soil, water
and topography. The practices of crop growth like tillage, fertilization, cultivation and
irrigation provides a favourable habitat for some insects and other organisms. With
supply of new requisites or additional amounts of existing requisites, reproductive rates
and survival rates of unwanted population increase and pest activities lead to reduced
crop output.
At first, producers are preoccupied with new crop and cultural activities and are
little concerned for potential pests. Pest species become adapted to the new environment,
pest population grow, losses increase and finally attention must be given to alleviating
these difficulties.
One of the oldest approaches to deal with these emerging problems is to modify
the established production scheme and technique to make the crop environment less
favourable for the pest.
Ecological management:
Modifying the crop environment through changes in production techniques is
cultural control which was followed historically. Ecological management is based on a
thorough understanding of pest ecology i.e. i) pest’s ecological requisites ii) availability
of these requisites iii) insect behaviour in attaining requisites.

Major requisites are: Food, space, shelter from extreme weather and enemies, physical
environment.
The idea behind ecological management is to find ‘weak links’ in the insect seasonal cycle
and exploit them.
Weak links may be:
Modifying the food source may produce profound effects on the pest species because it
provides both nutrients and space for reproduction.
Modifying the physical environment i.e. activities like soil tillage and debris removal
expose insects to intolerable weather extremes.
Ex: Manipulation of temp. and humidity modify the physical environment in stored grain.

Ecological principles:
A. Reducing the average favourability of the ecosystem
B. Disrupting the continuity of requisite food sources
C. Diverting pest population from the crop
D. Reducing the impact of insect injury.

[Link] AVERAGE FAVOURABILITY OF THE ECOSYSTEM

Ecosystem is interaction of biotic and abiotic elements both in the crop and in associated
non agricultural habitats. The level of availability of requisites determines the pest
severity. Hence, the pest density can be reduced by reducing the average availability of
food, shelter and habitable space.
[Link]: Removal of debris from the habitats reduce rates of reproduction and
survival because many species breed and overwinter in the debris.
Methods of sanitation:
1. Crop residue destruction and utilization: Destroying or removing crop residues
eliminate pest over wintering and reduce the spread. Crop residue destruction is
done by ploughing, shredding, chopping or by burning or chemical treatment or
can be fed to live stock.
Limitation: Cost of destruction and usefulness of residues in soil conservation.
Ex: Pink bollworm in cotton can be effectively eliminated by this crop residue destruction
because the pupal stages which are inside the crop residues get destroyed.
Removal of vines and infested tubers in potato can manage potato tuber worm
Pthorimaeaopercullela and sweet potato weevil Cylasformicarius
Removal of dropped fruits in orchards reduce infestation by several insects such as fruit
flies.
2. Elimination of animal wastes: Disposal of animal wastes in and around livestock
reduces food and habitat for developing fly larvae.
3. Efficient storage and processing: Cleaning facilities and eliminating spillage
avoid losses due to stored pests. Maintaining cool, dry atmosphere is necessary to
prevent infestations of stored grain pests such as Angoumois grain moth
Sitotrogacerealella
ii. Destruction or modification of alternate hosts and habitats:
Many insect pests have requirements that cannot be met by the crop itself and there is a
need to move to other foods during certain parts of year. If these alternate hosts and
habitats are destroyed, insect numbers can be reduced.
Ex: The most important source of infestations in sorghum and sudangrass in the United
States seem to be from Johnsongrass. Weed burning reduced the pest numbers.

iii. Obscuring host presence:

Obscuring the acceptable host significantly reduce the pest infestation.
Ex: Western flower thrips Frankliniellaoccidentalis find proper host through visual cues
in ULV light spectrum. A tactic that can obscure ULV light can potentially prevent the
hostfrom being found. Use of metalized plastic mulch reflects ULV tending to hide the
crop from thrips.
IV. Tillage:
Major cultural activity that eliminates plant refuse and destroy alternate pest habitats.
Tillage also changes the physical environment of insects inhabiting the soil. Timing and
tillage depth are important. The objective is to move insects when they are helpless from
favourable location to unfavourable location i.e. either during pupation or dormancy.
V. Irrigation and water management:
Immature wireworms which attack germinating plants and underground plant parts can
be managed by flooding for 6 weeks or more. Sprinkler irrigation suppresses potato tuber
moth P. operculella and DBM.
B. DISRUPTING THE CONTINUITY OF PEST REQUISITES
Insect pest problems originate with the establishment of agro ecosystem and because of
the uninterrupted supply of requisites. Manipulating crop species in time and space
eliminates pest requisites.
I. Reduce continuity in space:
The focus is on crop planning and where to place crop plants relative to each other and
in relation to other crops.
1. Crop spacing: Spacing can affect the relative growth rate of plants and the
development of environments favourable to insect population growth. Plants placed
close together create closed canopies that aid in insect movement, a situation that may
be favourable for pests as well as natural enemies.
Corn ear worms prefer open canopies and colonize late planted and wide- row soybeans
most readily. Early planting in narrow rows reduce the infestation. High humidities in
close canopy have enhanced epidemics of pathogenic fungus Nomuraea rileyi
2. Crop location: In planning crop location, field size and sources of insects that will
colonize the proposed crop should also be considered. Many insects can move quickly
from one field to the next and between botanically related crops to attain their requisites.
Less mobile and weak flying species feed outside the field and cause injury in definite
edge pattern i.e. the edge effect. Active insects that are strong fliers produce injury
throughout the field.
As a thumb rule, the wise choice is to locate dissimilar crops adjacent to one another to
moderate (minimize) the pest movement.
Ex: Locating soybean adjacent to corn (A legume next to grass) is a good choice. Planting
soybeans next to alfalfa invites injury from potato leaf hoppers in soybean first and they
move into soybean when alfalfa is clipped for hay.
II. Upset chronological continuity:
The approach is to create a gap in time in the insect food source where space is held
constant.
1. Crop rotation: The most important method of providing discontinuity to pest to rotate
from one crop to another in alternate plantings. The practice of crop rotation actually
developed from a desire to improve soil structure and fertility. Benefits in pest
management have been mostly coincidental to this main purpose.
Crop rotations are successful when the pest has a narrow host range; eggs are laid before
the new crop is planted; the feeding stage is not very mobile.
Ex: Rotating corn with soybean controls the root worm larva Diabrotica virgifera virgifera
by rotating corn with soybean for every 2 years.
Rotations also have been successful for white grubs.
2. Crop fallowing: Fallowing practices are generally used to allow increase of soil
moisture and fertility for growing crops. Although fallowing is not always practical, it can
be effective against certain insect pests.
Ex: Wire worms get reduced by summer fallow practices.
3. Disrupting crop and insect synchrony: The reason for and insect to become pest on
given crop is because the insect seasonal cycle is synchronized with the seasonal cycle of
these crops. If crop phenology (timing of biological events like emergence, flowering,
fruiting and seed maturity) can be changed to be asynchronous with insect events as egg
laying and larval development, insect numbers or injury can be reduced.
Changes in crop phenology is accomplished by planting alternate varieties of the same
crop, changing planting dates or clipping.
Ex: Hessian fly damage in wheat can be controlled by modifying planting dates.
C. DIVERTING PEST POPULATIONS AWAY FROM THE CROP
It is sometimes possible to take advantage of insect dispersal abilities and host
preferences as an approach to habitat management.
I. Trap cropping: It involves planting small areas of a crop or other species near the
protected crop. The favourability of this alternate environment compels the pest to move
into the trap and stay away from the protected crop. The insects develop on the trap crop
and with insecticide application on the trap crop they can be killed. As the entire fields
are not treated, environmental impact and costs are reduced.
In trap cropping, the trap may be a different species than the crop or the same species
planted at a different time.
Ex: Growing marigold around blackgram/greengram attracts [Link]
II. Strip harvesting: The trap is created in a main crop by harvesting different areas at
different times. Insects remain in the main crop without moving to the adjascent crops.
Ex: Movement of lygus bug is restricted to alfalfa crop by going for strip harvesting. Bug
remains in alfalfa crop without moving to adjascent cotton field,
III. Intercropping: Intercropping involves growing dissimilar crops in the same location.
Ex: Alfalafa – oat intercropping schemes have been shown to reduce potato leaf hopper
densities by 82-90% compared to alfalfa monocultures.
IV. Push-pull polycropping:
Push-pull polycropping strategies in Africa use a combination of behaviour modifying
stimuli to manipulate stimuli to manipulate the distribution and abundance of pest or
beneficial insects in pest management with the goal of pest reduction on the protected
host or resource. Pests are repelled or deterred away from the resource (push) by using
deterrent or repellent or stimuli that mask the host. Pests are simultaneously attracted
(pull) using highly apparent and attractive stimuli such as trap crops facilitating their
elimination.
The most successful push-pull strategy was developed for subsistence farmers in East
Africa. Maize and sorghum are two principal foods in East Africa are attacked by stem
borers. Stem borers are repelled from the maize and sorghum by non hosts.
Desmodium sp. and molasses grass which are interplanted with maize or sorghum (the
push). Around the field edges, Napier grass/sudan grass which act as trap crops are
planted (the pull).
Molasses grass, as an intercrop reduce the stem borer population by producing stem
borer repellent volatiles and also increase parasitism by a parasitoid wasp. Desmodium
also produces similar repellent volatiles and sesquiterpenes that suppress parasitic
African witch weed. The push pull strategy has contributed to increased grain yields and
live stock production in east Africa resulting in a significant impact on food security.
 [Link] THE IMPACT OF INSECT INJURY
The purpose of this technique is to manage losses. Instead of focusing on the insects
themselves, cultural techniques are considered to minimize losses from the injury.
I. Modify host tolerance
The modifications of plants to be more tolerant of insect injury is achieved genetically.
These new forms of plants yield well inspite of insect attack. Vigirous growth of plants
may reduce losses. But such growth attracts greater numbers of insects in some
instances. For example, leaf hoppers are abundant on rice fertilized with high rates of
nitrogen.
II. Modify harvest schedules
Harvest time can vary within certain acceptable limits in many crops. In such cases,
harvest dates can be modified to avoid some insect losses. As a rule, crops injured by
insects should be harvested at the earliest possible date.
Ex: In forage crops like alfalfa, damage from the leaf hopper and alfalfa weevil can be
minimized by early cutting.

Ecosystem, ecological niche, Agro ecosystem

The word ecology is the modified form of ‘Oekologie’ derived from the Greek
‘Oikos’, meaning ‘Home’ and ‘Logos’ meaning ‘Discourse’ introduced by Reiter in
1869 and later anglicized to ‘Ecology’. Ecology is a multidisciplinary subject and
derives support from other sciences. Individual organisms of the same species live
together as a ‘Population’. Population can be defined as ‘a group of individuals or a
species occurring in a given area or locality at a specific time’. Populations of different
species live together and form a ‘Community’, meaning ‘all populations in the area at
a specific time’. The community is influenced by its physical environment. The complex
system of biotic and abiotic factors constitutes an ‘Ecosystem’. Whereas the crops,
insects, other animals and the physical abiotic factors together constitute an ‘Agro-
ecosystem’. Ecology is ‘the science of inter-relations between living organisms and
their environment including both the physical and the biotic environments and
emphasizing inter species and intra species relations’ (Allee, 1949). Odum (1953)
defined ecology as ‘the study of the structure and functions of nature (or Environmental
biology)’. Ecology is divided mainly into ‘Autecology’ and ‘Synecology’. Autecology is
the study of individual organisms or an individual species in relation to the environment
while Synecology is the study of the group or groups of organisms associated in a
community in the same environment i.e., in relation to various other species living in
the same environment.

Importance of Ecology in Pest Management:

Indiscriminate uses of pesticides lead to a regular resurgence of pests due to the fact
that the natural enemies get killed. The increase in pest population is also due to the
interference of man by monoculture, using high yielding and susceptible varieties,
giving more number of irrigations, use of high nitrogenous fertilizers etc. Because of
which the balance of life in nature gets upset and the pest appears in severe form
every year. The importance of ecology was then felt and integrated approaches in pest
management are now made to avoid the violent fluctuations in pest populations.
Ecological studies assist pest control programmes by explaining pest problems and
suggesting alternate ways of combating insects. The outbreaks of the pests can also
be predicted. The ecological studies investigate the causes for the changes in
population number and the mechanism of natural control. The key mortality factors in
a natural population help to integrate the various methods of control, without disturbing
the balance of nature. The pest surveillance programmes form a part of ecology.
Forecasting of the possible attack by different pests can be done and accordingly the
control measures can be initiated in time. Suitable chemicals can be selected
depending on the presence or absence of natural enemies. As such ecological studies
form a basic part of the approach to the integrated pest management (IPM).
Agro eco system components:
In nature the living organism and the non-living substances of environment
interact to form ecosystem. The environmental complex constitute (1) Biotic factors
known as ‘Density dependent factors’ include a) Food and b) Other organism and 2)
Abiotic factors known as ‘Density independent factors’ comprise a) Temperature b)
Humidity c) Rainfall d) Light e) Air f) Water g) Soil [Link] that live with the expense
of other living organisms are parasites and predators.
Parasite: Parasite is one which attaches itself in the body of the other organism either
externally or internally for nourishment and shelter at least for a shorter period if not
for the entire life cycle. The organism which is attacked by the parasite is called host.
Parasitoid:An insect parasite of arthropod is parasitic only in immature stages,
destroys its host in the process of development and free living as an adult or Parasitoid
is an insect that feeds on the body of another insect or arthropod during the larval
stage of the their life cycle and adult is a free-living insect, no longer dependent on the
host.
Parasitisation: It is the phenomenon of obtaining nourishment at the expense of the
host to which the parasite is attached.
Predators and Predatism:
A predator is one, which catches and devours smaller or more helpless creatures by
killing them in getting a single meal. Insect killed by predator is known as prey.

Causes for Outbreak of Pests in Agro-ecosystems

Following are a few of factors that have contributed in outbreak of crop pests
1. Excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizers:
Application of nitrogenous fertilizers gives luxurious growth of the crop and makes it
more vulnerable to insect attack
2. Indiscriminate use of pesticides:
Indiscriminate use of pesticides also destroys the natural enemies of the pest and
sometimes leads to the pest outbreak.
3. Use of high yielding varieties and introduction of new crops:
Mostly improved strains of crop plants are susceptible to pests. Sometimes, the
insects which are considered of minor importance, become major importance with the
introduction of new varieties and strains.
4. Destruction of forests and bringing forest area under cultivation:
The destruction of forest over wide areas for cultivation affects several of the weather
factors viz.,temperature, humidity, rainfall, wind velocity etc., in that locality and thus
set conditions favourable for some insects to develop enormously.
5. Monoculture: Intensive and extensive cultivation of crops without proper crop
rotation. Rice grown continuously creates favourable conditions for stem borer, BPH,
green leafhoppers.
6. Introduction of a new pest in a new area: when an insect gets introduced into a
favourable new area without its natural enemies it becomes more abundant. The wooly
aphid, Eriosoma lanigerum, became a serious pest of the apple in Niligiris as there
was no natural enemy of the pest to check its multiplication.
7. Accidental introduction of foreign pests: Immature and adult stages of certain
insects adhere closely to the plants such as scales and aleurodids and those which
bore into the tissues of plant parts such as leaf miners, stem borers, gall insects etc.,
and are more liable to be introduced into other countries.
8. Destruction of natural enemies: The destruction of these either by man or other
agencies tends to increase the population of insect pests in an area. Sometimes the
weather conditions may be favourable to the pest and unfavourable to its natural
enemies.
9. Large scale storage of food grains: Large scale storage of food grains also leads
to pest problems since there is plenty of food for stored product insects to feed, breed
and multiply.

Ecological aspects of Pest Management:

The ecosystem concept: Individual organisms of the same species live together and
form a community. The community is influence by its physical environment (Abiotic)
and biological environment (Biotic). This complex system comprising of biotic and
abiotic factors is an ecosystem. The fundamental components of an ecosystem are
the Individual organisms. Populations of different species co-exist and interact with
each other in community level. The complexity of the community increases rapidly as
more plant species coexist.

Ecological niche: The smallest natural unit in the ecosystem is an ‘Individual’. It

requires a variety of resources such as food, breeding site, space, time, temperature,
relative humidty and habitat that provides protection from the predators.
Definition of Ecological niche: The set of resources that provides a species with all
its requirements for existence and reproduction is the ecological niche of the species.
Species that can reproduce over a broad range of conditions have braod niche where
as those tend to be specific in any requirements are said to have narrower niche.

Importance of ecosystem concept

 Energy Flow Ecosystem

Ecosystem concept emphasizes the interaction of all factors in a given area. The
individual, the population, the community and the physical factors are the building blocks
of the ecosystem. Understanding each level of organization is essential to understand the
whole system. The fundamental components of an ecosystem are the ‘individual
organisms’. The natural selection works principally on reproducing individuals through
this selection, population become adapted; results of adaptation lead to evolutionary
change.
The study of individuals –i.e. their biology, behaviour, physiology and morphology and
response to other members of the same species, to other organisms and to abiotic factors
in the environment is of prime importance.
Populations of different species co-exist and interact with each other and this demands
the study at community also. Both intra and interspecific comptetition, comparative
studies between species that are closely related either taxonomically or ecologically
contribute greatly to data interpretation.
In order to understand insect populations, there is a need for studying them at ecosystem
level which includes all components of ecosystem. This provides insight into the basic
mechanisms involved in insects and agricultural ecosystem.
Ecological niche concept
The ecological niche of a species can be defined as the set of resources that provides a
species with all its requirements for existence and reproduction.
Insects have good capacity to exploit resources in their niches. They pick and consume
available foods to maintain balance of nutrients. Grasshoppers grow better when they are
allowed to eat a mix of three plant species than when they are allowed to eat a only one.
The presence of more plant species in the community, the more kinds of insect herbivores
are likely to be present and also support a greater variety of parasitoids and predators.
The growth stage of the plant also influences the carrying capacity of insect species.
Carrying capacity of insect species in a plant community is determined by
i) the no. of plant species or species richness
ii) structural complexity
One herbivore may be an important part of the niche of another herbivore. The rice leaf
folder Cnaphalocrocis medinalis can lay mature eggs on a diet of honey dew produced by
another common rice pest, the brown plant hopper in laboratory.
Ecosystems are the units for study of ecology because they are composed of both
organisms and the non living environment.
Agro ecosystem: Any ecosystem largely created and maintained to satisfy a human want
or need is called and agro ecosystem. Agro ecosystems are the basic unit of study for pest
management.
Components of agroecosystem:
i) uniform crop-plant popula
ii) weed communities
iii) animal communities (including insects)
iv) physical environment
Unique features of Agro ecosystem (AES)
1. AES often lack temporal continuity. Existence is of limited duration, undergo
abrupt changes in microclimate because of cutting, ploughing, burning, chemical
application and other cultural practices.
2. AES are dominated by plants selected by humans, many consisting of imported
genetic material
3. Most AES have little species diversity and the crop species tend to be genetically
uniform. Usually a single, species dominates an AES and the elimination of weed
species simplifies the environment
4. The vegetative structure is uniform with similar type and aged crop plants and
phonological event (flowering or podding) occurs at the same time.
5. Nutrients are usually added to AES which result in crop plants with uniformly
succulent, nutrient rich tissues.
6. AES often have frequently occurring insect, weed and disease outbreaks

Concepts of IPM:
Integrated control was defined by Stern et al., (1959) as applied pest control
which combines and integrates the biological and chemical control. Later the concept
of pest management has gained importance .The idea of managing pest population
was proposed by Geier and Clark 1961.
According to FAO (1967), IPM was defined as “a pest management system in
the context of associated environment and population dynamics in pest species. It
utilizes all suitable techniques and methods in as compatible manner as possible and
maintains the pest population at levels below those cause economic injury.
Protective management of the noxious pest in which all available techniques
should be evaluated and consolidated to manage pest population so that economic
damage is avoided and adverse side effects on the environment are minimized (Gieir
and Clark, 1961).
Simple Definition: Utilisation of all the available techniques in a compatible manner
so as to reduce the pest population below economic injury level.
Concepts:
1. Understanding the agricultural ecosystem
2. Planning of agricultural ecosystem
3. Cost benefit ratio
 4. Tolerance of pest damage: a) Economic Injury Level (EIL) b) Economic
Threshold Level (ETL): It is the index for making pest management
decisions. c) General equilibrium position(GEP)
5. Leaving a pest residue
6. Timing of treatments
7. Public understanding and acceptance
Different components or tools of IPM include,
1) Pest serviellance 2) Cultural methods 3) Mechanical methods
4) Physical methods 5) Biological methods 6) Legislative methods and
7) Chemical methods

Lecture No. 12: Introduction to conventional and botanical pesticides for the insect pests
and disease management.

INTRODUCTION TO CONVENTIONAL AND BOTANICAL INSECTICIDES

An ideal systemic insecticide quality are

1. Should have high intrinsic pesticidal activity

2. The toxicant must be adequately liposoluble for it to be absorbed by the plant system and water
soluble for it to be translocated in the plant system.
3. The toxicant or its metabolites should be stable for sufficiently long period to exercise residual
effect.
4. Sufficiently soluble in water for translocation through vascular system
5. Should degrade to nontoxic form in reasonable time to avoid toxicity to consumer

Different Classifications of Insecticides

Insecticides are classified in several ways taking into consideration their origin,
mode of entry, mode of action and the chemical nature of the toxicant.
I. Based on the origin and source of supply

Inorganic insecticides: comprise compounds of mineral origin and elemental sulphur. This
group includes arsenate and fluorine compounds as insecticides. Sulphur as acaricides and
zinc phosphide as rodenticides.

Organic Insecticides:

Insecticides of animal origin: Nereistoxin isolated from marine annelids, fish oil rosin soap
from fishes [Link] Origin insecticides or Botanical insecticides: Nicotinoids, pyrethroids,
Rotenoids etc. Synthetic organic insecticides: Organochlorines , Organophosphorous,
Carbamate insecticides etc., Hydrocarbon oils etc.

II. Based on the mode of entry of the insecticides into the body of the insect they
are groups as

Contact poisons: These insecticides are capable of gaining entry into the insect body either
through spiracles and trachea or through the cuticle itself. Hence, these poisons can kill the
insects by mere coming in contact with the body of the insects. [Link] and HCH.

Stomach poisons: The insecticides applied on the leaves and other parts of plants when
ingested act on the digestive system of the insect and bring aboutthe kill of the insect.
Eg: Calcium arsenate, lead arsenate.
Fumigants: A fumigant is a chemical substance which is volatile at ordinary temperatures and
sufficiently toxic to the insects. Fumigation is the process of subjecting the infested material
to the toxic fumes or vapours of chemicals or gases which have insecticidal properties.
Chemical used in the fumigant and a reasonably airtight container or room is known as
fumigation chamber or “Fumigatorium”. Fumigants mostly gain entry into the body of the
insect through spiracles in the trachea.

Commonly used Fumigants and their doses:

Aluminium phosphide, marketed as Celphos tablets used against field rats ,

groundnut bruchids etc

Carbon disulphide 8-20 lbs/1000ft3 of food grains

EDCT (Ethylene Dichloride Carbon Tetrachloride) 20-30 lbs/1000cft of food grains

EDB Ethylene dibromide 1 lb/1000ft3 of food grains.

SO2: By burning sulphur in godowns SO2 fumes are released.

Systemic insecticides

Chemicals that are capable of moving through the vascular systems of plants irrespective of
site of application and poisoning insects that feed on the plants. Ex: Methyl demeton,
Phosphamidon , Acephate

‘Non systemic insecticides’ are not possessing systemic action are called non systemic
[Link] systemic insecticides, however, have ability to move from one
surface leaf to the other. They are called as ‘trans laminar insecticides’ . [Link],
Diazinon, spinosad etc.

An ideal systemic insecticide quality are

Should have high intrinsic pesticidal activity

The toxicant must be adequately liposoluble for it to be absorbed by the plant system
and water soluble for it to be translocated in the plant system.
The toxicant or its metabolites should be stable for sufficiently long period to exercise
residual effect.
 Sufficiently soluble in water for translocation through vascular system

Should degrade to nontoxic form in reasonable time to avoid toxicity to consumer

Systemic insecticides are applied as seed dressing, granular formulations, sprays [Link] the
leaf, the entry of the toxicant are through stomata and cuticle. On stem the entry is through
lenticels and cracks in the cuticle. In the seed it is through seed coat especially through the
micropyle. Systemic insecticides are highly useful against sap sucking and vectors such as
leafhoppers, whiteflies, thrips, aphids etc.

III. Based on mode of action:

Physical poisons: Bring about the kill of insects by exerting a physical effect. Eg: Heavy oils,
tar oils etc. which cause death by asphyxiation. Inert dusts effect loss of body moisture by
their abrasiveness as in aluminium oxide or absorb moisture from the body as in charcoal.
Protoplasmic poisons: A toxicant responsible for precipitation of protein especially
destruction of cellular protoplasm of midgut epithelium.

Respiratory poisons: Chemicals which block cellular respiration as in hydrogen cyanide

(HCN), carbon monoxide etc.
Nerve poisons: Chemicals which block Acetyl cholinesterase(AChE) and effect the nervous
system. Eg. Organophosphorous, carbamates.
Chitin inhibitors: Chitin inhibitors interfere with process of synthesis of chitin due to which
normal moulting and development is disrupted. Ex Novaluron, Diflubenzuran, Lufenuron
,Buprofezin
General Poisons:Compounds which include neurotoxic symptoms after some period and do
not belong to the above categories. [Link], Toxaphene, aldrin

IV. Based on toxicity:

Classification Symbol Oral LD50 DermalLD50

1. Extremely toxic Skul l & Pioson 1-50 1-200 Red

 2. Highly toxic Pioson 51-500 201-2000

Yellow

Danger

3. Moderately toxic Blue 501-5000 2001-20,000

Caution

4. Less toxic Green >5000 >20,000

V. Classification based on chemical nature of insecticides

Pesticides
I. Inorganic pesticides II. Organic pesticides

[Link] b. Animal [Link] [Link]

oils origin origin organic

compiunds

[Link] [Link] 3. Organo [Link]- 5. Synthetic [Link]

Chlorine compounds phosphates mates pyrethroids groups

[Link] pesticides
Inorganic chemicals used as insecticides
Eg. Arsenic, Fluorine, Sulphur, lime sulphur (Insecticides) zinc phosphide
(Rodenticide)
[Link] pesticides
Organic compounds (constituted by C, H, O and N mainly)
Hydrocarbon oil (or) Petroleum oil – eg. Coal tar oil, kerosine etc.,
Animal origin insecticides – eg. Nereistoxin extracted from marine annelids –
commercially available as cartap, padan.
Plant origin insecticides : Nicotine from tobacco plants, pyrethrum from
Chrysanthemum flowers, Rotenoids from roots of Derris and Lonchocarpus
Neem – azadirachtin, Pongamia glabra, Garlic etc.,
Synthetic organic compounds : These organic chemicals are synthetically produced in
laboratory.
i. Chlorinated hydrocarbon (or) organochlorines
Eg. DDT, HCH, Endosulfan, Lindane, Dicofol (DDT, HCH banned)
ii. Cyclodienes
Eg. Chlordane, Heptachlor (Banned chemicals)
iii Organophosphates : (Esters of phosphoric acid)
Eg. Dichlorvos, Monocrotophos, Phospamidon, Methyl parathion, Fenthion,
Dimethoate, Malathion, Acephate, Chlorpyriphos
iv. Carbamates: (Derivatives of carbamic acid)
Eg. Carbaryl, Carbofuran, Carbosulfan
v. Synthetic pyrethroids ; (Synthetic analogues of pyrethrum)
Eg. Allethrin, Cypermethrin, Fenvalerate
vi. Miscellaneous compounds
Neonicotinoids (Analogues of nicotine) eg. Imidacloprid
Spinosyns (Isolated from actinomycetes) eg. Spinosad
Avermectins (Isolated from bacteria) eg. Avermectin, Vertimec
Fumigants : Eg. Aluminium phosphide, Hydrogen cyanide, EDCT

Detailed description of INSECTICIDES – Additional information only

INORGANIC INSECTICIDES
Arsenic compounds:
In an arsenical compound, the total arsenic content and the water soluble arsenic
content are of importance, the water solubility of arsenic may result in entering the
foliage and causing burning injury to plants, and hence water insoluble compounds
are preferred for insect control. Arsenates are more stable and safe for application on
plants then arsenites. Arsenites are mainly used in poison baits since they are
phytotoxic. However arsenates are less toxic to insects then arsenites.

1. Calcium arsenate: It was first used by about 1906 as an insecticide. It is a white

flocculent power, formulated as a dust of 25 to 30% metallic arsenic equivalent..
2. Lead arsenate: It was first used as in insecticide in 1892 for the control of gypsy
moth. It is a stomach poison with little contact action [Link] rat oral 10-100, dermal
2400 mg/kg. . An equal quantity of hydrated lime is some time added to prevent
phytotoxicity to tender foliage.
3. Arsenite:
Paris green:It is a double salt of copper acetate and copper arsenite. It was first used
in 1867 for the control of Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata.
Flourine Compounds
These compounds were used since 1890. They are principally stomach poisons and
to a limited extent contact poisons. Flouride poisoning produces spasms, regurgitation,
flaccid paralysis and death.
1. Sodium fluoride: It is a white power. Available in 93 to 99% purity in commercial
products. It is highly phytotoxic and used in poison baits used exclusively against
cockroaches, earwigs, cutworms, grasshoppers etc.

Other inorganic compounds

1. Sulphur: It is primarily fungicide and acaricide. Formulated as fine dust (90 to 95%
a.i with 10% inert material. It is also formulated as wettable powders. Effectiveness
increases with fineness of sulphur particles.
2. Lime sulphur: Aqueous solution of calcium polysulphide. It is prepared by sulphur
solution in calcium hydroxide suspension, preferably under pressure in the absence
of air and is used against scales, mites, aphids besides powdery mildew.

Properties

1. Affect nervous system causing excitement at lower doses and paralysis at higher
concentration.
2. Not phytoloxic
3. Leave no harmful side effects.
4. Mighly toxic to mammals.
5. Disappear rapidly from the treated surface.
So can be used safely before harvest of the produce.

Insecticides of plant origin

The insecticides of plant origin extracted from seeds, flowers, leaves, stem and roots,
are termed as botanical insecticides. Insecticides of plant origin unlike synthetic
organic insecticides are safer to use but since they are expensive and lack residual
toxicity, their use has been limited in the country.
1) Neem (Azadirachta indica)
Perennial tree distributed in tropical, subtropical, semi-arid and arid zones. It posses
medicinal, insecticidal, insect repellent, antifeedant, growth regulatory, nematicidal
and antifungal properties. Neem seed extract and oil contains a number of
components such as Azadirachtin, salannin, nimbin, epinimbin nimbidin that gives
insecticidal, insect repellent, ovicidal, Antifeedant and growth regulator characters.
Azadiractitin disrupts moulting by antagonizing the insect hormone
[Link] Acute oral LD50 for rat is 5000mg/kg, Acute dermal for rabbit is
>2000mg/kg.
Preparation of Neem Seed Kernel Extract (NSKE 5%): Take 50 g of powdered
neem seed kernels soak it in one litre of water for 8 hours and stir the contents often.
Squeeze the soaked material repeatedly for better extraction of the azadirachtin in the
aquous suspension. Filter the contents through muslin cloth. Make the filtrate to one
litre. Add 1ml teepol or triton or sandovit or soap water (2%) and spray.
Prepartion of Neem Cake Suspension
Soak one kilogram of neem cake in 5 liters of water for 2 days and filter It through
muslin cloth. Dissolve 200 g of soft soap in the filtrate and make upto 10 L of water
before spraying. This controls tobacco cutworm, leaf miners of citrus, groundnut,
tomato and beans etc. Dried powder of neem leaves are used against stored grain
insect pests. Leaf extracts showed insecticidal property against,Plutella
xylostella,Aproaerema modicella; Spodoptera litura etc. Desert locust Schistocerca
gregaria avoids feeding on neem leaves. Neem leaves are found as attractants to
white grub Holotrichia adults. Neem seed/ kernel extract showed insecticidal
properties against a number of sucking pest. Neem oil can be used against storage
insect pests @ 1 to 2% and field insects @ (0.2 -0.4%, 1 to 2% 5% or 10% neem oil).
Neem products are safer to honey bees, parasitoids, predators. Commercial
formulations of neem are available in 10000 ppm, 1500 ppm and 300 ppm the market.
Some of the neem formulations are Margosan, Neemark, Neemrich, Achook,
Bioneem, Neemazal, Neemax, Nimbicidine,Vepacide, Margocide , Neemgold etc
2) Nicotine: Nicotine is found in the leaves of Nicotiana tabacum and [Link]
2% to 14%.Nicotine sulphate has been mainly used as a contact insecticide with
markedfumigant action in the control of sucking insect’sviz., aphids, thrips, psyllids,
leafminers and jassids. Nicotine sulphate is more stable and less volatile. It is a nerve
poison being highly toxic when absorbed through the cuticle taken in through the
tracheae or when ingested. It affects the ganglian blocking conduction at higher levels.
Nicotine sulphate containing 40% alkaloid, is safer and is more convenient to use and
the free alkaloid is liberated by the addition of soap lime or ammonium hydroxide to
the spray solution. Dust formulation of nicotine sulphate releases nicotine in the
presence of moisture. It is also used in aerosols. Tobacco decoction, useful for
controlling aphids, Thrips etc. Can be prepared by boiling 1kg of tobacco waste in 10lts
of water for 30 minutes or steep it in cold water for a day. Then make it up to 30 litres
and add about 90gm of soap. Addition of soap improves wetting, spreading and killing
properties. Nicotine does not leave any harmful residue on treated surface. LD 50for rat
oral- 50-60 mg/kg.
3) Rotenone: It is extracted from the roots of Derris plant which many contain 4 to
11% rotenone depending on the variety. Though rotenone is reported from 68 species
of leguminous plants, principal commercial sources are Derris ellipticaD.
Malaccensisfroms Malaysia and Lonchocarupus utilis andD. uruca from S. America.
Rotenone occurs in Derris roots (4-9%), Lonchocarpus (8-11%). It is oxidized to non-
insecticidal compound in the presence of light and air and hence rotenone residues
are difficult to find after 5 to 10 days in normal sunlight. Insects poisoned with rotenone
show a steady decline in oxygen consumption followed by paralysis and deaths. It is
very specific being highly toxic to fishes and to most insect species but almost
harmless to warm blooded animals except pigs LD [Link] white rat oral-130 to 1500. Dust
or spray containing 0.5 to 1.0 per cent and 0.001 to 0.002 percentrotenone are used
commercially.
4) Plumbagin:
Plumbagin is naturally occurring napthoquinone of plant origin from the roots of
Plumbago europea L. (Plumbaginaceae) and named so in 1828 by Bulong d’ Astafort.
Plumbagin is known for its medicinal, antifertility, antimicrobial, molluscicidal,
nematicidal and other pharmacological properties on diverse fauna. The yield of
plumbagin ranges between 0.5-3.000percent on dry weight basis. The elucidation of
structure of plumbagin and its synthesis in 1936 led to detailed studies. More recently,
its IGR properties viz., inhibition of chitin synthetase and ecdysteroid titres have been
demonstrated (Kubo et al., 1982) The cold alcoholic extract (5%) of roots of P.
zeylanica L was toxic to Euproctis fraterna larvae as contact spray. Contact toxicity of
5% petroleum ether extracts of P. zeylanica root against Spodoptera litura Fab. ,
Dystercus koenigiiFab.,Dipaphis erysimi Kalt, Dactynops carthami H.R.L, Coccinella
septumpunctata L was also reported.
5) Pyrethrum: It is extracted from dried flower heads of Chrysanthemum
cinerariaefolium (Asteraceae). The actual chemical ingredients having insecticidal
action are identified as five esters. They are: Pyrethrin I, Pyrethrin II, cinerins-I and
cinerin-II and Jasmoline, which are predominately found in achenes of flowers from
0.7 to 3 %. The esters are derived from the,
Two acids – Chrysanthemic acid and Pyrethric acid
Three alcohols – Pyretholone, Cinerolone and Jasmolone
Active principles/Esters
Pyrethrin I = Pyrethrolone + Chrysanthemc acid
Pyrethrin II = Pyrethrolone + Pyrethric acid
Cinerin I = Cynerolone + Chrysanthemc acid
Cinerin II = Cynerolone + Pyrethric acid
Jasmolin II = Jasmolone + Pyrethric acid
Pyrethrum powder is prepared by grinding the flowers. The powder mixed with a iluent
such as talc or clay is known as pyrethrum dust. It is prepared just before use.
Otherwise it gets deteriorated rapidly. It is also used as emulsions, solutions, and
aerosoles. Pyrethrum is unstable to light, air moisture and alkali. The residues
deteriorate very rapidly after application. Pyrethrins are powerful contact insecticides
but appear to be poor stomach poisons. A characteristic action of Pyrethroid is the
rapid paralysis or ‘knock down’ effect and substantial recovery that follow it. This
recovery is due to rapid enzymatic detoxification in the insect. To bring about mortality
equivalent to knock down effect three times increase in dosage may be required.
Compounds such as piperonyl butoxide, propyl isome and sulfoxide are known to
inhibit the detoxication enzyme and increase the toxicities of pyrethroids.
Thesesynergists are used at 10 parts to 100 part of pyrethroid. LD50. for white rat oral-
200 dermal for rat-1800. Pyrocon E 2/22 (1 part of pyrethrin + 10 parts of piperonyl
butoxide) is used for the control of coconut red palm weevil. In household sprays and
as a repellent against external parasites of livestock pyrethrum is useful. It is also
mixed with grains in storage to protect from stored grain pests. Its use alone or in
combination with piperonyl butoxide as food packages has been permitted by the food
and Drug Administration in the U.S.A. and no other chemical has been approved.
Properties
1. Highly unstable in light, moisture and air.
2. Have no residual effect.
3. Paralyse by more contact.
4. Gains entry through spiracle and cuticle.
5. Act on central nervous system.
6. Having rapid knock down effect.
7. Practically no mammalian toxicity.
8. Good insecticides against household and cattle pests.

SYNTHETIC ORGANIC INSECTICIDES

I) Chlorinated Hydrocarbons (Organochlorines)
The plant protection in India owes its growth to the chemicals under this group which
have revolutionized the control of pests. The properties which have lead to their
extensive use are high insecticidal efficacy, long residual action, wide range of insect
susceptibility, cheapness per unit area and available in different [Link] are
also known as chlorinated synthetics or chlorinated organics or chlorinated
hydrocarbons. The important organochlorines are
1. DDT
DDT was first synthesized in 1874 by Othmar Zeidler. In 1939 a Swiss entomologist,
aul Muller, found its insecticidal property for the first time. This discovery brought the
`Nobel Prize' for medicine to Paul Muller in 1948 for the life saving discovery. Dichloro
Diphenyl Trichloroethane (DDT) is stomach and contact insecticide. It has got long
residual action. It is also non-phytotoxic except to cucurbits. It is not much effective
against phytophagous mites. Due to low cost of DDT and effectiveness against a
variety of insects particularly against house flies and mosquitoes, it is much
popularized but due to long residual life and accumulation, it is banned in several
countries. The acute oral LD50 for rats is 113-118 mg/kg. It does affect the nervous
system preventing normal transmission of nerve impulses. DDT causes a violent
excitatory neurotoxic system in most insects which are having uncoordinated
movement and DDT Jitters (tremor of the entire body).

2. Hexa Chloro Cyclohexane (HCH)

It was first synthesised by Michael Faraday in the year [Link] gamma-isomer of
BHC has the insecticidal activity. BHC is a stomach and contact insecticide. It has got
slight fumigant action. It is persistent insecticide. It is non-phytotoxic except cucurbits
.It has been extensively used as soil insecticides particularly to control termites, white
grubs and cutworms. Highly purified product containing 99% of gamma isomer of HCH
is known as lindane, this name was proposed in 1949 after Vander Linden, a German
chemist who isolated this isomer in 1912. Lindane is more acute neurotoxicant than
DDT results in tremors, ataxia, convolutions, falling prostration and ultimately leading
to death.

II) Cyclodines
Cyclodienes also act as neurotoxicants which disturb the balance of sodium and
potassium ions within the neuron resulting into tremors, convulsions, prostration and
ultimately the death. The outstanding characteristic of the cyclodienes is their longer
stability in the soil, resulting in more control of soil inhabiting insect pests. Some of the
compound belonging to this group are chlordane (1945), aldrin and dieldrin (1948),
heptachlor (1949), endrin (1951), mirex (1954), endosulfan (1956) and chlordecone
1958). Among them aldrin, chlordane and heptachlor were often in use for termite
control as they are most effective, long lasting and economical insecticides but now
banned by GOI.
1) Aldrin
It is persistent and non-systemic soil insecticide. It is usually recommended for the
control of termites throughout India. Two German chemists Otto Paul Hermann Diels
and Kurt Alder first documented the Diels-Aldernovel reaction in 1928 for which they
were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1950 for their work Formulations: EC
30%, Granule 5% and Dusts 5% Trade names: Octalene, Aldrex, Aldrosol, and Aldrite.
LD50 value: 67 mg/kg
2) Dieldrin
It is persistent and non-systemic insecticide used for mainly soil inhabiting insect
pests. It is also not phytotoxic in recommended doses. Formulations: Dust 2% Trade
names: Quintox, Alvit LD50 value: 46 mg/kg
3) Heptachlor
It is a non-systemic, contact poison with fumigant action. It is effective against termites,
white grubs, grass hoppers etc Formulations: EC 20%, and Dust 5% LD50 value: 100-
162 mg/kg
4) Endosulfan:
It is a non-systemic, contact and stomach poison with slight fumigant action. It is
effective against defoliators, borers, sucking insects and mites but harmless to honey
bees at recommended doses for insect control. It is highly toxic to fish. Formulations:
EC 35%, Granule 4% and Dusts 4% Trade names: Thiodan, Endocel, Endodhan,
Endotaf LD50 value: 80-110 mg/kg
III) Organophosphates
Organophosphate came to limelight during Second World War. The biological activity
of these compounds was first discovered by W. Lange and Krueger in 1932. OP
compounds as insecticides were mainly due to the work of Gerhard Schrader in 1937
in Germany. First OP compound TEPP (Tetra Ethyl Pyro Phosphate) followed by
parathion and schradan, the first systemic insecticide. Organophosphate insecticides
have two most important properties such as higher potency and low residual life. The
organophosphates (OPs) inhibit the cholinesterase (Ch E) enzyme leading to blockage
of synaptic transmission of nerve impulses and finally death.
1) Malathion
It is a non systemic contact and stomach insecticideand acaricide of low mammalian
toxicity. Hence it is recommended on fruits and vegetables till a few days prior to
harvest. It is also recommended for storage insects and also for external application
for parasites on animals. Formulations: EC 50 and Dusts 40 Trade names: Cythion
and Himala LD50 value: 2800 mg/kg
2) Methyl parathion:
It is a contact and stomach poison with slight fumigant action. It is widely used in for
sucking insects and foliage feeders. Formulations: EC 50 and Dusts 2
Trade names: Folidal, Metacid, Paratox, Dhanumar LD50 value: 13 mg/kg
3) Diazinon:
It is a contact persistent insecticide with nematicidal properties. It is very much useful
against household insects such as flies and [Link] has contact, stomach
poison and also fumigant action. Formulations: EC 20 and 5G Trade names: Basudin
LD50 value: 300-850 mg/kg .
4) Dichlorvos (Dimethyl Dichloro Vinyl Phosphate - DDVP)
It is contact poison but due to high vapour pressure it has got strong penetrating
[Link] is very effective against hidden insects due to its fumigation action. It is
recommended for leaf miners and leaf webbers. It brings quick knock down effect. It
does not leave toxicresidues. It is highly toxic to bees. It is acontact and stomach
poison with fumigant action. Formulations: EC 76 and 5G
Trade names: nuvan, vapona, Doom, Divap LD50 value: 56 – 108 mg/kg.
5) Fenitrothion:
It acts as contact and stomach poison with broad spectrum activity and a selective
acaricide. It is effective against sucking pests including mealy bugs, borer and mites
and external parasites of livestock. Formulations: EC 35, ULV 0.05 – 0.1 and 5 Dusts
Trade names: Sumithion, FolithionLD50 value: 50 – 250 mg/kg.
6) Quinolphos:
It is contact poison having good penetrating power and It is having acaricidal
[Link] is widely used against caterpillars and borer on cotton, vegetables and
other crops. Formulations: EC 25 and 5 G. Trade names: Ekalux, Shakthi Quick,
Quinguard, Quinaltaf, Smash, Flash LD50 value: 62–137 mg/kg.
7) Phosolone:
It is a non systemic contact insecticide and acaricide, effective against wide spectrum
of species. Formulations: EC 35 Trade names: Zolone
LD50 value: 135 mg/kg
8) Chlorpyriphos:
It is a non-systemic contact insecticide very effective against sucking and chewing
[Link] is also recommended against house hold insect pests. It is widely
recommended as seed treatment chemical against white grub and termites.
Formulations: EC 20 Trade names: Dursban, Chloroban, Durmet, Radar
LD50 value: 135-163 mg/kg
9) Phosphomidon:
It is a systemic insecticide having low contact action. It is very effective against sap
sucking insect pests. On application it is absorbed in the plant tissues within 1-3 hours
and is translocated more towards the top. It is less toxic to fish and more toxic to
[Link]: 40 SL Trade names: Demecron, Sumidon, Chemidan, Hydan,
Phamidon LD50 value: 17-30 mg/kg
10) Monocrotophos:
It is a systemic insecticide and acaricide with contact action. It has wide range of
susceptibility of insects. It is toxic to bees. Formulations: 36 SL Trade names: Monocil,
Nuvacron, Monophos, Monochem, Monostar LD50 value: 14-23 mg/kg
11) Methyl demeton:
It is contact and systemic insecticide and [Link] is used against soft bodied
insects, which suck the plant sap. Formulations: 25 EC Trade names: Metasystox and
Dhanusyatax LD50 value: 57-106 mg/kg
12) Dimethoate:
It is systemic insecticide and acaricide .It is widely used against sucking insect pests
on various crops. Formulations: 30 EC Trade names: Rogor, Celgor, Novogor, Tara
909, roxion LD50 value: 320-380 mg/kg

13) Triazophos:
It has insecticidal, acaricidal and nematicidal properties with trnalaminar action. It is
very effective against variety of pests particularly Lepidoptera larvae on fruits and
vegetables. Formulations: 40 EC. Trade names: Hostathion, Trizocel, Truzo,
Suthation LD50 value: mg/kg
14) Profenophos:
It is a broad spectrum non-systemic [Link] is recommended against pest of
vegetables. It is highly toxic to birds and fish. Formulations: 50 EC Trade names:
Curacron, Celcron, Bolero, Carina, ProvenLD50 value: 358 mg/kg
15) Acephate:
It is a systemic and contact poison. It is a pro insecticide. It has low toxicity and safe
to environment. Formulations: 75 SP Trade names: Arthane, Starthane, Orthene LD50
value: 866-945 mg/kg
16) Phorate:
It is a systemic granular insecticide and also possesses acaricidal properties. It is very
effective against sucking insects and also against maize borers, cut worms, white
grubs etc. Formulations:10G Trade names: Thimet LD50 value: 1.6 – 3.7 mg/kg
CARBAMATES
All carbamates are derivatives of carbamic acid. Many of the carbamic esters
areinsecticidal and a few are effective molluscicides Like organophosphates, the
carbamate insecticides interfere in cholinergic transmission. The carbamate enters the
synapse and inhibits the acetylcholine-esterase as a result the acetylcholine contains
to depolarize the post synaptic membrane, causing prolonged stimulation resulting
into the failure of the nerve or effector tissue. Carbamates have an analogous action,
carbamylating rather than phosphorylating the enzyme and the ChE recovers more
readily from carbamates than from organophosphates. Thus, unlike,
organophosphates, they are known as reversible inhibitors.
1. Carbaryl:
Carbaryl is a contact and stomach insecticide. It is most popular insecticide because
it is effective against a wide range of insects and possesses very low mammalian
toxicity. It is compatible with many pesticides except Bordeaux mixture lime sulphur
and urea. It is not effective against mites. Formulations: WP 50%, Granule 4% and
Dusts 5% Trade names: Sevin.LD50 value: 400 mg/kg
2. Propoxur(Arprocarb)
It is a broad spectrum, contact and stomach poison with good knock down properties.
It is effective in controlling house hold pests such as cockroaches, crickets, flies etc.
It has long residual [Link]: 20% EC, 50% WP Trade names: Baygon,
Blattamen, Saphaer LD50 value: 90-128 mg/kg
3. Carbofuran.
It is a plant systemic broad spectrum and long residual insecticide, miticide and
nematicide. It is recommended as soil insecticides against plant sap sucking and borer
pests. Formulation: 3G,48F Trade names: Furadan LD50 value: 8-14 mg/kg
4. Carbosulfan.
It is a systemic insecticide, and nematicide. It is recommended as seed dresser
insecticide Formulation: 25 DS Trade name: Marshal
5. Thiodicarb
It is a insecticide with ovicidal properties, and molluscicide. Formulation: 75 WPTrade
name: Larvin

6. Aldicarb
It is systemic pesticide usually applied in soil as seed furrow, band or
broadcasttreatments either pre-plant or at planting as well as post emergence side
dress treatments. It has also possessing acaricidal property and toxic to higher
animals Formulation: 10 G Trade names: Temik LD50 value: 0.93 mg/kg
5. Methomyl:
It is a systemic with contact and stomach insecticide and nematicide. It is very effective
against a wide variety of pests particularly army worms, cabbage semilooper, Okra
stem fly, fruit borers, leaf defoliators, cotton boll worms, etc. Formulations: 90 WP,12.5
EC, 40 SP Trade names: Lannate, Dunnate LD50 value: 30 mg/kg

SYNTHETIC PYRETHROIDS AND INSECTICIDES OF OTHER GROUPS

Synthetic pyrethroids have got the properties of plant derivative pyrethrum as
insecticides but areconsiderably more stable in light and air. Allethrin was first
synthetic analogue of pyrethroids. They act on tiny channel through which sodium is
pumped to cause excitation of neurons and prevent the sodium channels from
closing,resulting in continual nerve trans mission , tremors and eventually death. The
synthetic pyrethroids have extremely high insecticidal activity at extremely low doses
and are bio-degradable in nature. Their activity is most pronounced against
lepidopterous pests and they are very effective against beetle, leaf miner and bugs.
They are very effective against eggs, larval and adult stages of insects. They have
antifeedant and repellent properties. They are not readily washed off from the plants
by rain due to lipophilic characters. These synthetic pyrethroids are very less toxic to
mammals and having a quick knock down activity to insects, the lower toxicity to
mammals and increase safety for the user. Very low application rate of synthetic
pyrethroids as compared to conventional insecticides brings reduced environmental
pollution.
Limitations
• A major limitation of synthetic pyrethroids is that these are generally not effective
as soil insecticide. Even at low dosages kill non target species. Synthetic pyrethroids
cause resurgence of several groups of insect pests especially whiteflies and aphids.
Rapid development of resistance to synthetic pyrethroids in many insect species. This
may be due to high selection pressure exerted by high mortality caused by synthetic
pyrethroids • Synthetic pyrethroids are poor acaricides
First generation:First generation pyrethroids are considered to be of low toxicity to
people and other mammals because they are rapidly broken down in the body. First
generation pyrethroids decompose quickly in sunlight and air and thus pose little risk
in the environment but all pyrethroids are toxic to aquatic animals.

1) Allethrin
It is contact, stomach and respiratory action and bring quick knock down of flies and
mosquitoes when applied in combination with Piperonyl butoxide. Trade name:
Pynamin LD50 value: rats 572-1100 mg/Kg for rats and Dermal LD50 >2000 mg/kg

Second generation:Second generation pyrethroids are not acutely toxic to people or

other [Link] pyrethroids decompose rapidly in sunlight. They thus pose little
threat to the environment, but for the same reason they are not suitable for agricultural
use.

2) Resmethrin
Approximately 20 times more effective than pyrethrum in housefly knock down, and
is not synergized to any appreciable extent with pyrethrum synergists. Trade name:
NRDC – 104, SBP-1382, and FMC – 17370 LD50 value Dermal LD50 2000-3000 mg/kg
3) Bioresmethrin
It is stereoisomer of resmethrin. Appeared in 1967.50 times more effective than
pyrethrum against normal (susceptible to insects) houseflies, and also not synergized
with pyrethrum synergists. Both resmethrin & Bioresmethrin decompose fairly rapidly
on exposure to air & sunlight, so never developed for agricultural use. Trade name:
NRDC-107,FMC –18739, and RU-1148 LD50: 8,600 mg/kg (oral) and 10,000 mg/kg
(dermal).
4) Bioallethrin (d-trans –allethrin) introduced in 1969. More potent than allethrin and
readily synergized, but it is not as effective as resmethrin.
Third generation: Third generation pyrethroids do not decompose in sunlight and
contain some of the most powerful insecticides known. Third generation pyrethoids
are not highly toxic to people or other mammals mainly because they decompose
rapidly in the body.
5) Fenvalerate:
It is contact insecticide and of broad spectrum in nature. It is stable in sunlight and has
longer residual toxicity. Formulations: 20 EC Trade names: Fenvel, Bilfen, Belmark,
Sumicidin, Pydrin LD50 value: 300-630 mg/kg
6) Permethrin:
Contact insecticide, light stable, but poor knock down. First agricultural pyrethroids
because of their exceptional insecticidal activity (0.11 kg a.i/ha) and their photo
stability. Formulations: 25 EC and 5% smoke generation Trade names: Ambush ,
pounce , pramex LD50 value: Acute oral LD50 : 7000 mg/kg, Dermal LD50: >5100 mg/kg
Fourth generation: Offer the most resistance to exposure to sunlight and air and,
therefore, are more persistent. This group is more toxic to people than other
pyrethroids and therefore requires more care in use. More stable in the environment.
7) λ cyhalothrin
Non-systemic insecticide with contact and stomach action, and repellent
[Link] rapid knockdown and long residual activity. It is an insecticide and
acaricide used to control a wide range of pests. Formulations: 2.5 EC, 5% EC Trade
names: Kung-Fu,Reeva, Charge, Excaliber, Grenade, Hallmark, Karate,
Matador, Samurai and Sentinel. LD50 value: 56 mg/kg
8) Cyfluthrin
It is a non-systemic contact and stomach poison,with rapid knock down effect. It is for
control of chewing and sucking insects on crops. Cyfluthrin is also used in public health
situations and for structural pest control. Formulations: 5 EC, 10% EC
Trade names: Contur, Laser, Responsar, Tempo LD50 value: 869 - 1271 mg/kg
9) Cypermethrin
It is stomach and contact insecticide. It is very effective against different types of pests
on various crops. Formulations: 10 EC, 25 EC Trade names: Cyper guard, Ripcord,
Cymbush and Cyper kill LD50 value: ha Oral LD50 303-4123 MG /KG, dermal more than
2400mg/kg

10) Fenpropathrin
It is contact insecticide and of broad spectrum in [Link] is extremely toxic to fish,
[Link] aquatic organisms. It have acaricidal and miticidal property. Formulations:
2.4 EC, 10 or 20% EC.
Trade names: Danitol, Rody and Meothrin
LD50 value:54 mg/kg
11) Flucythrinate
Flucythrinate is a synthetic pyrethroid used to control insect pests in apples, cabbage,
field corn, head lettuce and pears, and to control Heliothis spp. in cotton.
Trade names: AASTAR, AC 222705, Cybolt, Fuching Jujr, OMS 2007, and Pay-Off.
LD50 value: 81 mg/kg .dermal LD50 in rabbits of greater than 1000 mg/kg
12) Decamethrin (Deltamethrin)
It is more potent than any other insecticide. It has also proved effective even against
insects resistant to conventional [Link] is contact and stomach insecticide.
Formulations: 2.8 EC, 2.5% WP Trade names: Decis, Decaguard, Deltex
LD50 value:135mg/kg
13) Fluvalinate
It is a insecticide and acaricide with stomach and contact activity in target insects. It is
used as a broad spectrum insecticide. Formulations: 25 EC
Trade names: Klartan, Mavrik, Mavrik Aqua Flow, Spur and Yardex
LD50 value: 1,050 to 1,110 mg/kg
14) Fenfluthrin: It is a very potent recent synthetic pyrethroid against a various groups
of insects and mites. Highly toxic to Daphnia (Aquatic Invertebrate)
Trade Names: Bayticol, Bayvarol, Baynac

INSECTICIDES OF OTHER GROUPS

Fixed oils are the less aromatic oils derived from plants. Oils generally work by
clogging the respiratory openings of the insect, causing suffocation. Oils are usually
emulsified with water for [Link]: Neem oil, Citronella Oil ,Garlic oil etc. Neem
oil is extracted from the tropical neem tree, Azadirachta indica, contains insecticidal
properties that are composed of a complex mixture of biologically active compounds.
Its various active ingredients act as repellents, feeding inhibitors, egg laying
deterrents, growth retardants, sterilants and direct toxins. Neem oil has very low
toxicity to mammals. The advantages of oil applications are many, like they are
inexpensive, usually result in good coverage, are simple to mix, and are safe to warm-
blooded animals. Some disadvantages of use include phytotoxicity, instability in
storage, and ineffectiveness against certain pests.
NOVEL INSECTICIDES
Neonicotinoids
They represent a novel and distinct chemical class of insecticides with remarkable
chemical and biological properties. Similar to nicotines in activity partially to
[Link] and other neonicotinoids interact with acetyl choline binding site
of nicotinic Ach receptor which cause excitation and eventually paralysis leading to
death of insects. These are selective and safe to non target organisms.
1) Imidacloprid:
Systemic insecticide with translaminar activity and with contact and stomach action.
Used as a seed dressing, soil application and foliar application against sucking insects
including leaf hoppers, plant hoppers, aphids, thrips and whitefly, also effective against
soil insects, termites. It is highly toxic to birds. Formulations: 17.8 SL ,70 WS Trade
names: Confidor, Gaucho, Admire, Merit, Premier, Stalone. Tatamida, Maratho ,
Provado LD50 value: 450 mg/kg
2) Acetamiprid:It is a systemic insecticide with contact and stomach action. Used as
a soil and foliar application against homoptera especially aphid and leafhoppers.
Thysonaptera and Lepidoptera. Formulations: 20 SP Trade names: Pride, Assail
Intruder, Profil, Supreme LD50 value:>2000 mg/kg
3) Thiomethoxam :
Contact and stomach poison with translaminar and systemic movement used as a
seed treatment and foliar application against sucking insects . It has very strong effect
on viral transmitting insects. Formulations: 25 WG, 70 WS Trade names: Actara,
Cruiser, Crux, Flagship, Meridian, Adage, Rinova
LD50 value: 1563 mg/kg
4) Clothianidin: It is systemic and translaminar in action It shows inhibitory action on
oviposition and [Link]: 50 WG Trade names: Dantop, Celeso
LD50 value: >5000 mg/kg
5) Thiacloprid: Used as a foliar spray against sucking pests such as aphids, thrips,
whitefly, beetles and leaf miner. It act as an acute and stomach poison. Formulations:
36 WG, 70 WG Trade names: Calypso, Bariard, Alanto
LD50 value: 500mg/kg
Phenyl pyrazoles (Fiproles):
1) Fipronil
GABA receptors is the target site for fipronil. Blockage of GABA gated chloride channel
reduces neuronal inhibition which leads to hyper exitation of the central nervous
system,convulsions and death of an target [Link] spectrum systemic insecticide
with contact and stomach poison activity. Used as a foliar application against stem
borer, leaf miner, hoppers, root worm and mites Formulations: 0.3 G, 5 SC Trade
names: Regent, Front line,Tremidor, Zoom, Icon Tempo, Bilgran

MACROCYCLIC LACTONES
Macrocyclic lactones
1. Spinosyns - Spinosad
The extract of the fermentation broth that contains spinosad is produced by the
microorganism, Saccharopolyspora spinosa. The primary components are spinosyn A
and spinosyn D. Spinosad kills insects by causing rapid excitation by activation of
nicotinic acetylcholine receptors of the insect nervous system, leading to involuntary
musclecontractions, prostration with tremors, and paralysis. It also effects GABA
receptor functioning. Spinosad is a contact and stomach poison with some
translaminar movement in leaf tissue. Formulations: 45 SC, 2.5 WSC
Trade names: Tracer, Spintor, Precise, Success, Naturalyte, Laser, Credence
Caribstar,Boomerang, and Conserve LD50 value: 3738 mg/kg
2. Avermectins:
Avermectins form a new class of compounds having nematicidal, miticidal and
insecticidal activity. These are produced by the soil microorganism Streptomyces
avermitilis. Avermectins activate the GABA gated chloride channel, causing an
inhibitory effect, which, when excessive, results in the insect’s death. This channel
normally blocks reactions in some nerves, preventing excess stimulation of CNS.
Emamectin benzoate and abamectin are the two major compounds in this group.
.contact and stomach poisons. These are used as bait, foliar application against
Homoptera, Diptera, Coleoptera, Lepidoptera and mites
Emamectin benzoate: It is non systemic insecticide which penetrates by translaminar
movement and effective against Lepidopterous pests It has low toxicity to non target
organisms and environment. Formulations: EC 5, SG 5
Trade names: Proclaim LD50 value: 300 mg/kg.
Abamectin:
It is a broad spectrum insecticide acting on mites of Tetranychidae, Eeriophyidae and
Tarsonemidae. It is also effective against tobacco hornworm, diamondback
moth,tobacco budworm, serpentine leaf miner and less potent against certain
Homoptera (aphids) and Lepidoptera. It is less toxic to beneficial arthropods
Formulations: EC 1.8 Trade names: Avid, Agrimec, Vertimec, Argi-mek, Affirm and
Avert
3. Oxadiazines
Indoxacarb:The active ingredient indoxacarb works by inhibiting sodium ion entry into
nerve cells, resulting in paralysis and death of targeted pests. Indoxacarb is a stomach
poison with slight contact action. Indoxacarb affects insects from direct exposure and
through ingestion of treated foliage/fruit. Once indoxacarb is absorbed or ingested,
feeding cessation occurs almost immediately. It kills by binding to a site on sodium
channels and blocking the flow of sodium ions into nerve cells. The result is impaired
nerve function, feeding cessation, paralysis, [Link]: SC 14.5, WDG
Trade names: Avaunt, [Link]
4. Thio-Urea Derivatives
Diafenthiuron is new types of thiourea derivative which acts specially on sucking
pests such as mites, whiteflies and aphids. Diafenthiuron is photochemically converted
within a few hours in sunlight to its carbodimiide derivative which is much more
powerful acaricide/insecticide than diafenthiuron. It is a inhibitor of oxidative
phosphorylation, via distruption of ATP formation (inhibitor of ATP synthase). It acts
as Acaricide cum-insecticide as a foliar sprays against mites, sucking pests,
lepidopteran insect pests Formulations: 50 WP Trade names: Polo LD50 value: 2068
mg/kg.
5. Pyridine Azomethines
Pymetrozine is a new insecticide highly active and specific against sucking
insectpests. Pymetrozine is the only representative of the pyridine azomethine. It has
high degree of selectivity, low mammalian toxicity and safety to birds, fish and non-
target arthropods. When the insertion of the stylets of sucking insects into the
pymetrozine treated plant tissues, stylets are almost immediately blocked. The sucking
insects die by starvation a few days later (feeding depressant)
Formulations: 50 WDG Trade names: Full fill, Chess LD50 value: 5693 mg/kg
6. Pyrroles Pyrroles are oxidative phosphorylation inhibitors. It works by uncoupleing
oxidative phosphorylation from electron transport process in mitochondria.( Oxidative
phosphorylation is the process through which ATP is synthesized in plants and
animals). It interferes with formation of ATP which is essential for muscle contraction.
1. Chlorfenapyr:It is a miticide and insecticide. Chlorfenapyr has broad spectrum of
activity against many species of Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Acarina and Thysanoptera.
It is mainly stomach poison and has contact action also. Formulations: SC 3 Trade
names: Pirate ,Pylon LD50 value: 626 mg/kg
Formamidines Formamidines are represented by Chlordimeform and Amitraz with
very uniqueactions for the control of phytophagous mites, ticks and certain insects
(Lepidoptera and Hemiptera) by acting as agonists of octapamine receptors
octapamine act as neurotransmitter,neuromodulator and is involved in energy
metabolism and stress responses.
1. Chlordimeform:It has marked translaminar and systemic activity. It shows a strong
repellent-antifeedant action on both lepidopterous larvae and mites. It has good
ovicidal activity. Non toxic to non target organisms except predaceous mites.
Formulations: 50 SP, 4 EC Trade names: Galecron, Fundal, Fundal, Spike LD50 value:
340 mg/kg
2. Amitraz:It is a non systemic insecticide and acaricide with contact and respiratory
action It is used to control red spider mites, leaf miners, scale insects, and aphids.
Formulations: 50 SP, 20 EC Trade names: Acarac, Amitraze,Baam LD50 value: 523-
800 mg/kg
Ketoenols Ketoenols act as insecticide and acaricides against against all
developmentalstages and is a valuable new tool in the resistance management. They
are tetronic acid insecticides with acaricidal action. Their mode of action is to inhibit
lipogenesis in treated insects, resulting in decreased lipid contents, growth inhibition
of younger insects, and reduced ability of adult insects to reproduce.
1. Spiromesifen: Spiromesifen is effective against whitefly, spider mites and psyllids.
It is is particularly active against juvenile stages. However, it also strongly affects
fecundity of mite (and whitefly adults by transovariole effects. Formulations: 2 SC, 4
FTrade names: Oberon, Forbid LD50 value: >2000 mg/kg
2. Spirodiclofen: Spirodiclofen is a selective, non-systemic foliar insecticide and
acaricide. It is effective against mites and sanjose scales. Formulations: 2 SC, Trade
names: Envidor LD50 value: >2500 mg/kg
3. Spirotetramat:Spirotetramat is effective against aphids, whiteflies, scales,
mealybugs, psylla, phylloxera, thrips, and mites on crops like citrus, vegetables,
grapes, potato, other tuberous crops, livestock commodities, and
greenhouses/nurseries. Formulations: SC 14.5, SC 22.4 Trade names: Movento, Ultor
LD50 value: >2000 mg/kg
Diamides
[Link]
Chlorantraniliprole is a novel anthranilic diamide insecticide, efficacious for control of
lepidopteran insect pests as well as some species in the orders Coleoptera, Diptera
andHemiptera. It is active on chewing pest insects primarily by ingestion and
secondarily by contact. It exhibits larvicidal activity as an orally ingested toxicant by
targeting and disrupting the Ca 2 + balance . Chlorantraniliprole activates ryanodine
receptors via stimulation of the release of calcium stores from the sarcoplasmic
reticulum of muscle cells (i.e for chewing insect pests) causing impaired
regulation,paralysis and ultimately death of sensitive species. It has low mammalian
toxicity. Chlorantraniliprole can be used as foliar spray on insect pests of fruits and
vegetable crops@ 10 to 60 g/ha. Trade names: Coragen 200SC and Altacor 35 WG
[Link]
Cyantraniliprole is another diamide efficacious against a cross spectrum of chewing
and sucking pests. It works as toxicant in ingestion orally and has systemic activity. It
targets and disrupts Ca 2 + balance in nervous system. It is formulated as OD (Oil
Dispersion) and SC (Suspension Concentrate) and generally applied @ 10-100 g .i/ha
Trade name : Cyazypyr
3. Flubendiamide:It is a new lepidoperan insecticide. Acts by ingestion and disrupts
Ca2+ balance in the nervous system resulting in rapid cessation of feeding and
extended residual control of important lepidopteran pests. Formulations: 240 WG, 480
SC Trade names: Fame, Belt
Different Classifications of Insecticides
Insecticides are classified in several ways taking into consideration their origin, mode
of entry, mode of action and the chemical nature of the toxicant.
I. Based on the origin and source of supply
A. Inorganic insecticides: comprise compounds of mineral origin and elemental
sulphur. This group includes arsenate and fluorine compounds as insecticides.
Sulphur as acaricides and zinc phosphide as rodenticides.
B. Organic Insecticides:
1. Insecticides of animal origin: Nereistoxin isolated from marine annelids, fish oil rosin
soap from fishes etc.
2. Plant Origin insecticides or Botanical insecticides: Nicotinoids, pyrethroids,
Rotenoids etc.
3. Synthetic organic insecticides: Organochlorines , Organophosphorous, Carbamate
insecticides etc.,
4. Hydrocarbon oils etc.
II. Based on the mode of entry of the insecticides into the body of the insect
they are groups as
Contact poisons: These insecticides are capable of gaining entry into the insect body
either through spiracles and trachea or through the cuticle itself. Hence, these poisons
can kill the insects by mere coming in contact with the body of the insects. [Link]
and HCH.
Stomach poisons: The insecticides applied on the leaves and other parts of plants
when ingested act on the digestive system of the insect and bring aboutthe kill of the
insect. Eg: Calcium arsenate, lead arsenate.
Fumigants: A fumigant is a chemical substance which is volatile at ordinary
temperatures and sufficiently toxic to the insects. Fumigation is the process of
subjecting the infested material to the toxic fumes or vapours of chemicals or gases
which have insecticidal properties. Chemical used in the fumigant and a reasonably
airtight container or room is known as fumigation chamber or “Fumigatorium”.
Fumigants mostly gain entry into the body of the insect through spiracles in the
trachea.
Commonly used Fumigants and their doses:
1. Aluminium phosphide, marketed as Celphos tablets used against field rats,
groundnut bruchids etc
2. Carbon disulphide 8-20 lbs/1000ft3 of food grains
3. EDCT (Ethylene Dichloride Carbon Tetrachloride) 20-30 lbs/1000cft of food grains
4. EDB Ethylene dibromide 1 lb/1000ft3 of food grains.
5. SO2: By burning sulphur in godowns SO2 fumes are released.
Systemic insecticides
Chemicals that are capable of moving through the vascular systems of plants
irrespective of site of application and poisoning insects that feed on the plants. Ex:
Methyl demeton, Phosphamidon , Acephate
‘Non systemic insecticides’ are not possessing systemic action are called non
systemic [Link] systemic insecticides, however, have ability to move
from one surface leaf to the other. They are called as ‘trans laminar insecticides’ .
[Link], Diazinon, spinosad etc.
An ideal systemic insecticide quality are
1. Should have high intrinsic pesticidal activity
2. The toxicant must be adequately liposoluble for it to be absorbed by the plant system
and water soluble for it to be translocated in the plant system.
3. The toxicant or its metabolites should be stable for sufficiently long period to
exercise residual effect.
4. Sufficiently soluble in water for translocation through vascular system
5. Should degrade to nontoxic form in reasonable time to avoid toxicity to consumer
Systemic insecticides are applied as seed dressing, granular formulations, sprays
[Link] the leaf, the entry of the toxicant are through stomata and cuticle. On stem the
entry is through lenticels and cracks in the cuticle. In the seed it is through seed coat
especially through the micropyle. Systemic insecticides are highly useful against sap
sucking and vectors such as leafhoppers, whiteflies, thrips, aphids etc.
III. Based on mode of action:
1. Physical poisons: Bring about the kill of insects by exerting a physical effect. Eg:
Heavy oils, tar oils etc. which cause death by asphyxiation. Inert dusts effect loss of
body moisture by their abrasiveness as in aluminium oxide or absorb moisture from
the body as in charcoal.
2. Protoplasmic poisons: A toxicant responsible for precipitation of protein especially
destruction of cellular protoplasm of midgut epithelium. Eg. Arsenical compounds.
3. Respiratory poisons: Chemicals which block cellular respiration as in hydrogen
cyanide (HCN), carbon monoxide etc.
4. Nerve poisons: Chemicals which block Acetyl cholinesterase(AChE) and effect the
nervous system. Eg. Organophosphorous, carbamates.
5. Chitin inhibitors: Chitin inhibitors interfere with process of synthesis of chitin due
to which normal moulting and development is disrupted. Ex Novaluron, Diflubenzuran,
Lufenuron ,Buprofezin
6. General Poisons:Compounds which include neurotoxic symptoms after some
period and do not belong to the above categories. [Link], Toxaphene, aldrin

IV. Based on toxicity:

Classification Symbol Oral LD50 DermalLD50
1. Extremely toxic Skull & Pioson 1-50 1-200 Red
2. Highly toxic Pioson 51-500 201-2000 Yellow Danger
3. Moderately toxic Blue 501-5000 2001-20,000 Caution
4. Less toxic Green >5000 >20,000
V. Based on stage specificity:
1. Ovicides, 2. Larvicides,3. Pupicides,4. Adulticides
VI. Generation wise:
I. First generation - Inorganics and Botanicals
II. Second generation - Synthetic organics
III. Third generation - Recent chemicals for reproductive control,
IGRs like MH & JH mimics
IV. Fourth generation - Synthetic pyrethroids
V. Fifth generation - -DO-
1. Alfamethrin - Alfaguard/ Fartac 10 Ec
2. Fenpropathrin – Danitol 10 Ec
3. Bifenthrin – Taletar 10 Ec
4. Fluvalinate – Mavrik
5. Ethofenpron – Treban 10 Ec and Neonecotinoids

Lecture No 13. Survey & surveillance and forecasting of Insect pests, Case histories of IPM
programmes – success stories. Development and validation of IPM modules for major crops
– problem identification – Research and development of IPMs – Modules for major
Agricultural and horticultural crops and validation.

PEST SURVEY AND SURVEILLIANCE

Pest Monitoring
Monitoring phytophagous insects and their natural enemies is a fundamental tool in IPM -
for taking management decision
Monitoring - estimation of changes in insect distribution and abundance

- information about insects, life history

- influence of biotic and abiotic factors on pest population

Survey
“An official procedure conducted over a defined period of time to determine the
characteristics of a pest population or to determine which pest species occur in an area
is called survey”

Types of survey:-

Qualitative survey
Quantitative survey

Roving survey

fixed plot survey

Qualitative survey: (detection of pest )

• Aimed at pest detection

• Provides list of pest species present along with reference to density like common,
abundant, rare.
• Employed with newly introduced pests to understand the extent of infestation.
• Adopted at international borders (avoid invasion of any new species).

Quantitative survey: (enumeration of pest)

• Define numerically the abundance of pest population in time and space.

• Provides information on damaging potential of a species and data can be used to predict
future population trends.
• Provide the basis to decision making for adopting control measures.

Roving survey
• Assessment of pest population/damage from randomly selected spots representing
larger area
• Large area surveyed in short period
• Provides information on pest level over large area

Fixed plot survey

• Assessment of pest population/damage from a fixed plot selected in a field.

• The data on pest population/damage recorded periodic from sowing till harvest.
• e.g. 1 sq.m. Plots randomly selected from 5 spots in one acre of crop area in case of
[Link] each plot 10 plant selected at [Link] tillers and tillers affected by stem
borer in these 10 plants counted.
• Total leaves and number affected by leaf folder observed. Damage expressed as per cent
damaged tillers or leaves.
• Population of BPH from all tillers in 10 plants observed and expressed as number/tiller.
Pest Surveillance
Refers to an official process which collects and records data on pest occurrence or
absence by survey, monitoring or other procedures .
An insect pest survey is a detailed collection of insect population information at a
particular time in a given area.
The regular surveys of same place or locality at consistent intervals to assess changes
in pest species over a time is called „surveillance‟.

Objectives of Pest Surveillance

1. to know existing and new pest species

2. to assess pest population and damage at different growth stage of crop

3. to study the influence of weather parameters on pest
4. to study changing pest status (Minor to major)
5. To monitor development of biotypes, resistance, resurgence etc.
6. to assess natural enemies and their influence on pests
7. effect of new cropping pattern and varieties on pest

Basic components of pest surveillance

Identification of insect pest (collected, reared otherwise barcoding IBOL: International
Barcode of Life).
Determination of pest population (useful in pinpointing factors that bring changes in
natural population and understand functioning of life-system of pest species).
The loss caused by the incidence (based on ETL‟s and EIL‟s) & the economic benefits,
by the control measures.
1. Identification of the pest.
2. Distribution and prevalence of the pest and its severity.
3. The different levels of incidence and the loss due to the incidence.
4. Pest population dynamics.
5. Assessment of weather.
6. Assessment of natural enemies etc.
7. This study will give advance knowledge of probable pest infestation and will help to
plan cropping patterns and to get best advantage of pest control measures. Identification
of insect pest Correct identification of pest is needed. If the identification of pest is
incorrect, the decision for taking intervention for the management of pest will not be
reliable.

There are two major types of surveillance systems

General surveillance:
Process whereby information on particular pest which is of concern for an area is
gathered from many sources, wherever it is available and provided for use by NPPOs
(National Plant Protection Organizations )
Specific survey:
Procedures by which NPPO‟s obtain information on pest of concern on specific sites in an
area over a defined period of time.

Forecasting for Pest Management

The Pest surveillance programmes are highly useful in forecasting of the pests. It is the
advance knowledge of probable infestation by the pests in a crop. Insect forecasting
service may serve.
(1) To predict the forthcoming infestation levels of a pest which is very useful in taking
control measures and
(2) To find out the critical stages at which the application of insecticides would afford
maximum protection.
During 1941 a nationwide pest forecasting system was established in Japan. Locust
warning station in India was established in 1939.

Pest Forecasting
Forecasting of pest incidence or outbreak based on information obtained from, pest
surveillance.

Uses

Predicting pest outbreak which needs control measure

Suitable stage at which control measure gives maximum protection

Two types of pest forecasting

1. Short term forecasting - Based on 1 or 2 seasons

2. Long term forecasting - Based on effect of weather parameters on pest

Forecasting is made through

1. Population studies carried over several years.

2. Studies on the pest life history.
3. Field studies on the effect of climate on the pest and its environment.
4. Predictions form the empirical data on the pests of the previous season.
Sampling Techniques

Absolute sampling - To count all the pests occurring in a plot

Relative sampling - To measure pest in terms of some values which can be compared over
time and space e.g. Light trap catch, Pheromone trap

Methods of sampling

a. In situ counts - Visual observation on number of insects on plant canopy (either entire
plot or randomly selected plot)
b. Knock down - Collecting insects from an area by removing from crop and (Sudden trap)
counting (Jarring)
c. Netting - Use of sweep net for hoppers, odonates, grasshopper
d. Norcotised collection - Quick moving insects anaesthesised and counter
e. Trapping - Light trap - Phototropic insects

Pheromone trap - Species specific

Sticky trap - Sucking insects

Bait trap - Sorghum shootfly - Fishmeal trap

Emergence trap - For soil insects

f. Crop samples:- Plant parts removed and pest counted e.g. Bollworms

Stage of Sampling

- Usually most injurious stage counted

- Sometimes egg masses counted - Practical considerations
- Hoppers - Nymphs and adult counted

Sample Size

- Differs with nature of pest and crop

- Parger sample size gives accurate results

Decision Making

- Population or damage assessed from the crop

- Compared with ETL and EIL
- When pest level crosses ETL, control measure has to be taken to prevent pest from
reducing EIL.

Economic Injury Level

- Defined as the lowest population density that will cause economic damage (Stern et al.,
1959)
- Also defined as a critical density where the loss caused by the pest equals the cost of
control measure

EIL can be calculated using following formula

EIL =

Where,

EIL = Economic injury level in insects/production (or) insects/ha

C = Cost of management activity per unit of production (Rs./ha)

V = Market value per unit of yield or product (Rs./tonne)

I = Crop injury per insect (Per cent defoliation/insect)

D = Damage or yield loss per unit of injury (Tonne loss/% defoliation)

K = Proportionate reduction in injury from pesti

Advantages of surveillance
1. One can know how a pest is multiplying in an area and when it is expected.
2. Minimize the cost of plant protection by reducing the amount of pesticides used
and in turn reduce environmental pollution.
3. Pest control measures can be initiated in time due to advance forecasting.
4. Useful for pest forecasting.
5. To find out natural enemy population
6. To study the influence of weather parameters on pests
7. Mark endemic areas
8. Maintain the stability of the agro ecosystem.
Components of pest surveillance
1. Identification of the pest.
2. Distribution and prevalence of the pest and its severity.
3. The different levels of incidence and the loss due to the incidence.
4. Pest population dynamics.
5. Assessment of weather.
6. Assessment of natural enemies etc.
This study will give advance knowledge of probable pest infestation and will help to
plan cropping patterns and to get best advantage of pest control measures.
Pest surveillance and monitoring in India: Pest surveillance and monitoring form
an integral part of IPM technology. Directorate of Plant Protection , Quarantine and
Storage (DPPQS), Faridabad, is organizing regular rapid roving pest surveys on major
field crops in different agro ecosystems in collaboration with ICAR and SAU’s and a
consolidated report then issued by Plant Protection Adviser (PPA) to the Government
of India.
Development and Validation of IPM Modules – certain case studies
• Cost effective and adoptable IPM modules have been validated in cotton, rice, 
mustard, chickpea, pigeonpea, groundnut, cabbage, tomato, apple and 200
ha, in cluster of villages in India. This is a continuous programme in Research
stations. An IPM module before going to farmers fields, it should be validated
under farmers fields. After thorough testing including cost effectiveness only it
will be emerged as a recommendation.
CERTAIN SUCCESS STORIES:
• Under in-house research programme, IPM technology has been successfully
implemented in different crops; scented rice in western UP and Haryana;
conventional and transgenic cotton areas of rainfed in southern Maharashtra
and irrigated cotton in Haryana. Better Cost Benefit Ratio in western UP (IPM
1:3.16 and FP 1:2.12) proved quite encouraging and led to horizontal expansion
of IPM. Similarly, in the case of cotton, use of chemical pesticides has been
reduced from 6 to 2 applications with increased Benefit Cost Ratio (IPM 3.03
as against 2.0 in FP). In the case of cotton, various region specific IPM
educational tools have been developed and popularized under Technology
Mission of Cotton (TMC-MMI) through 48 villages covering an area of 10,000
ha in addition to establishment of plant health clinics. The IPM technology was
 demonstrated over 2,687 ha of hybrid cotton and 565 ha of Bt cotton, benefitting
2,400 farmers in villages spread over 8 States.
• Effectiveness of IPM strategies (especially HaNPV) for the management of 
pigeonpea podborer has been demonstrated through farmers’ participatory
mode covering more than 100 ha in cotton based cropping system in southern
Maharashtra. Adoption of IPM in chickpea has led to increase in yield by 74.3%
in IPM (17.4 q/ha) vis-à-vis FP (9.89 q/ha) apart from increasing natural
parasitization (dominated by Campoletis spp) from 5.22 to 11.69% in
Maharashtra. IPM also proved sustainable with higher Benefit Ratio of 4.79
against 2.37 in FP.
• Validation and promotion of biointensive IPM module was also successfully 
carried out on kharif okra, brinjal, tomatoes, cauliflower and cabbage in
Ghaziabad (UP) and Sonepat (Haryana). Use of neem products, Trichoderma,
Trichogramma and spot application of chemical pesticides has reduced the
number of chemical sprays and increased Benefit Cost Ratio in okra (1.58),
brinjal (2.36), cauliflower (4.29), and cabbage (3.23).

14. Implementation and impact of IPM (IPM module for Insect pest) - IPM modules for
major field crops (paddy, sugarcane, cotton, pulses and ground nut) major vegetables
(brinjal, tomato, okra, cabbage and cauliflower), mango and coconut – Impact studies of
IPM modules and constraints in implementation.

IPM modules for major field crops:

PESTS OF RICE
RICE STEM BORER / YELLOW STEM BORER, Scirpophaga incertulas Pyralidae:
Lepidoptera
The female moth has bright yellowish brown forewings with a clear single black spot
and the anal end having tuft of yellowish hair. The male is pale yellow and the spots
on the forewings are not conspicuous. Male is smaller than female. Eggs are laid near
the tip on the upper surface of tender leaf in small masses,covered with a felt like buff
coloured mass of hair and scales.
Newly hatched larvae which are pale white with dark brown head and prothoracic
shield, move downward and wander about on plant surface for 1-2 hours. They hang
down by silk thread, get blown off to other clumps or land on water, swim freely and
get to the plants. They enter leaf sheath and feed on green tissues for 2-3 days, then
bore into the stem near nodal region to feed. They disperse from one plant to another.
Usually one larvae is found inside a stem.
The pest can be identified with the aid of following symptoms
❖ “Dead-heart” at vegetative stage which turns brownish, curls and dries off
❖ “White ears” at heading stage with empty, partially filled grains
❖ Presence of egg masses near the tips of tender leaf blades
❖ Activity of moths in the vicinity
❖ Frass at the feeding site
MANAGEMENT
Monophagous nature and peculiar boring habits of yellow stem borer make control
with insecticides difficult.
• Harvesting of crop close to soil surface, ploughing or flooding the field after harvest
to kill hibernating larvae in the stubbles
• Selection of varieties resistant to yellow stem borer : Swarnamukhi (NLR 145),
Pothana (WGL 22245), Varsha (RDR 355)
• Clipping the tips of the seedlings prior to transplantation aids in the elimination of egg
masses
• Seedling root-dip with chlorpyriphos (0.02%) @ 200 ml in 200 litres of water in a
plot of 3 m x 3 m for 12-14 hours. If 3 kg urea is added, 3 hours is sufficient. Seedlings
thus treated are sufficient to transplant one acre. Seedling root-dip is effective for 30
days in the main field against stem borer, gall midge, BPH and GLH.
• Setting light traps or pheromone traps for monitoring the pest
• Collection and elimination of egg masses
• Encouraging natural enemies LIKE Egg parasitoids: Tetrastichus schoenobii,
Telenomus beneficiens,Trichogramma chilonis, [Link],
Larval parasitoids: Goniozus indicus, Apanteles ruficrus, A. schoenobii, Bracon
chinensis
Pupal parasitoids: Elasmus albopictus, Tetrastichus ayyari,Xanthopimpla emaculata
Predator : a carabid, Chlaenius sp.
• Economic threshold levels (ETL): Nursery : 1 egg mass or 1 moth / m2
• Main crop : 1 egg mass or 1 moth / m2 , 5% dead hearts 1% white ears
Nursery:
• 5 days before pulling the nursery application of carbofuran 3G @ 200 g/cent of
nursery in a little water (seedling root-dip not required) (or) • Foliar sprays with
monocrotophos 1.6 ml/l or chlorpyriphos 2.0 ml/l at 10 and 17 DAS
Main field:
• Foliar sprays with chlorpyriphos 2.5 ml/l or phosphamidon 2.0 ml/l or acephate 1.5
g/l or cartap hydrochloride 2.0 g/l or chlorantra niliprole 0.4 ml/l
• At panicle initiation stage: cartap hydrochloride 4 g @ 8 kg/acre,
• Carbofuran 3 g @ 10 kg/acre

RICE GALL MIDGE

Orseolia oryzae Cecidomyiidae: Diptera
Maggot which is pale reddish, apodous moves down to the shoot apex without boring
into plant tissue. Throughout its development it feeds at the base of the apical
meristem leading to suppression of apical meristem, formation of radial ridges from
inner most leaf primordium and elongation of leaf sheath.
The symptoms of attack are
❖ Hollow whitish to pale green cylindrical tube in tillers known as gall / silver
shoot/onion shoot bearing at its tip a green, reduced leaf blade complete with ligules
and auricles. Gall is a modified leaf sheath.
❖ Vigorous subsidiary tillering if infested in early growth period The pest infests even
nursery but prefers tillering stage. Infested tillers do not bear panicles. At panicle
initiation stage, the maggot cannot cause damage. Only one larva develops at shoot
apex, remains throughout its development inside the gall.
MANAGEMENT
• Avoid late transplanting in endemic areas. Early planted kharif crop escapes pest
• Selection of variety resistant to a biotype of the region is imperative since six biotypes
of rice gall midge have been identified in India.
• Biotype is a biological strain of an organism morphologically indistinguishable from
other members of its species but exhibiting distincti ve physiological characteristics,
particularly in its ability to utilize pest resistant host successfully. According to Koga
(1994), the term biotype is generally used to describe a population capable of
damaging and surviving on plants previously known to be resistant to other
populations of the same species.
• Some varieties resistant to gall midge in AP: Phalguna (RPW 6-17), Vasundhara
(RGL 2538), Suraksha, Srikakulam sannalu (RGL 2537), Surekha, Sumathi (RNR
18833),Pothana (WGL 22245), Kavya (WGL 48684), Divya (WGL 44645), Kesava
(WGL 3825), Rudrama (RDR 7555), Pelala Vadlu (RDR 8702), Jagatial Sannalu (JGL
1798), Polasa Prabha (JGL 384), Varalu (WGL 14377), Vorugallu (WGL 3962),
Bhadrakali (WGL 3962), Siva (WGL 3943), Varsha (RDR 355), Indur samba (RDR
763), Srikurma (RGL 2332)
• Seedling root dip with chlorpyriphos 0.02%
• The larvae are naturally parasitized by Platygaster oryzae, Polygnotus sp., and
Propicroscytus mirificus
• Application of granules in nursery 5 days before pulling the nursery – phorate 10 G
60 g/cent or carbofuran 3G @ 200 g/cent
• Application of granules in the main field at 10-15 DAT: phorate 5 kg/ac or carbofuran
10 kg/ac in endemic areas.

BROWN PLANTHOPPER Nilaparvata lugens Delphacidae: Hemiptera

Both nymphs and adults suck sap from basal portion of plant clustering at the base of
rice clump. They inject toxic saliva while feeding which results in “hopper burn”.
Population of white backed plant hopper (WBPH), Sogatella furcifera is commonly
seen in association with that of BPH on rice. WBPH dominates during vegetative
phase while BPH dominates from PI stage..
the symptoms include
❖ Premature yellowing of leaves and drying of plants in isolated circular patches
❖ Drying of plants spreads in a circular fashion...Hopper Burn
❖ Sooty mould
❖ Exuviae at the base of plants
❖ Affected stems turn soft and are unfit for use as straw
BPH is reported as vector of grassy stunt and ragged stunt virus. Apart from rice,
it infests Cyperus rotundus and Panicum repens. The pest is serious from PI to booting
till post flowering. Higher doses of N and high plant density per unit area invite the pest
problem. Thick vegetation and direct sown rice preferred.
MANAGEMENT
• Avoiding monoculture of susceptible varieties
• Growing resistant varieties like Chaitanya (MTU 2067), Godavari (MTU 1032),
Krishnaveni (MTU 2077), Indra (MTU 1061), Vajram (MTU 5249), Vijetha (MTU 1001),
Pratibha (MTU 5293), Cottondora Sannalu(MTU 1010), Nandi (MTU 5182), Surya
(BPT 4358), Deepti (MTU 4870), Chandan (RNR 74802), Tolakari (MTU 1031),
Pushyami (MTU 1075)
• Seedling root dip with chlorpyriphos 0.02%
• Formation of alleys or pathways of 20 cm width for every 2 metres of planting to
facilitate aeration, light, basal spraying, monitoring and other farm operations.
• Draining the field during the middle of the season to suppress the pest population
• Conservation of natural enemies
Spider : Lycosa pseudoannulata, Mirid bug : Cyrtorhinus lividipennis
Aquatic bug : Gerris Tristan, Coccinellids : Coccinella arcuata
Egg parasitoids : Anagrus sp., Oligosita sp.,
Nymphal and Adult parasitoid : Haplogonatopus orientalis
• ETLs: Tillering stage : 10 hoppers / Hill; Heading stage : 20-25/Hill
• Foliar sprays (directing the spray towards base of plants) with any of the following
insecticides viz.,ethofenprox 2 ml/l;acephate 1.5 g/l; BPMC 2 ml/l; imidacloprid +
ethiprole 80 WG 0.25 g/l; monocrotophos 2.2 ml/l; carbofuran 3G 10 kg/ac

RICE GREEN LEAFHOPPER

Nephotettix nigropictus, [Link] Cicadellidae: Hemiptera
Both nymphs and adults suck sap from leaves
causing the following symptoms.
❖ Yellowing, stunting and withering of plants
❖ Leaves turning brown with small scratch like marks on leaf in severe infestation
❖ Uniform yellowing from mid half of leaf
Serious damage is inflicted when leafhoppers transmit virus diseases. [Link] is
known to transmit rice dwarf, rice yellow dwarf, rice transitory yellowing and rice
tungro, while [Link] transmits rice tungro, rice transitory yellowing and rice
yellow dwarf. Rice green leafhoppers are abundant during rainy season. Optimum
temperature and high humidity favour the pest.
MANAGEMENT
• Early clipping of infested leaf tips to prevent virus transmission
• Removal of left over nursery
• Removal of alternative hosts during off season such as Panicum spp., Echinocloa
spp., Cyperus spp., and other grasses
• Seedling root dip with chlorpyriphos 0.02%
• Varieties resistant to green leafhopper IR-20, Vani, Vikramarya
• Eggs are parasitised by Oligosita nephotetticum
• Same insecticides recommended for BPH are effective. For immediate knockdown
of high population monocrotophos 2 ml/l + dichlorvos 1 ml/l

RICE HISPA
Dicladispa armigera
Hispidae: Coleoptera
Beetle is a small 4.5 – 5 mm long, square shaped, bluish black and shiny with spines
on thorax and elytra. Adults scrape green matter on upper surface of leaf blade
causing.
❖ Whitish leaf tips of young leaves giving dried up appearance
❖ White, rectangular streaks parallel to veins on older leaves, which initially
appear glistening, membranous, papery white, later turning pale reddish, straw
coloured Grubs feed on leaf tissue inside the leaf mine causing
❖ Blister spots towards leaf tip
MANAGEMENT
• Clipping of leaf tips of seedlings while transplanting eliminates eggs laid towards the
tip • Removal of left over nursery • Grubs are parasitized by Bracon sp.,
• Foliar sprays with profenophos 2 ml/l or monocrotophos 1.6 ml/l or chlorpyriphos
2.5ml/l.

RICE LEAF FOLDER

Cnaphalocrocis medinalis Pyralidae: Lepidoptera
The larva folds 3-4 leaves of young plants feeding from within. In grown up plants, it
folds leaf longitudinally from tip downwards bringing together the margins with silken
threads, lives in tubes thus formed feeding on chlorophyll. Single larva damages
several leaves causing the following symptoms.
❖ Whitish membranous folded leaves with typical white streaks
❖ Faecal pellets when leaf opened
❖ Reduced vigour of the plant
The pest causes more loss at boot leaf stage.
MANAGEMENT
It is better to manage effectively the first generation of the pest to prevent the build up
of the population at boot leaf stage.
• Early clipping of infested, folded leaf tips • Removal of alternative hosts Echinocloa
spp., and Panicum spp., and other grasses
• The ichneumonid, Xanthopimpla emaculata is parasitic on the pest larvae
• Passing a rope 2-3 times over the crop at tillering stage mechanically to dislodge
caterpillars
• Foliar sprays with chlorpyriphos 2.5 ml/l or acephate 1.5 g/l or cartap hydrochloride
2 g/l or granules of cartap hydrochloride 4 G 8 kg/ac

RICE EARHEAD BUG/GUNDHI BUG

Leptocorisa oratorius Coreidae: Hemiptera
The bugs emit characteristic unpleasant odour indicative of their presence in the field,
hence the name, gundhi bug. The pest appears on rice just before flowering stage and
continues until panicles ripen. Nymphs are pale yellowish green possessing
odoriferous glands on the fifth abdominal segment.
❖ Affected grains become shrivelled and chaffy
❖ Brown spot is observed at the feeding site where sooty mould develops
❖ Lower grain quality and broken grains when infested at soft dough stage
MANAGEMENT
• Foliar sprays in the evening hours at milky stage starting from borders of the crop
with dichlorovos 1 ml/l + endosulfan 2 ml/l or chlorpyriphos 2 ml/l or malathion 2 ml/l
• Dusting with endosulfan 4 D 10 kg/ac or carbaryl 10 D 10 kg /ac.
GRASSHOPPERS
Rice large grasshopper : Hieroglyphus banian Rice small grass hopper : Oxya nitidula,
Acrididae: Orthoptera
Nymphs and adults feed on foliage by irregularly cutting leaf margins. In severe cases
only midribs and stalks remain. They also cut the panicle at heading stage and
are very active at night time.
Scraping field bunds and summer ploughings to destroy eggs, dusting cabaryl 10D or
malathion 5D @ 10 kg/ac or foliar spraying with fenitrothion 2 ml/l or endosulfan
2 ml/l found effective in their management.

RICE ROOT WEEVIL

Ehinocnemus oryzae Curculionidae: Coleoptera
It is semi aquatic in habit. Newly hatched grubs feed on stem epidermis initially, enter
soil and attack tender roots of transplanted crop causing poor tillering and stunted
growth. Upon investigation, grubs can be seen adhering to roots. Seedling root dip
with chlorpyriphos 2.5ml/l, application of neem cake @ 100 kg/ac or superphosphate
@ 80 kg/ha to deter grubs at active feeding zone

RICE SWARMING CATERPILLAR

Spodoptera mauritia
Noctuidae: Lepidoptera
Caterpillar nibble at first, later become voracious feeder eating the seedlings in
the nursery and reducing the plants to mere stumps. They migrate from field to field
feeding at night and hiding during the day.
Flooding the nursery brings out hiding larvae which are picked up by birds. Foliar
sprays with dichlorvos 1 ml/l or chlorpyriphos 2 ml/l are effective.

CLIMBING CUTWORM , Mythimna separate Noctuidae: Lepidoptera

The pest becomes serious in certain years of heavy rainfall.
Foliar sprays with chlorpyriphos 2.5 ml in combination with dichlorvos 1 ml per litre of
water in the evening hours following irrigation are effective.
RICE CASEWORM, Paraponyx stagnalis Pyralidae: Lepidoptera
Larva cuts the leaf blades into short lengths and constructs a tubular case inside which
it remains and feeds on the foliage scraping green matter in streaks. Damage appears
ladder like with alternate dark and light rows o f green patches.
Sprinkling kerosene on water and passing a rope over the crop to dislodge and kill
the larvae in the cases. Stagnant water along with leaf cases is drained.
Monocrotophos 1.6 ml/l or chlorpyriphos 2.5 ml/l is effective.
RICE WHORL MAGGOT
Hydrellia philippina Ephydridae: Diptera
Maggots attack the leaf blades even before unfurling and the initial damage is
characterised by the presence of narrow stripes of whitish area in the blade
margins. Boot leaf and spikelet damage has also been noticed. The maggots feed on
spikelets and cause shrivelling. Maintenance of irrigation water during initial
establishment stage of seedlings and application of carbofuran 3 G @ 33 kg/ha is
effective.
PADDY LEAF MITE / YELLOW MITE
Oligonychus oryzae Tetranychidae: Acarina
Nymphs and adults congregate on lower surface of leaf and suck sap resulting in pale
whitish blotches on upper side of leaf which later turn yellow to orange colour. Thin
webs are seen on the undersurface of leaves. In heavy incidence mites can be seen
on upper side of leaf also.
Foliar sprays of wettable sulphur 3 g/l or dicofol 5 ml/l are found effective.
PANICLE MITE / SHEATH MITE
Steneotarsonemus spinki Tarsonemidae: Acarina
At vegetative phase, both nymphs and adults colonise midribs of leaves and lacerate
tissues up to maximum tillering stage causing brown necrotic patches on midribs. At
panicle initiation stage mites move to leaf sheath to feed causing brown necrotic
lesions on leaf sheath. Maximum incidence occurs at boot leaf stage. At panicle
emergence, mites enter florets, feed on ovaries and stamens causing sterile and
discoloured grains in the panicle. Later these grains turn black invaded by saprophytic
fungus.
Dicofol 5 ml/l or profenophos 2 ml/l once at maximum tillering stage when brown
lesions on midribs appear and second spraying at panicle emergence are
recommended in its management.

INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM)

There are many definitions of IPM, but the basic concept is the containment of a pest
below economically damaging levels, using a combination of control measures.
Following four primary components of IPM are usually recognized.
1. Host plant resistance
2. Manipulation of the farming system to minimise pest infestation or damage
3. Enhanced natural control practice
4. Selective use of biorational and synthetic pesticides
IPM Practices in Rice:
Various approaches in the management of pests of rice fit into the above primary
components of IPM.
• Harvesting of crop close to soil surface and deep ploughing or flooding after harvest
• Selection of resistant / tolerant varieties against key pests suitable to local situations
• Protection of nursery from pests
• Application of carbofuran 200 g/cent of nursery in a little water 5 days before pulling
nursery for protection against stem borer, gall midge, brown planthopper and green
leafhopper for 30 days in the main field
• Clipping tips of leaf blades before transplanting to eliminate eggs of rice stem borer
and hispa
• Early planting in gall midge endemic areas
• Formation of alleys or path ways of 20 cm width for every 2 metres of planting to
facilitate basal spraying and for aeration and light
• Avoiding of excessive doses of nitrogen
• Ensuring proper drainage and water management
• Weed management
• Monitoring incidence of pests through light traps or pheromone traps for rice stem
borer, leaf folder
• Monitoring pest and natural enemy ratio (2:1)
• Passing a rope over the crop in vegetative phase against leaf folder and caseworm
• Inundative release of Trichogramma egg parasitoids @ 20,000/ac three times within
30-45 DAT
• Use of botanical pesticides such as neem seed kernel extract, neem oil etc.
• Application of insecticides on ETL basis
• Community approach in rodent management.

PESTS OF SUGARCANE

EARLY SHOOT BORER, Chilo infuscatellus Pyralidae: Lepidoptera

The larvae that hatch out from the eggs get scattered and young larva enters the stem
by passing into the space between the leaf sheath and stem. The caterpillar ores into
the growing stem and kills the young plant causing dead heart, if ignored later
becomes internodal borer, which bores the stem at internodes. In young tillers,
caterpillar bites holes through the stem at the ground level and feeds inside and
exhibits the following symptoms
❖ Presence of an entrance hole at the ground level.
❖ Dead hearts which can be easily pulled out. The dead heart emits offensive smell.
❖ If infested canes are split opened, the larvae or pupae are seen inside.
The full grown caterpillar is 20-25 mm in length. The caterpllar whitish with five violet
stripes dorsally and dorso laterally on its body with dark brown head. The pest
attack is usually severe in the early stages of the crop growth during the hot pre
monsoon period. The attack of the borer is a continuous process from sprouting stage
to cane formation. Even after cane formation, it acts as an internodal borer affecting
the internodes. Infestation is favoured by poor irrigation, absence of rains, high
temperature and low humidity.
MANAGEMENT
• Systematic collection of egg masses and their destruction.
• Removal of dead hearts and their destruction.
• Trash mulching which not only checks the population but also conserves soil
moisture and adds the organic matter to the soil.
• Planting in deep trenches reduces the borer incidence.
• Adjusting the planting dates to avoid the peak oviposition. Minimum incidence is in
November and December planting. Maximum incidence is in January and February
planting.
• Quick growing varieties escape heavy infestation – Attack will be more in thin
varieties than in thick ones.
• Set treatment with 0.1% malathion or chloripyriphos.
• Application of carbofuran 3 G @ 13 kg or Fipronil 0.3 G @ 10 kg or
Chlorantraniliprole 0.4 G @ 9 kg per acre duly mixing in sand at 1: 2 ratio in furrows
during planting.
• Light earthing up of soil up to 4-6 week old crop to make the stem inaccessible to
larvae followed by frequent irrigations.
• Installation of light traps.
• The release of egg parasites, Trichogramma chilonis @ 20,000 per acre in the form
of Trichocards;
• By spraying chlorpyriphos 2 .5 ml /lt or monocrotophos 1.6 ml/lt l at 4th, 6th, and 9th
week after planting. If the incidence is Spraying of Chlorantraniliprole @ 0.3 ml/lt on
30 and 60 days after planting

INTERNODAL BORER Chilo sacchariphagus indicus Pyralidae: Lepidoptera

The caterpillar bores at the nodal region and enters the stem. The tissues turn red and
the hole is usually plugged with excreta. A larva may attack a number of nodes.
Caterpillar has a white body with dark spots and a brown head. The caterpllar whitish
with four violet stripes dorsally
MANAGEMENT
• Collection of egg masses and their destruction.
• Inundative release of the egg parasite Trichogramma australicum at 50,000
parasites/ ha/ week.
• The pest can be controlled by spraying chlorpyriphos 2 .5 ml /lt or monocrotophos
1.6 ml/lt at fortnightly intervals from 120 days age of the crop. Normally two sprayings
are sufficient.

TOP SHOOT BORER Scirpophaga novella Pyralidae: Lepidoptera

The caterpillar first bores into the stem from top by tunneling into the mid ribs of leaves,
leaving markings on the 2nd through 5th [Link] the midrib it tunnels towards the
central core of leaves and enters the shoot to feed. As a result of biting across the
spindle a row of shot holes are formed.
The damage results in the following symptoms
❖ A number of shot holes on affected leaves due to biting across the spindle
❖ Reddish brown charred dead heart that can not be easily pulled out.
❖ Interference with apical growth gives rise to side shoots and bunchy top
symptoms.
MANAGEMENT
• Collection and destruction of egg masses.
• Collection of affected tillers and destruction.
• Release of egg parasitoid Trichogramma minutum and larval parasitoid, Isotima
javensis during November and December in Adsali sugarcane is found successful.
• Spraying of chlorpyriphos 2 .5 ml /lt or monocrotophos 1.6 ml/lt .

SUGARCANE SCALES Melanaspis glomerata Diaspididae: Hemiptera

The tiny nymphs after settling down insert their mouthparts into the tissue and start
sucking the plant sap. They remain stationary all through their life if they are females.
The formation of the protected covering i.e., scales starts soon after a nymph gets
settled and becomes thicker and increases in size. Infestation commences with the
formation of the internodes and continues to increase as the plant grows. Plant sap is
sucked and the plant is devitalised. In severe cases, even it infests the leaf sheath and
the lamina including the mid rib. Varieties having persistent leaf sheaths are
attacked to a greater extent and a definite correlation exists between number of
stomata in the stem epidermis and the intensity of attack.
❖ Shrivelled canes become with shortened internodes.
❖ Formation of shiny thick encrustation on the cane, maximum on the bottom and
middle of the cane.
MANAGEMENT:
• Planting of varieties having a close leaf sheath and are almost self stripped in
endemic areas of this pest.
• A variety CO – 7706 has been found moderately tolerant to scales
• Immersion of setts (Sett treatment) before planting in dimethoate 2ml/l or malathion
2ml/l solution for at least 15 minutes or drenching the cane setts kept in the furrow with
0.1% dimethoate solution @ 450-500 litres per hectare before covering them with
earth.
• When the shoots have atleast 6-8 internodes, detrashing the basal 4-5 internodes
ensuring that the top most detrashed node is free from scale insect (Before end of
July).
• Spraying with malathion 2ml/l or dimethoate 1.7 ml/l on the exposed basal nodes
twice at an interval of 10-15 days whenever the stage of the crop and its growth
permits.
• Application of carbofuran 3G at the base of clumps 5"-6" deep before July.
• Release of predatory coccinellids, Pharoscymnus hornii or Chilocorus nigritus in the
detrashed fields after July.

SUGARCANE LEAFHOPPERS
Pyrilla perpusilla Lophopidae: Hemiptera
Both adults and nymphs suck sap usually from the underside of leaves and divitalise
the plant. In severe cases, the leaves dry up and the plant is stunted. Due to feeding
the sucrose percentage of juice is adversely affected. Besides sucking the sap. They
excrete honey dew that spreads on the leaves on which a black fungus develops
adversely affecting photosynthesis and ultimately the yield
❖ Affected plants present sickly and blighted appearance.
❖ Development of sooty mould.
❖ Swarms of these insects in all stages on the tender foliage. Fading and drying up
of the leaves.
late action of the parasitoid Epiricania favours rapid multiplication of the pest.
MANAGEMENT
• Cultural practices like prompt destruction of trash after harvest.
• Selection of tolerant varieties
• Mechanical methods of collecting and destroying egg masses in the initial stage i.e.,
during April-May.
• Tetrastichus pyrillae and lepidopteran parasite, Epiricania melanoleuca naturally
suppress the population.
• Foliar sprays with Chlorpyriphos 2.5 ml/l or malathion 2 ml/l

WHITE GRUB
Holotrichia serrata, H. Consanguinea Scarabaeidae: Coleoptera
Grubs of Holotrichia spp are found feeding on roots and root hairs of sugarcane. The
attacked clumps dry up. The pest is active in monsoon period.
Effective management practices include ploughing the field deep after the crop.
application of phorate 10G 8 – 10 kg / ac in furrows on both sides of cane row at
planting or standing crop, and spraying with chlorpyriphos 2 .5 ml /lt carbaryl 5 g/l at
2.0 ml/l on leaves of neem, subabul, drumstick as the beetles emerge in June after the
break of monsoon and are active at night and feeding on them and erection of light
traps to collect beetles which are phototropic.

SUGARCANE MEALY BUG

Saccharicoccus sacchari Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera
Small pinkish oval insect attached to the lower nodes, protected by leaf sheaths and
covered by a white waxy powder. Adults and nymphs of these bugs are found in large
number near the nodes.
Both nymphs and adults persist on plants and suck the cane juice from the growing
canes and excrete honey dew on the leaves. Sooty mould develops on the infested
portion. The pest population builds up under drought conditions. Ants help in their
dispersal to a large extent and they live in symbiotic existence. The infestation can be
identified by the presence of mealy bugs at the nodes within the leaf sheath, reduced
plant vigour and growth, movement of ants and mould on infested area.
Destruction of crop residues, immersion of setts in malathion 2 ml/l or dimethoate 1.7
ml/l solution for 15 minutes before planting, selection of pest free sets for planting and
detrashing and spraying malathion 2 ml/l or dimethoate 1.7 ml/l are effective
measures.

TERMITES
Odontotermes obesus, Termitidae: Isoptera
Termites or white ants are another destructive pest of sugarcane, omnivorous and
omnipresent. They live under ground attacking the crop, when the setts are planted in
the soil and ravages continue till harvest of the crop with slight slackness during
monsoon. They are mostly found in light soil. Their attack is severe in red soils and
where irrigation facilities are inadequate. The termites damage the cut ends and buds
of setts affecting their germination. Setts are completely eaten away leaving only
the outer hard rinds. In attacked plants,the outer leaves first show signs of drying
and the attacked canes may come out easily, if pulled.
Systematic digging up of termite mounds and destruction of queen is a permanent
measure of control. Dusting methyl parathion 200 g around and leveling, deep
ploughing and copius irrigation reduces infestation and drenching with chlorpyriphos
50 EC@ 10ml/l is effective.

WHITEFLIES
Aleurolobus barodensis, Neomaskellia bergii Aleurodidae: Hemiptera
Only these two species have been recorded damaging sugarcane in India. Both
nymphs and adults suck sap from leaves which dry up and characteristic yellow
streaks appear along the length. Nymphs are stationary. Severely attacked plants
become [Link] sugarcane crop raised in low lying, water logged areas and in
semi dry alkaline soils suffers more due to whitefly. Avoid ratooning in low lying areas,
prompt clipping and destruction of affected parts. Foliar sprays with quinalphos 2 ml/l
against young nymphs and fenetrothion 1 ml/l against puparia are effective measures.

WOOLLY APHID
Ceratovacuna lanigera Aphididae: Hemiptera
Adults colonise on either side of mid rib, covered with white puff material on under side
of leaves. Nymphs develop white waxy and mealy filamentous material from third
instar. Nymphs and adults suck sap from undersurface of leaves resulting in white and
yellow spot on leaves, drying of leaves, sooty mold on honeydew and activity of ants.
Earthing up to destroy infested material, weed management, restricting movement of
seed material from infested areas, biological control by neuropteran predator,
Chrysoperla carnea; lepidopteran predator: Diapha aphidivora and foliar spray with
acepahte 1.5 g/l are effective management practices.

MITES
Oligonychus indicus, Schizotetranychus andropogoni Tetranychidae: Acarina
Red mite (O. indicus) occurs in hot weather mostly in years when a few summer
showers are received. The leaves turn red in patches.
The white mite (S. andropogoni) appears a little later in May, June and July. It occurs
under characteristic oval webbings and the chlorophyll is depleted in oval patches. Hot
dry conditions favour their increase.
Conservation of phytoseiid predator, Phytoseius sp., foliar spray with dimethoate 3
ml/l, wettable sulphur @ 3-6 gm/l or dicofol 2.7 ml/l are effectictive measures.

INSECT PESTS OF COTTON

The cotton crop in its early stage of crop growth is generally subjected to the attack of
sucking pests. From flowering till harvest, the bollworms cause appreciable damage.
The losses in cotton from insect attack affect both yield and quality of the lint.

BOLL WORMS:

SPOTTED BOLLWORM Earias vitella; Earias insulana; Noctuidae: Lepidoptera

Adult of E. vitella has pale whitish fore wings with a broad greenish band in the middle
while E. insulana has completely green forewings. The adult body length is about 1
cm while the wing span is about 2.5 cm.
The spotted bollworm appears about 6 weeks after sowing and initially damages the
tender shoot by boring into it resulting in “drying of central shoots” which withers and
drops down. The larvae later bore into the flower buds, squares and bolls. The larva
inserts its head inside the boll and feeds by filling the boll with excreta. A larva may
move out and feed on another bud or boll. The caterpillars of both the species have a
number of black and brown spots on the body and hence the name spotted boll worm.
Pupation takes place generally in fallen material, outside the boll, on plant surfaces
and in cracks and crevices of the soil. Before pupation however, the larva spins a dirty,
white silken cocoon of boat shaped one.
The feeding causes severe shedding of early formed flower buds and bolls. The
damage results in ❖ Presence of wilting, withering and drooping or drying of tender
shoots in early stage of crop growth. ❖ Presence of bored flower buds (squares),
bored bolls with larval frass at the entrance holes ❖ Premature dropping of affected
bolls ❖ Premature opening of damaged bolls, which remain on plants. ❖ Presence
of badly damaged tissues including lint and seed in damaged bolls.
MANAGEMENT
• Destruction of plants, crop residues and alternative weed hosts which harbour pests
in off season • Collection and destruction of infested shoots, squares and bolls and
the fallen material.• Adopting crop rotation • Deep ploughing in summer
• Intercultivation with sorghum, greengram, cluster bean, jowar etc. • Setting of
pheromone traps @ 12/ha • Conservation and use of natural enemies like
Trichogramma evanescens which parasitises the eggs and Bracon lefroyi, B. greeni,
B. hebetor, B. brevicornis, Apanteles sp and Elasmus sp which parasitise the larval
stage and Chelonus and Chalcis species that parasitise pupal stages. • Release of
first instar larvae of Chrysoperla sp.@ 1,00,000/ha • Foliar spray with Bacillus
thuringiensis @2g/l of water • ETL 10% damaged shoot (or) 5% damaged bolls • The
parasitoid activity in the field should be carefully assessed before the insecticidal
application • Foliar spray with endosulfan 2.0 ml; quinalphos 2.5 ml; chlorpyriphos 2.5
ml; acephate 1.5 g; triazophos 2 ml; thiodicarb 1.5 g and profenphos 2 ml/l • The
insecticidal application should coincide with the peak of hatching of eggs, so that the
just hatched larvae may get the fatal dose before entering the plant tissue

AMERICAN BOLLWORM, Helicoverpa armigera Noctuidae: Lepidoptera

It is a polyphagous, infesting gram, lablab, safflower, chillies, groundnut, tobacco,
tomato etc.
Moth is stout, medium sized with brownish/greyish forewings with a dark cross band
near outer margin and dark spots near costal margins, with a wing expanse of 3.7 cm.
The spherical, yellowish eggs are laid singly on tender parts and buds of plants.
Caterpillars are of varying colour, initially brown and later turn greenish with darker
broken lines along the side of the body.
Young larva feeds on the leaves for sometime and then attacks squares and bolls.
Internal tissues are eaten severely and completely hollowed out. While feeding, the
caterpillar thrust its head inside leaving the rest of the body out side. ❖ Fed
leaves shoot and buds. ❖ “Flared or open” squares. Bolls are bored at the base of
flower buds which are hollowed out, bracts of damaged flower buds spread out and
curl down wards. ❖ Premature boll opening and shedding
MANAGEMENT
• Destruction of crop residues • Hand picking up of the grown up larvae • Encouraging
new crop rotation • Nipping terminal buds when 16 to 18 sympodias are present in the
plant within 80 – 100 days to reduce the egg load • Growing intercrops such as
cowpea, onion, maize, coriander, urd bean in 1:2 ratio for conservation of natural
enemy population. • Growing sorghum or maize in 4 rows all around cotton crop as
guard crop. • Use of ovipositional trap crops such as marigold @ 100 plaants / acre
and collection of larvae from flowers. • Erecting of bird perches for encouraging
predatory birds such as king crow, mynah, drongo etc.
• Growing early maturing and tolerant varieties such as Abadita, LK 861, LPS 141, NA
1280 and G 27. • Installing pheromone traps @ 4 / ac (ETL 10 moths/trap/day)
• Releasing of egg parasitoid Tricogramma chilonis at weekly interval @ 1.5 lakhs/ ha
or release of 2nd instar larvae of Chrysoperla carnea @ one lakh/ha at 75 and 90 days
after sowing • Application of HaNPV @ 200 LE/ac in combination with jaggery 1 kg,
sandovit 100 ml or Robin Blue 50 g thrice at 10-15 days interval on observing the eggs
or first instar larvae in the evening hours. • Larval parasitoid such as Campoletis
chloridae (Ichneumonidae); Eriborus angenteopilorus; Diadegma fenestalis; Bracon
brevicornis; Peribaca orbata etc. • ETL 10% of damaged buds (or) 5% of damage bolls
or one egg / plant or one larva / 10 plants • In severe incidence, sprays with indoxacarb
1 ml/l or spinosad 0.3 ml/l or emamectin benzoate 0.5 g/l after collecting late instars.

PINK BOLLWORM, Pectinophora gossypiella Gelechiidae: Lepidoptera

Besides cotton, bhendi, hollyhock, mesta, Abutilon indicum , hibiscus and other
malvaceous crops are infested. Body is dark brown in colour with numerous small
black spots on the wings. The first segment of the antenna bears 5-6 long stiff hairs
and the palpi are pointed and curved upwards. The moths are active during night.
Female lays flattish scale like whitish eggs singly on various parts of young shoots.
However, half developed bolls are preferred when available.
The freshly hatched larvae are white and turn pink as they grow older. The larvae do
most spectacular damage to practically mature cotton bolls which they enter mostly at
such a tiny stage of just hatched larvae that their entry holes get healed and in which
they remain, devouring both seed and fiber forming tissues. The infestation at times is
so severe that up to 10 larvae are found in each boll and 75-100 per cent bolls are
found infested. The damage results in
❖ “Rosette” flowers ❖ Attacked flowers drop prematurely and the seeds are
destroyed in advanced stage ❖ The lint development is retarded and is weakened.
❖ It causes premature opening of the boll leading to invasion of saprophytic fungus.
❖ Stain the lint both in the gin and in the boll, thus the ginning percentage and quality
of lint is greatly reduced. ❖ Poor germination capacity of seeds in the attacked boll.
MANAGEMENT:
• Growing early maturing varieties: bolls mature before heavy population builds up
• Taking up timely sowings. Avoid staggered sowings. • Use acid delinted seeds: soak
seed in concentrated sulphuric acid (80 – 100 ml / kg seed) for 2 – 3 minutes, wash
with water 2 – 3 times followed by washing with lime supernatant, shade dry. • Use of
organic manures, recommended doses of N • Keeping the crop free of weeds
• Monitoring through field scouting and pheromone traps (Gossyplure) • Destroying
PBW in rosette flowers and periodically remove and destroy dropped squares dried
flowers and premature bolls. • Avoiding ratooning and summer cotton.
• After final picking, allowing cattle, sheep and goats to graze upon immature green
bolls to prevent carry over of pest to next season. • Destroying cotton stubbles to
prevent carryover. • Restrict the movement of cotton seed from other areas / states.
• Seed fumigation with methyl bromide @ 0.4 kg / 1000 cu ft. or aluminium phosphide
(Quickphos, Phosfume, Phostoxin) @ 50 tablets (each 3 g)/ 1000 cu ft. • Need based
use of insecticides. ETL: 10 % PBW infested rosette flowers. In particular, persistent
insecticides like quinalphos 2.5 ml/l; chlorpyriphos 2 ml/l; at 15
days interval. • In severe incidence cypermethrin 2 ml/l or lamda cyhalothrin 1.5 ml/l
or thiodicarb 1.5 g/l on need basis towards the end of crop season. • Even at ginning
mills, burning the stained kapas is suggested.
TOBACCO CATERPILLAR, Spodoptera litura Noctuidae: Lepidoptera
Moth is medium sized and stout bodied with forewings pale grey to dark brown incolour
having wavy white crisscross markings. Hind wings are whitish with brown patches
along the margin of wing.
In early stages, the caterpillars are gregarious and scrape the chlorophyll content of
leaf lamina giving it a papery white appearance. Later they become voracious feeders
making irregular holes on the leaves and finally leaving only veins and petioles. During
flowering and boll formation stage, the caterpillars also feed on the internal contents
of bolls causing irregular holes. ETL: 1 egg mass/10 plants.
❖ Irregular holes on leaves initially and later skeletonisation leaving only veins and
Petioles ❖ Heavy defoliation. ❖ Presence of bored bolls.
Caterpillar is velvety, black with yellowish – green dorsal stripes and lateral white
bands with incomplete ring – like dark band on anterior and posterior end of the
body.
MANAGEMENT
• Collection and destriction of the infested material from the field.
• Plucking of leaves harbouring egg masses / gregarious larvae and destroying.
• Setting up light traps for adults.
• Setting up of pheromone traps @ 12/ha
• Spraying NSKE 5 % against eggs and first instar larva.
• Spraying NPV @ 200LE/ac in combination with jaggery 1 kg, sandovit 100 ml or
Robin Blue 50 g thrice at 10-15 days interval on observing the eggs or first instar
larvae in the evening hours.
• Release of egg parasitoid Trichogramma @ 50,000/ha/week four times
• ETL: one egg mass / 10 plants.
• Foliar spraying with endosulfan 2ml/l or thiodicarb 1.5 g/l or quinalphos 2.5ml/l. in
severe incidence novaluran 1 ml/l or lufenuron 1 ml/l.
• Baiting with rice bran 10kg + jaggery 2 kg+ chlorpyriphos 750 ml or thiodicarb 300g
in sufficient quantity of water in form of small balls and broadcasting in evening
hours in one acre.

SUCKING INSECT PESTS

LEAFHOPPERS, Amrasca biguttula biguttula Cicadellidae: Hemiptera

Adult is reddish in winter and greenish yellow in summer. The adult is a wedge shaped
insect about 3.5 mm in length. There is a black spot on each forewing and two small
black spots on the vertex. Both nymphs and adults move diagonally, when
[Link] eggs are usually inserted full length into the spongy parenchymatous
tissue between the vascular bundles and the epidermis. Nymphs are also pale
greenish in colour like the adults but are wingless and are found in large numbers on
lower surface of leaves. The nymph moults five times and the nymphal period last for
7-21 days.
They suck the cell sap from the plant tissue. During desapping the plant, they also
inject a toxin through saliva into the plant tissue, resulting in hopperburn. In susceptible
varieties, the attack results in mottling accompanied by the curling of the entire lamina
with brown necrotic patches. Thus, the entire photosynthetic activity of the plant is very
seriously interfered with. ❖ Hopper burn i.e., the leaf margins turning yellowish
initially and subsequently turning reddish and curling up.❖ Stunted growth of the
plant. ❖ Brown necrotic patches on the leaves. ETL: 2-3 nymphs/leaf
MANAGEMENT
• Growing resistant / tolerant varieties against leafhoppers.( o L603 Saitha, L 604
Narasimha (NA 1325), LRA 5166 NHH 44, NHH 390 H 8, Lam hybrid – 4
• Seed treatment (after acid delinting) with Carbosulfan - 40 g/kg, or Imidacloprid 70
WS - 5 g/kg or Thiamethoxam 70 WS - 4 g/kg gives protection for 30 days against sap
feeders. • Soil application carbofuran 3G 33 kg/ha (1 kg a.i./ha) at sowing.
• Stem application (if seed is not treated) with insecticides using brush
Monocrotophos or methyl demeton 1:4 with water or Imidacloprid 200 SL 1: 20 with
water Three times at 20 – 25, 30 – 35, 40 – 45 Days after sowing. • ETL: 2 – 3 nymphs
/ leaf. Foliar sprays with monocrotophos 1.5 ml/l or imidacloprid 0.4 ml/l or
methyldemeton 2 ml/l or acetamiprid 0.2 g/l or acephate 1.5 g/l or phosalone 2 ml/l or
phosphamidon 0.5 ml/l at 15 & 30 DAS

WHITEFLY, Bemisia tabaci Aleyrodidae: Hemiptera

Adult is minute insect measuring about 0.5 mm in length having white or greyish wings,
a yellowish body and red medially constricted eyes. A single female of this species
lays about 70 stalked eggs singly on the undersurface of leaves, mostly on the top
and middle leaves of plant. The insect can often breed parthenogenetically. Nymphs
are oval shaped, scale like, greenish yellow with marginal bristle like fringes. The
nymphs remain stationary once they settle down. Both nymphs and adults suck sap
from lower side of leaves resulting in ❖ Chlorotic spots which later coalesce formi ng
irregular yellowing of leaves which extends from veins to outer edges. ❖ The
vegetative growth retarded and boll formation seriously hampered. ❖ Shedding of
the bolls accentuated and proper opening of the bolls interfered with. ❖ Low quality
lint and low oil content. ❖ Sooty mould development due to honey dew excretion on
infested parts. It is vector of leaf curl virus.
MANAGEMENT
• A chalcid parasite attacks the older nymphs and the parasitisation is at times more
than 30 per cent. Also, there are a few predators like some species of Chrysopa and
coccinellids, which feed on the whitefly stages. • Growing of tolerant varieties such as
Kanchana (LPS 141); LK 861; NA 1280. • ETL 5-10 nymphs/leaf. • Chemical control
same as under cotton leaf hopper.

COTTON APHID, Aphis gossypii Aphididae: Hemiptera

Adult is small, soft, yellowish, green or greenish brown in colour. It is found in colonies
of hundreds on the tender shoot and the undersurface of tender leaves. They are
characterized by the presence of two tubes like structures called cornicles, on the
abdomen. They are wingless normally but winged forms are often found mostly in the
beginning and towards the end of season. Wings are thin, transparent and are held
like a roof over the body. They reproduce both sexually and parthenogenetically.
Parthenogenetic females give rise to females ovo - viviparously. Nymphs are light
yellowish green or brownish or greenish black in colour. They colonise growing points,
lower surface of leaves and tender shoots. There are four instars. Nymphal period is
about 7-9 days. Both nymphs and adults suck the sap by remaining on the lower
surface of the leaves.
❖ Curled, faded and dried leaves. ❖ Development of black sooty mould due to
honeydew excretion on infested parts.
MANAGEMNT: Same as in cotton leafhopper.

MITES Tetranychus telarius, T. bioculatus (Tetranychidae) Hemitarsonemus latus,

(Tarsonemidae) Eriophyes gossypii (Eriphyiidae)
The large scale use of chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides for the control of other
pests led to the multiplication of the mites as they are less toxic to mites but more
toxic to natural enemies. Nymph is light brown in colour and has two eye spots and
four pairs of legs and quite active. Both nymphs and adults cause damage by feeding
on the lower surface of the leaf underneath a web. ❖ On close examination of the
lower leaf surface, mites smaller than a pinpoint may be seen.
❖ The infested leaves rapidly curl up, become hard and crisp and ultimately shed.
❖ Bolls ripen prematurely and in serious infestation shed.
MANAGEMENT: Foliar sprays with sulphur 50 WP 3 g/l or dicofol 5 ml/l

COTTON THRIPS Thrips tabaci, Scirtothrips dorsalis Thripidae: Thysanoptera

Nymphs and adults suck sap from leaves and flower buds. Margins of affected leaves
get slightly curled up and the leaf blades show uneven surface, when attack occurs in
flowering stage, the affected flowers may wither away. It is a vector of yellow spot virus
and spotted wilt virus

RED COTTON BUG Dysdercus cingulatus Pyrrhocoridae: Hemiptera

In India, the bug infests cotton in all cotton growing regions. Also infests bhendi, maize,
mesta etc., are other host plants. The nymphs and adults suck sap from tender leaves,
petioles and shoots in early stages and then infest flower buds and immature bolls and
bolls that have just opened. Resulting plants loose their vigour and bolls open
prematurely with stained lint. Infested seeds get shriveled, underdeveloped, become
unfit for sowing and oil content gets reduced. From the spot of injury on the bolls, a
bacterium – Nematospora gossypii gains entry and spoils the lint. Some times
cannibalism exists in this insect. The reduvid bug Harpactor costalis is predacious on
red cotton bugs, dusting of methyl parathion 2D or carbaryl 10D @ 10 – 12 kg/ac are
effective against this pest.

DUSKY COTTON BUG, Oxycarenus hyalinipennis Lygaeidae: Hemiptera

The anthocoreid bug - Orius tantilus is predaceous on the nymphs anddusting of
methyl parathion 2D or carbaryl 10D @ 10 – 12 kg/ac is found effective.

COTTON LEAF ROLLER, Sylepta derogata Pyralidae: Lepidoptera

The larva rolls the leaf and feeds on the green tissue in the early stage and eats up a
large portion of the leaf as it grows. Severe attack results in the presence of a large
number of leaf rolls and the plants become stunted ultimately. Foliar spraying with
carbaryl 3 g/l or monocrotphos 1.5 ml/l are effective measures.

COTTON STEM WEEVIL, Pempherulus affinis Curculionidae: Coleoptera

This pest is a serious one of Cambodian cotton, particularly on summer crop. Adults
generally feed on the bark of plants. Grub bores into the stem above the ground level
and makes tunnels. Attacked plants show characteristic gall like swellings on the
stem. In severe cases plant may succumb during early stage of crop growth.
Infestation starts on 12-15 days old cotton plants. Removal and destruction of attacked
plants., Euderus pempheriphilla is parasitic on grubs and foliar sprays with
chlorpyriphos 2.5 ml/l from three weeks after sowing were effective.

GRASSHOPPERS, Cyrtacanthacris ranacea; Chrotogonus oxypterus; Catantops

annexus; Aeolopus tumulus Acrididae: Orthoptera
Heavy infestation results in complete defoliation of plants. Deep ploughing after the
harvest of crop so as to expose the egg masses in the soil, dusting the bunds with
methyl parathion immediately after the hoppers are noticed and check their migration
and dusting the crop in the early stage with methyl parathion dust @ 10-12 kg/ac or
spraying with methyl parathion 2 ml/l carbaryl 3 g/l found effectictive.

MEALYBUG, Phenacoccus solenopsis, Maconellicoccus hirsutus Pseudococcidae:

Hemiptera
Of late the pest has been reported to infest cotton in alarming proportions sucking sap
from all aerial parts of the plant. Initial infestation should be checked by spot treatment
with insecticides by stem application with monocro tophos / methyl demeton or
imidacloprid as detailed earlier. Foliar sprays with methyl parathion / malathion /
triazophos / monocrotophos each at 3 ml/l in combination with dichlorvos 1 ml/l are
effective

INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT IN COTTON

Number of sucking pests like aphids, leahoppers, thrips and whiteflies infest cotton
during early vegetative growth. Of these leafhoppers and whiteflies occur more
regularly and predominently. Hence strategies for managing sucking pests have direct
impact on success of IPM strategies for boll worms which emphasize survival and
build up of natural enemies in cotton ecosystem.
IPM FOR SUCKING PESTS
• Growing toterant / resistant varieties or hybrids against leafhoppers and white flies.
o Leafhoppers: Many varieties like MCU – 5, LRA 5166, L 604, L 603, Narasimha
(NA1325) & hybrids like NHH 44, Saritha, H8, jk Hy – 1, LAHH –1;
Whiteflies: glabrous varieties like Kanchana (LPS 141), LK 861, L615, NA 1280,
Supriya
• Soak the seed in concentrated sulphuric acid (100 ml/kg seed) for 2 – 3 minutes,
wash with water 2 – 3 times followed by washing with lime supernatant, shade dry and
treat with carbosulfan 40 g or imidacloprid 5 g along with little gum to protect against
early season sucking pests. • If untreated seed is sown, apply carbofuran 3G 12 – 14
kg/ac or phorate 10G 4 – 5 kg/ac nearer to the base of seedlings when the soil is
moist. • If the seed treatment is not done or granules are not applied, stem application
using small brush with Monocrotophos or methyl demeton in 1:4 dilution Imidacloprid
in 1:20 dilution at 20, 40, 60 DAS against sucking pests up to 75 days without harming
natural enemies and environment and minimizing insecticide quantity.
• Growing intercrops like blackgram, greengram, soybean, clusterbeans, cowpea,
groundnut, Setaria contribute to build up of natural enemies and give extra income.
High yielding varieties in two rows with 90 cm spacing, hybrids in three rows with 120
cm spacing. • In whitefly endemic areas, keeping yellow empty tins smeared with
greese as trap. Wipe out trapped whiteflies every day and apply greese again. • In non
IPM plots, spray monocrotophos 1.6 ml/l or dimethoate 2.0 ml/l or triazophos 2.5 ml/l
or methyl demeton 2 ml/l or imidacloprid 0.4 ml/l
ETLs: o When there are 5 – 10 whiteflies / leaf; 1 – 2 leafhoppers / leaf; 15 – 20
% aphid infested plants • For mealy bug, dichlorvos 1 ml/l or methyl parathion 1 ml/l.
• For mites, sulphure 3 g/l or dicofol 5 ml/l
IPM FOR BOLLWORMS
• Deep ploughing exposes and eliminates hibernating insects and expose pupae to
sun and predating birds.
• Balanced organic fertilization keeps crop healthy and tolerant to pest attack.
• Border crop with jowar, maize in 2 or 3 rows not only serves as a barrier for migration
of insect pests but also pollen of maize helps in attraction of beneficial Chrysoperla to
the field.
• Growing trap crops @ 100 plants/ acre.
o Castor as an ovipositional trap crop against S. litura: egg masses, gregarious larvae
of S. litura on castor should be removed once in a week and destroyed.
o Marigold as ovipositional trap crop against Helicoverpa
o Okra (bhendi) against spotted bollworm moths.
▪ Spray marigold / okra plants with endosulfan or phosalone to minimize larval
population
• Keep 10 – 15 pheromone traps / ha to attract male moths. Egg scouting from square
initiation stage is desirable.
o ETLS – PBW: 8 moths, ABW: 10 moths, S. litura: 20 moths, SBW: 15 moths per
trap per night.
• Topping (removal of leaf terminals) for 80 – 100 days old crop during October –
November since tender leaves and tips are preferred for egg laying.
• Spray 5% neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) (soak 10 kg neem seed powder in 200
litres of water for 24 h and filter through muslin cloth) to repel moths from egg laying
and to kill eggs and early instar larvae.
• Install ‘T’ shaped or long dried twigs as bird perches to attract predatory birds@ 20
/ac.
• Spray NPV @ 200 LE / ac in combination with jaggery 1 kg, sandovit 100 ml or Robin
Blue 50 g thrice at 10-15 days interval on observing the eggs or first instar larvae in
the evening hours. The diseased larvae die after 4 – 5 days showing tree top
symptoms.
• Spray commercially available B. t formulations (DIPEL, DELFIN, BIOBIT, HALT) @
400 g or 400 ml/ac against Helicoverpa
• On the basis of ETLs spray the following insecticides, endosulfan 2 ml/l or
chlorpyriphos 2 ml/l or quinalphos 2 ml/l or methylparathion 1 ml/l or carbaryl 3 g/l or
triazophos 2 ml/l or thiodicarb 1.5 g/l or profenophos 2 ml/l
• Mixing mustard oil with endosulfan 1:2 or chlorpyriphos 1:4 improves toxicity
• In the entire schedule of spray, do not spray synthetic pyrethroids for more than two
rounds.
• Role of B.t Cotton: Advances in biotechnological approaches facilitated introduction
of B.t transgenic cotton which offered greatest protection against American bollworm.
Oflate B.t cotton have dramatically changed the plant protection scenario in cotton
worldwide. Growing of B.t cotton has been highly successful against bollworms. This
is evident in increased area under B.t cotton in India from 72,000 acres in 2002 to
10.15 m. ha in 2009 -10. B.t cotton varieties with Cry IAc toxin protein (B.t. 1) have
been targeting American bollworm, Spotted bollworm and Pink bollworm but not
tobacco caterpillar. However gene pyramiding of Cry IAc and Cry IIAb (B.t. 2) could
offer protection against tbacco [Link] addition to bollworms.

PESTS OF PULSES

GRAM CATERPILLAR, Helicoverpa armigera Noctuidae: Lepidoptera

The young caterpillars feed on the tender foliage and as they grow they bore into the
pods and destroy the seeds, while feeding it thrusts its head inside the pod leaving the
rest of its body outside.
❖ Large round on each locule
Full grown caterpillar is cylindrical 40 – 48 mm in length with variable colour, dark
green or reddish brown or brownish and marked with a white broken lines and a
prominent white line along lower part of sides.
IPM
It is a major pest on redgram and gram. Hence IPM is important.
A. Initial crop growth phase
• Deep summer ploughing to expose pupae in soil • Crop rotation with less favourable
crops like jowar, gingelly, blackgram, horsegram, dry paddy (in redgram)
B. Raising intercrops like greengram, blackgram in 7 rows in kharif redgram and
jowar in 2 rows in rabi redgam encourage and conserve natural enemies viz.,
Campoletis chloridae, Carcelia illote, Apanteles sauros, Microbracon brevicornis,
Chelonus narayani, Tetrastichus Israeli, Exorista fallox, Eucelatoria sp.(Diptera), NPV,
Nomuraea rileyi, B.t.
• Raising jowar in 4 rows all around redgram crop will serve as guard crop • In
bengalgram, mustard, coriander as intercrops. • Selection of tolerant varieties like
ICPL – 332, LRG – 41 and varieties with recuperating ability like LRG – 30.
• Clipping of a terminal twig upto one foot at 90 – 100 DAS to remove ovipositional
niches (depending on moisture availability in soil) • Raising of rabi redgram to avoid
pest.
C. From flowering
• Erect pheromone traps @ 10/ha to monitor the pest. Light traps during August –
September; November – December • Erect bird perches @ 50/ha to attract predatory
birds like Drongo. • When eggs and early instar larvae are noticed spray NSKE 5 %
or neem based insecticides • Use of microbial insecticides o NPV 200 LE/ha. B.t
formulation 400g or 400 ml/ac thrice at weekly interval in evenings in winter.
Mechanical shaking of redgram plants and collection and destruction of dislodged
grown up larvae. • Avoid indiscriminate use of insecticides, synthetic pyrethroids and
mixtures. • On need basis spray with Chlorpyriphos 2.5 ml/l at initiation of flowers or
Quinalphos 2 ml/l or acephate 1.5 g/l at flowering and fruiting using 750 – 1000 l of
spray fluid with High Volume sprayer. In severe incidence, indoxacarb 1 ml/l or
spinosad 0.3 ml/l • Adopt community approach.

REDGRAM PLUME MOTH Exelastis atomosa; Spenarches caffer Pterophoridae:

Lepidoptera
Forewings are divided into two parts and hindwings into three parts and provided with
a fringe like border. Tiny caterpillar scrapes the pod surface and cuts a hole and thrusts
the head into it and feeds on seed by remaining outside. The caterpillars bore into
green pods and feed on the developing seeds which are more or less completely
devoured or eaten away. Also feeds on flower buds. This pest is usually found at
flowering and known to cause heavy damage to redgram. Attack by this pest can
cause severe bud, flower and pod drop. The larva never enters inside the pod and
feeds remaining outside the pod. The damage results in the following symptoms
❖ Small hole on seeds. ❖ Dropping of flower buds and flowers in severe cases.
❖ Completely eaten and devoured seeds. The full grown caterpillar is about 12 mm
long greenish brown, and are fringed with short hairs and spines all over the body.
Larval period is 14-30 days. Pupation is on pod surface or burrows of infested pods.
Pupa is also fringed with short hairs. Pupal period is 4-8 days. Pupa looks like larva
except for the colour which is brown.
MANAGEMENT
• Collection of caterpillars by shaking shoots and their destruction in initial stages.
• Apantels sp parasitise larvae.
• Foliar sprays should commence at 50% flowering with endosulfan 2 ml/l or
quinalphos 2 ml/l or carbaryl 3 g/l

REDGRAM POD FLY, Malanagromyza obtuse (Agromyzidae: Diptera)

Small black fly thrusts its minute eggs into the tissues of the tender pod and flower
buds. Fly pierces pericarp with ovipositior and lay eggs which are seen like needles
projecting inwards from the pods. Tiny maggots burrow into pods and feed on young
seeds. In affected pods, no visual symptoms are observed regarding its entrance.
Initially larva bores into epidermis without rupturing the seed coat. In the second and
third instar stages, the larva bores into cotyledons and in most instances one seed is
sufficient for the maggot to complete its development. The final instar larva leaves the
seed and prior to pupation, windows the pods and pupates either in the pod cavity or
in the pod wall [Link] damaged seeds are unfit for consumption. Diagnostic
symptoms are ❖ Discolouration of the infested pods visible in green podded
varieties. ❖ At the later stage of infestation, the holes about 1mm in diameter covered
with a thin membrane readily seen on the infested pod. ❖ Exit holes visible after the
adult emergence. The pest infestation can be identified only after adult emergence of
first generation. Maggot is creamy white in colour. Larval period is 6-10 days. Under
abundant moisture condition, two broods can be seen in a year. Full grown maggot
pupates inside larval grooves in pods. days. Adults emerge by cutting the thin spot
already made by maggot.
MANAGEMENT
• Early sowing in endemic areas • Removal of affected pods of first brood during
winter. • Pre-pupal stage is parasitized by Euderus agromyzae and pupa is parasitized
by Euderus lividus. • Foliar sprays with monocrotophos 1.5 ml/l or dimethoate 2 ml/l
are effective against larva and endosulfan 2 ml/l against adult flies.

STEM FLY Ophiomyia phaseoli Agromyzidae: Diptera

The pest attacks the crop at early stage. It is a major pest of cowpea, soybean,
blackgram and greengram. Maggot tunnels the stem and feeds on the internal
contents. When the stem is split open the dis tint tunnel can be observed along with
excreta. Drooping of the first two leaves and wilting of the plants are observed due to
the damage.
Growing varieties like LBG-611, LBG-402 are promising against stem fly, high seed
rate, seed treatment with carbosulfan @ 40g/kg seed or thiamethoxam @ 4g/kg and
foliar application of monocrotophos 1.6ml/l or acephate 1.5g/l are effective measures.
SPOTTED POD BORER, Maruca vitrata Pyralidae: Lepidoptera
Moth is with dark brown forewings with white club shaped cross band along anterior
margin and white hindwings with dark brown border. The caterpillar with short hairs on
black warts webs together the flowers and feeds on them. It also bores into pods at
one end and eats up the ripening seeds. Mass excreta can be seen at the entrance of
larval burrow.
Foliar spray from flower bud initiation with combination of chlorpyriphos 2.5 ml/l or
quinalphos 2 ml/l or novaluron 0.75 ml/l or spinosad 0.75 ml/l or lamda cyhalothrin 1
ml/l in combination with dichlorvos 1 ml /l at wekly intervals is effective

BEAN APHIDS, Aphis craccivora Aphididae: Hemiptera

Both nymphs and adults suck sap from tender leaves and shoots resulting in twisting
of leaves, poor pod development, devitalization of plants and sooty mould. It acts as
a vector of Rosette disease in groundnut and broad bean virus in pea. It is s
polyphagous pest. Redgram and other pulses, citrus etc are other host plants.
Spraying with tobacco decoction (1 kg tobacco boiled in 10 lit of water of ½ hour and
make up to 30 lit + 100 g soap) and systemic insecticides like dimethoate 2 ml/l or
phosphamidon 2 ml/l or malathion 2 ml/l are effective.

REDGRAM COW BUG, Oxyrhachis tarandus Membracidae: Hemiptera

Nymphs as well as adults suck sap from green stem at all stages of the plant causing
corky tissues and excrete honeydew which attracts ants like Camponotus
compressus. Breeding takes place all the year round the limitation being only the
availability of food. This species is common all over south India. It is one of the major
pests of redgram. Spraying dimethoate 2 ml/l, methyl patrathion 2 ml/l or
phosphamidon 2 ml/l is effective.

REDGRAM POD BUG, Cavigralla gibbosa, Riptortus linearis, Anoplocnemis phasiana

Coreidae: Hemiptera
Collection of bugs and their destruction by dipping into kerosinized water and dusting
or spraying with carbaryl 10D 10 kg/ac or foliar spray with dimethoate 2 ml/l or
monocrotophos 1.5 ml /l are effective.
LEAFHOPPER, Empoasca kerri Cicadellidae: Hemiptera
Small greenish yellow nymphs and adults suck sap from leaves resulting in severe
case, the leaves turn brown, dry and brittle, a condition called “hopper burn”. Attacked
leaflets become cup shaped and yellow at edges. Heavy attack result in the leaflets
turning red-brown with subsequent defoliation and stunting.
Collection of bugs and their destruction of infested leaves, seed treatment with
carbosulfan @ 30-40g/kg seed, spraying with thiamethoxam 0.4g/l or imidacloprid 0.4
ml/l have been found effective.

GREEN PLANT BUG/STINK BUG Nezara viridula Pentatomidae: Hemiptera

Mechanical collection of nymphs and adults and destroying them and foliar spray with
carbaryl 3 g/l or endosulfan 2 ml/l is recommended.

GREEN POD BORING CATERPILLAR OR LENTIL POD BORER, Etiella zinckenella

Pyralidae: Lepidoptera
It occurs on redgram, horsegram and other pulses and green manure crop like
[Link] larvae feed on floral parts, newly formed pods and seeds in developing
pods. Faecal pellets inside damaged pods and small round holes on redgram pods
plugged with excreta can be noticed. Management of gram caterpillar is effective
against this pest.

BLUE BUTTERFLIES, Catochrysops cnejus, Lampides boeticus, Catochrysops

Strabo Lycaenidae: LepidopteraIt is seen on redgram, cowpea, lab lab, niger etc. The
eggs are laid on flower buds. After hatching the tiny caterpillars enter into unopened
flower bud and feed inside. Afterwards they may attack another flower or enter a pod
and feed on the developing seeds.
Foliar spray with carbaryl 3 g/l or endosulfan 2 ml/l is effective.

RED GRAM MITE Aceria cajani Eriophyidae: Acarina

It infests underside of tender leaves, causing yellowing of leaves and suppression of
flowering and fruiting. It transmits pigeonpea sterility mosaic virus. A single eriophyiid
mite is sufficient to transmit disease. Disease can be identified from a distance as
patches of bushy, pale green plants without flowers or pods. Leaves are small, show
a light and dark green mosaic pattern Destruction of perennial and volunteer
pigeonpea and the ratooned growth of harvested plants provide reservoir of mite
vectors and pathogens, growing tolerant varieties like ICPL 87119, ICPL 227, Jagruthi,
Bahar and foliar spray with dicofol 3 ml/l or wettable sulphur 3g/l in early stages of
plant growth will control mite vector

PEA LEAF MINER Phytomyza atricornis Agromyzidae: Diptera Mustard, cauliflower,

cabbage, lentil, potato are infested by this pest. Eggs are inserted into the leaf tissue,
maggots mine into mesophyll of leaf leading to irregular blotches on leaves,. Pupation
is inside leaf mine. Both winter and summer are passed in pupal stage. Maggots are
parasitized by Braco nids, Eulophids. Foliar spray with methyl demeton 2 ml/l or
dimethoate 2 ml/l was effective.

PEA STEM FLY Melanagromyza phaseoli Agromyzidae: Diptera

PESTS OF SOYBEAN
STEM FLY, Ophiomyia phaseoli Melanagromyza sojae Agromyzidae: Diptera
It is a major pest of blackgram, greengram and soybean. Incidence is more in rainy
season. Shiny bluish – black fly deposit eggs in punctures made by fly on young
leaves. Young plants (less than 40 days) suffer more. Yellowish maggots bore into
nearest vein, reach the stem through petiole, bore down the stem and feed on cortical
layers and may extend to tap root resulting in the following symptoms
❖ Distinct tunnel of stem split open. ❖ Death of plant or branches.
MANAGEMENT: • Seed treatment with imidacloprid 3 g/kg seed gives protection upto
30 days. • Foliar spray with acephate 1.5g/l or dimethoate 2 ml/l or monocrotophos
1.6ml/l

LEAF EAT ING CATERPILLAR, Spodoptera exigua

SOYBEAN LEAFMINER, Aproaerema modicella, Caloptilia soyella
Important pest of soybean also attacks groundnut and some leguminous weeds.
Brownish grey moth lays white eggs singly on underside of leaves close to mid rib.
Young larva initially mine into leaflets and feed on mesophyll. Later as it grow web the
leaflets together and feed. Severely infested field presents a symptom as if burnt when
viewed from a distance. Full grown caterpillar is green with dark head and pupates
within the web Foliar spray with acephate 1.5 g/l or chlorpyriphos 2.5 ml/l or quinalphos
2 m l/l were effective measures.

WHITEFLY Bemisia tabaci Aleurodidae: Hemiptera

PESTS OF GROUNDNUT

WHITE GRUB OR ROOT GRUB, Holotrichia consanguinea, H. Serrata

Scarabaeidae: Coleoptera
Root grub is a polyphagous pest, feeding on the roots of a wide range of plants like
pulses, groundnut, sugarcane, vegetables etc. and it is a serious pest on groundnut in
Kurnool and Anantapur districts. Adult is fully developed by the end of November and
remains in the pupal cell. Adult hibernates till early showers of rain are received. Adults
emerge out of soil during first monsoon showers at dusk, mate and feed on the leaves
of the trees viz., neem, drumstick, subabul etc., and early in the morning get back and
burrow into the soil and lay the eggs @ single egg per cell during April – July in the
soil at a depth of 12 -15 cm. Incubation period is 8-13 days. Beetles are active during
May-July months and disappear by first week of August. Upon hatching grubs feed on
nodules, fine root lets and also girdle the main root ultimately killing the plants. They
become full grown by September end and move deeper down into the soil. ❖ In case
of severe infestation the patches of dead plants are seen in the infested fields. ❖ The
cut end of the attacked stem of a dead groundnut plant is swollen. Full grown grubs
are creamy white with a brown head and reach 2” in length. They are curled up in
[Link] one generation in a year. Total life history from egg to adult is 171 days
MANAGEMENT
• Deep ploughing after summer showers would expose the pupae and beetles to hot
sun or birds predations.
• Mass collection and destruction of beetles from the branches of neem, subabul,
Acacia, ber trees immediately after receiving summer showers.
• Spraying surrounding trees with carbaryl 3 g/l at first monsoon showers
• Flooding the field for 24 hours kills grub population.
• Utilisation of fungal pathogens like Metarhizium anisopliae, Beauveria brongniartii is
now under consideration
• Seed treatment with chlorpyriphos 6 - 10 ml/kg seed is effective against root grubs.
• Application of phorate 10 G 15 kg/ha at sowing time.

GROUNDNUT LEAF MINER, Aproaerema modicella Gelechiidae: Lepidoptera

This is one of the major pests on groundnut especially in rainfed conditions. Bunchy
variety is generally severely infested. This pest appears mostly six weeks after crop
germination i.e., during September-October. The other hosts are redgram, soybean
etc . Moth is very small with dark brown wings and small distinct white spot on
forewings. Shiny and sculptured eggs are laid singly on tender leaves. Incubation
period is 3 days. The newly hatched caterpillar mines into tender leaflets or it webs
together adjacent leaflets and feeds on the tissue. The leaflets get distorted and due
to feeding get dried up in due course of time. Damage results in
❖ Mining of larvae in the upper epidermis of leaves which causes in characteristic
Blotches ❖ Folded leaves. ❖ Drying of affected leaves and withering of plants.
❖ Severly infested field looks as if burnt from a distance. Full grown caterpillar is
greenish with a small dark head. Larval period is 14 days
Pupation is inside the blotch mine and emerges as an adult in about 4 days.

MANAGEMENT: • Regular monitoring and surveillance • Collection and destruction

of the larvae and infested plant parts. • Crop rotation with a non leguminous crop to
avoid out breaks of the pest. • Raising soybean as trap crop. • Setting of light traps /
phe romone traps. • Foliar sprays with acephate 1 g/l or chlorpyriphos 2.5 ml/l or
monocrotophos 1.6 ml/l • Dusting or spraying with quinalphos 1.5 D @ 10 – 12 kg /ac
or 2 ml /l

RED HAIRY CATERPILLAR, Amsacta albistriga, Amsacta moorei Arctiidae:

Lepidoptera
This is a serious and devastating pest of rainfed kharif crop. It is an endemic pest. Its
seasonal outbreak in various tracts is largely dependent on climatic conditions ,
edaphic factors and the local agricultural practices. It appears in great numbers as
regular plague after the receipt of first monsoon showers during early June.
A. albistriga : The adult is a medium sized moth. The forewings are white with
brownish streak all over and yellow streak along the anterior margin and the hindwings
are with black markings. A yellowish band is seen on the head.
A moorei: The anterior marginal streak of forewings and the band on the head are red
in colour. After the receipt of rains in June-July months, on the second evening by
about 4 pm the moths emerge from earthen cells in the soil. They mate and commence
oviposition on the same day.
The caterpillars in early stages are found in groups on the underside of leaf lets and
feed on them. Later they disperse to surrounding plants. As they grow they feed
voraciously on leaves leaving behind the petiole and mid ribs of leaves and the main
stem of plants. They may be seen marching from one field to another in thousands.
The insect undergoes pupal diapause in the soil till next year. There is only one
generation per year.
MANAGEMENT: In view of the wide spread outbreak of the pest over a vast area, it
is necessary that the farmers adopt the management on a community basis.
• Deep summer ploughing after harvest to expose diapausing pupae
• Collection and destruction of egg masses and gregaiuos larvae.
• Setting bonfires or light traps to attract the moths within 24 h after receipt of monsoon
showers.
• Placing shoots of Jatropha or Ipomoea on bunds to attract migrating larvae and
spraying on shoots
• Growing cowpea and castor as trap crops.
• Trenching around the field and dusting with carbaryl or methyl parathion dust @ 250
g /one meter length.
• Natural enemies include a predatory pentatomid bug attacking larvae and larval
parasites, Apanteles flavipes, A. creatonoti (Braconidae), Exorista civiloides, Sturnia
inconspicuella (Tachinidae)
• Spraying with dimethoate 2ml/l, monocrotophos 1.6 ml/l
• Poison baiting for late instars with rice bran 10 kg + jaggery 1 kg + quinalphos 1 litre
+ water.

LEAF EATING CATERPILLARS, Spodoptera litura; Helicoverpa a rmigera

LEAFHOPPER: Empoasca kerri Cicadellidae: Hemiptera.

Both nymphs and adults suck sap from central surface of leaves, also inject toxin
causing whitening of veins and chlorotic patches at tips of leaflets in a typical ‘V’ –
shape. There will be hopperburn in severe cases. In presence coccinellids @ 2 or
more / plant insecticidal sprays can be limited. Insecticides found effective are
dimethoate 2 ml/l or methyl demeton 2 ml/l or monocrotophos 1.6 ml/l.
THRIPS
Caliothrips indicus, Scirtothrips dorsalis Thripidae: Thysanoptera
Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from the leaf surface. Infested leaves show pale
white patches and curling of tender leaflets. It transmits peanut bud necrosis virus
disease. Foliar spray with dimethoate 2 ml/l or imidacloprid 0.50ml/l or thiamethoxam
@ 0.4g/l or fipronil @ 2ml/l are effective measures.

GROUNDNUT APHID, Aphis craccivora Aphididae: Hemiptera

It is a polyphagous pest. The tender shoots of 2 to 2 ½ months old crop of groundnut
are sometimes severely infested by this aphid. Both nymphs and adults suck sap from
tender leaves and shoots of plant causing the leaves to curl and stunted growth.
Flowers and pods are also affected. Excrete honeydew on which sooty mould
develops which interferes with photosynthetic activity of plants. The groundnut aphid
also transmits groundnut rosette virus and sometimes groundnut stunt virus
diseases. Spraying with tobacco decoction (1 kg tobacco boiled in 10 lit of water of ½
hour and make up to 30 lit + 100 g soap) and systemic insecticides like monocrotophos
1.6 ml/l or dimethoate 2 ml/l or or methyl demeton 2 ml/l are effective.

GROUNDNUT POD BUG, Elasmolomus sordidus Lygaeidae: Hemiptera

Collection of bugs which on rubbish heaps in threshing floors and their destruction,
application of carbaryl 10 D @ 10 – 12 kg/ac or foliar spray with malathion 2 ml/l .

JEWEL BETLE, Sphenoptera perotetti Buprestidae: Coleoptera

Application of carbofuran granules in planting row is effective.

PESTS OF BRINJAL
EPILACHNA BEETLE /SPOTTED LEAF BEETLE, Epilachna vigintioctopunctata
Epilachna dodecastigma, Coccinellidae: Coleoptera
Beetle is small round to slightly oblong in shape measuring about 5 mm in length and
3.5 mm in width. The underside of the beetle is flat while the upper side is convex. It
is light brick red or pinkish in colour bearing 12-28 small black dots on the pronotum
and elytra. These black dots are symmetrically placed in a crescent manner. Adult
lives for one month to more than two months. The yellow elliptical eggs are laid
generally on the undersurface of leaves in batches of hundreds, glued to the leaf sur
face in a vertical position. They hatch in 3-4 days. The minute grubs on hatching start
damaging the plant by feeding on the fresh matter of the leaf surface leaving veins
and veinlets. The freshly hatched grub is yellowish and turns to cream yellow white ,
when full grown. The grub is broad in front and narrows posteriorly and is covered with
spiny structures all over. The grown up grubs become voracious feeders, found in
batches. Both the grubs and adults confine their feeding activities generally to the
undersurface of leaves. The activity of the pest is more on the lower leaves resulting
in
❖ Damaged leaves presenting a lace like appearance as the green matter in between
the veins is eaten away (skeletonisation of leaves).
❖ Affected leaves, depending upon the area damaged, drying up and in severe
infestation, presenting sickly appearance.
MANAGEMENT:
• Hand picking will prove effective as the beetles are sluggish during the morning hours
• If the area is small, collection and destroying the egg masses which can be spotted
easily. • Egg parasitoid Tetrastichus ovularum, larval parasitoid Uga menoni
suppress the population during March – July • Organic compounds of plant origin are
effective. • Foliar spray with DDVP 1 ml/l in nursery as well as planted crop or carbaryl
3 g/l or profenofos 2ml/l or quinalphos 2 ml/l.

BRINJAL SHOOT AND FRUIT BORER, Leucinodes orbonalis Pyralidae:

Lepidoptera
The female moth lays about 80-120 eggs singly on tender shoots and developing fruits
of brinjal. If infestation occurs during vegetative phase, caterpillars enter into the
petiole, midribs and young shoots. During fruiting stage caterpillars enter into fruits
make holes and feed inside. Initially, the entry hole is so small that it is not visible.
Later, fruits bear large circular holes plugged with excreta. The infested fruits are unfit
for consumption and marketing. The infestation may go as high as 70 per cent on
brinjal. The pest is active throughout the year except winter. In Nursery no damage is
observed. Transplanted seedlings are attacked. The damage results in
❖ Drooping of tender shoots and wilting in vegetative stage
❖ Holes on the infested fruits filled with excreta
The full grown caterpillar is pinkish with sparingly distributed hairs on warts on the
body with a brownish head. The full grown caterpillar generally pupates outside the
bore holes on the stem, fruit stalks etc .in a dark buff coloured cocoon in dirty brown
silk. Moth emerges in about 6 -8 days.
MANAGEMENT
• The damaged portions of the plants should be removed and destroyed.
• Continuous cropping of brinjal and potato in the same area encourages the pest
activity and hence proper rotation should be followed. • Variety Bhagyamathi is
tolerant to the pest damage and suitable for coastal Andhra. • Erecting pheromone
traps @4/acre • Larval parasitoids, Pristomerus testaceus, Trathala flavoorbitalis,
Microbracon greeni, Pseudoperichaeta sp suppress the population.
• Three spraying with carbaryl 3 g/l or profenofos 2ml/l or cypermethrin 1 ml/l at 10
day interval from 3 weeks after transplanting
Note: Acaricidal spray should be given after two rounds of spray with carbaryl as mites
may flare up.

BRINJAL STEM BORER, Euzophera perticella Pyralidae : Lepidoptera

Its damage is entirely different from that of L. orbonalis. It does not attack fruits and
leaves. It attacks only stem of more than pencil thickness. The entry of the caterpillar
is near the ground level of the stem at leaf or branch axil and covers the hole with
excreta and frass. Its attack is found in older brinjal plants and not on younger plants.
Branches start wilting after the attack. Plants become stunted in growth. Entire plant
wilts and dries. Other hosts include chillies, potato, tomato. Avoiding ratoon of the
brinjal crop, uprooting and burning the infested plants before planting the new crop to
avoid carryover of the pest to the next crop are recommended. Foliar spray with
carbaryl 3 g/l or monocrtophos 1.6 ml/l is effective.

BRINJAL MEALY BUGS, Centrococcus insolitus Pesudococcidae: Hemiptera

Adults are brown or pinkish and are oval in shape. Body is covered with white waxy
material. They are generally present on the lower surfaces of the leaves, tender shoots
and stem. Colonies of nymphs and adults suck sap from leaves and shoots and stem.
The affected shoots and leaves show discolouration. The damage results in stunted
growth of plant. Affected branch dries up. Removal of affected parts, foliar spray with
DDVP 1 ml/l or malathion 2ml/l are effective against mealybugs.

APHIDS, Aphis gossypii, Myzus persicae Aphididae: Hemiptera

They are found in colonies on underside of tender leaves causing leaves crinkle and
curled. They reproduce parthenogenetically. Coccinellids, Coccinella septumpunctata
and Menochilus sexmaculata are predaceous on aphids. M. persicae is parasitized by
Aphidius [Link] sprays with dimethoate 2 ml/l or methyl demeton 2 ml/l
are effective.

LEAF HOPPERS, Amrasca biguttula biguttula Cidadellidae: Hemiptera

Removal of affected parts and foliar spray with dimethoate 2ml/l or methyl demeton 2
ml/l or fipronil 2 ml/l are effective measures.

BRIJAL LACE WING BUG Urentius hystricellus, U. Sentis Tingidae: Hemiptera

Foliar spray with methyl demeton 2 ml/l or dimethoate 2 ml/l ordichlorvos 1 ml/l is
effective.
BRINJAL LEAF WEBER, Psara bipunctalis Pyralidae: Lepidoptera
Moth is straw coloured with black dot and lines on wings. The greenish caterpillar
measuring about 25 mm when grown up, webs together the leaves and feeds
gregariously on them. It pupates among the webbings.
The larva is parasitized by Microbracon psarae. The effective insecticides are
malathion 2 ml/l or quinalphos 2 ml/l.
RED SPIDER MITE, Tetranychus telarius Tetranychidae: Acarina
Red spider mites are found in large colonies on underside of leaves protected by the
silk webbing constructed by the female. They are polyphagous infesting brinjal, bhendi
and bean. Leaves present a characteristic blotches which become whitish then brown
patches appear. Later the entire affected leaf become discoloured and dried up. More
infestation occurs. Warm and dry months are congenial.
Spraying with wettable sulphur 3-5 gm/l or dicofol 2.7 ml/l or spiromecyferan 3 ml/l or
propargite 3 ml/l twice at 10 day interval are effective.

PESTS OF BHENDI

BHENDI SHOOT AND FRUIT BORER / SPOTTED FRUIT BORER, Earias vitella, E.
Insulana Noctuidae: Lepidoptera
Adult of E. vitella has pale whitish forewings with a broad greenish band in the middle
while E. insulana has completely green forewings.
In the early stage of the crop, the caterpilla rs bore into growing shoots of plants. When
the fruits appear they also bore into the fruits which show holes plugged with excreta.
The infested fruits are mostly shed in early stage of fruiting.
❖ Drooping of tender shoots
❖ Holes on the infested fruit and filled with excreta
❖ Fruits distorted and rendered unfit for human consumption.
The caterpillars of both the species have a number of black and brown spots on the
body and hence the name spotted fruit borer. Full grown larva measures 14 mm in
length. The larval stage lasts for about 9 -25 days. Pupation takes place generally in
fallen material, outside the boll, on plant surfaces and in cracks and crevices of the
soil. Before pupation however, the larva spins a dirty, white boat shaped silken
cocoon.

MANAGEMENT
• Avoiding bhendi or cotton during off season which will serve asalternate hosts.
• Removal and destruction of affected shoots, fruits in early season help in keeping
the pest under check.
• Natural enemies (enumerated under the same species in cotton) suppress the pest
population.
• Foliar spray with thiodicarb 1 g/l during vegetative and at fruiting stages or carbaryl
3g/l or quinalphos 2 ml/l or profenophos 2 ml/l or endosulfan 2 ml/l twice at 10 day
interval after harvest of fruits.
LEAF HOPPERS, Amrasca biguttula biguttula Cidadellidae: Hemiptera
It is distributed throughout the country.
Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from underside of leaves
injecting toxic saliva. The damage results in
❖ Characteristic hopperburn symptom.
❖ Infested leaves crinkle and show characteristic browning
❖ Attacked plants stunted, fail to bear fruits.
MANAGEMENT
• Removal of affected parts.. • A spider Distina albina and a chrysopid, Chrysopa
cymbela are predaceous on leafhoppers. Lymaenon empoascae parasitizes the eggs.
• Foliar sprays with dimethoate 2ml/l or methyl demeton 2 ml/l or fipronil 2 ml/l are
effective.
WHITEFLY, Bemesia tabaci Aleurodidae: Hemiptera
Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from underside of leaves. As a result, the plant
loses its luster. The adult acts as a vector for yellow vein mosaic virus disease.
Removal of affected plants, erecting yellow sticky traps, spraying with acetamiprid 0.4
g/l or thiamethoxam 0.4g/l or profenophos 2ml/l were found effective
RED SPIDER MITE, Tetranychus telarius Tetranychidae: Acarina

PESTS OF TOMATO

SERPENTINE LEAF MINER, Liriomyza trifolii Agromyzidae: Diptera

It has been introduced into India through chrysanthemum cuttings. It is a pale yellowish
fly, measuring 1.5 mm in length. The female fly punctures upper surface of leaf to lay
eggs singly. The egg hatches in 4 days. Minute orange yellow, apodous maggot feeds
on chlorophyll mining in between epidermal layers. The symptoms that follow are
❖ Leaves with serpentine mines
❖ Drying dropping of leaves in severe cases
Full grown maggot measures 3 mm. Larval duration is about 7 days. Pupation is in
soil. Some pupae are found in leaves. Total life cycle takes 3 weeks. Generally it does
not cause economic damage.
MANAGEMENT
❖ Neem oil 5 ml/l o r endosulfan 2 ml/l or carbaryl 3 g/l as foliar sprays are
recommended, if situation warrants.
TOMATO FRUIT BORERS, Helicoverpa armigera Spodoptera litura Noctuidae:
Lepidoptera The larvae bore into the fruits and make them unfit for consumption
and marketing. ❖ Bored fruits with round (H. armigera) /irregular holes (S. litura)can
be readily identified. Spray application of endosulfan 2 ml/l affords protection.
WHITEFLY, Bemesia tabaci Aleurodidae: Hemiptera Boths nymphs and adults suck
sap from leaves causing chlorotic spots on leaves, yellowing and drying of leaves. It
has been reported as a vector of tomato leaf curl disease. Plucking and burning leaf
curl virus affected plants and spraying with systemicinsecticides like dimethoate 2 ml/l
or methyl demeton 2 ml/l are effective

PESTS OF CRUCIFEROUS VEGETABLES

DIAMOND BACK MOTH, Plutella xylostella Plutellidae: Lepidoptera

It is distributed worldwide infesting cruciferous plants of Brassica sp. cauliflower,
Brassica oleracea var. capitata , turnip Brassica rapa etc .
The moth is greyish brown with narrow wings having pale white triangular markings
on inner margin of each forewing which form three diamond shaped white patches
dorsally when wings are folded over back at rest. Hence the name, diamond back
moth. The pest is active throughout the year. Each female lays 50-60 small whitish
eggs singly along the veins on underside of leaves at night times. Egg hatches in about
7 days. Caterpillars feed on undersurface of leaves and bite holes in leaves and cause
serious damage causing
❖ Holes on leaves.
❖ Withered appearance of affected leaves.
❖ Skeletonised leaves.
Larva is greenish with short thin hairs on the body. Full grown caterpillar measures 1-
1.5 cm and its body tapers towards both ends.
MANAGEMENT (IPM)
• Removal and destruction of plant remnants, stubbles, debris after harvest and
ploughing the field. • Transplanting 2 rows of mustard as a trap crop for every 25 rows
of cabbage to attract moths to mustard. • Larval parasites Apanteles ruficrus, A.
plutellae and pupal parasite Brachymeria excarinata suppress population. • Foliar
spray with 5% NSKE for killing the eggs. To obtain 5% neem seed extract, take extract
from 5 Kg kernel powder in 100 litres of water. About 12.5 Kg kernel powder is needed
to cover 1 ha with 250 litres in high volume sprays for crops like chickpea.
• Foliar sprays on 30, 45 DAT with B. t. formulations 1g/l. • Foliar spray with endosulfan
2 ml or spinosad 0.3 ml/l. (Last spray should be 15 days before harvesting). • Under
severe infestation, fenvalerate 1ml/l or cypermethrin 1ml/l or deltamethrin 1ml/l is
recommended.

CABBAGE BORER Hellula undalis, Pyralidae : Lepidoptera

It infests cabbage, cauliflower, knolkhol and beetroot.
Adult is pale yellowish-brown moth having grey wavy lines on the forewing. Female
moth lays yellowish shiny eggs on leaves. Caterpillars web the leaves and bore into
stem, stalk or leaf [Link] bore into the cabbage head also making it unfit for
consumption. Thedamage results in
❖ Webbed leaves
❖ Holes in cabbage head with faecal matter.
The caterpillar becomes full grown in about 9 days. Full grown caterpillar is 12-15 mm,
greyish yellow with seven purplish brown longitudinal stripes on the body Full grown
larva pupates in the larval burrow itself or in the soil. Pupal period is about 6
[Link] is similar to that of DBM

CABBAGE LEAF WEBBER, Crocidolomia pavonana Pyralidae: Lepidoptera

It infests cabbage, radish, mustard and other cruciferous plants. Adult is small with
light brownish forewings. Caterpillar webs together the foliage and feeds on leaves. It
also feeds on flowers and pods in the case of mustard and flower heads in cabbage
and cauliflower. Caterpillar bears red head with brown longitudinal stripes and rows of
tubercles on the body. Larval period is 24- 27 days. The damage results in
❖ Webbed leaves with faecal matter
❖ Skeletonised leaves
Management is similar to that of DBM

CABBAGE APHIDS, Brevicoryne brassicae Lipaphis erysimi Aphididae: Homptera

The aphids are yellowish green ([Link])) and multiply parthenogenetically. This
pest infests crucifers in cold season. Both the nymphs and adults suck sap from plant
causing ❖ Loss of vigour ❖ Sooty mould due to excretion of honeydew reducing
the photosynthesis. Foliar spray with malathion or dimethoate or methyl demeton each
at 2.0 ml/l is effective.

PAINTED BUG, Bagrada cruciferarum Pentatomidae: Hemiptera

TOBACCO CATERPILLAR, Spodoptera litura Noctuidae: Lepidoptera

It is highly polyphagous pest infesting tobacco, castor, groundnut, tomato, cabbage
and various other cruciferous [Link] feed on leaves and fresh growth,
active at night and cause extensive damage. The young caterpillars are gregarious in
nature and skeletonise the tender leaves. Later on the broad leaves are completely
eaten.
CABBAGE BUTTERFLY Pieris brassicae, Pieris rapae Pieridae: Lepidoptera
Adult is a butterfly with its forewings snow white having black distal margins.
Hindwings pure white with black apical [Link] caterpillar is velvety green and
measures about 4.2 cm in length. The caterpillars are gregarious initially but disperse
as they grow. They skeletonise leaves and bore into heads of cabbage and cauliflower.
Pupation is in damaged leaves. Two sprays at fortnightly interval with carbaryl 3g/l are
effective.

IPM IN CRUCIFEROUS VEGETABLES

Cole crops are invariably infested with diamond back moth, leaf webber, cabbage
borer and cabbage butterfly; Spodoptera litura and Helicoverpa armigera also appear
as head borers at times. IIHR has developed the effective IPM package mainly using
mustard as a trap crop. The IPM practices are:
• Removal and distruction of crop residues to break the cycles of painted bugs as well
as leaf webbers in specific localities,
• Selecting the derivatives of PI 234599 in cabbage having shiny leaves with moderate
resistance to diamond back moth.
• Growing mustard as trap crop in cabbage or cauliflower fields. Mustard should be
sown in paired rows (one row 15 days after planting and another 30 days after planting
cabbage or cauliflower) for every 25 rows of cauliflower/cabbage.
• Application of neem seed kernal extract (5%) in synchrony with the incidence of
diamond back moth/leaf webber on cabbage, which is found safer to parasitoids like
Cotesia plutellae
• Resorting to cartap hydrochloride /B.t formulation applications, if head borers
(Hellula / Spodoptera / Helicoverpa) appear.
• Opting for insecticide like dichlorvos only when situation warrants and sufficient time
gap is available between spraying and harvesting.

PESTS OF MANGO
MANGO HOPPERS, Amritodus atkinsoni ( largest) Idioscopus clypealis (smallest)
I. niveosparsus (medium) Cicadellidae: Hemiptera
These insects are monophagous on mango and occur as regular pests. They are
wedge shaped measuring 3 to 7 mm in length and move diagonally. Among these
A. atkinsoni is the largest and light brown having two black spots on scutellum, the
anterior margin of pronotum and vertex.
I. clypealis is the smallest and lighter in colour with two spots on the scutellum dark
spots on the vertex. Clypeus is entirely black.
I. niveosparsus is slightly smaller with three spots on the scutellum and prominent
white bar crossing its dusky wings. It is the most injurious species in South India.
Adult hoppers spend winter in the cracks in the barks of the tree. Hoppers prefer shady
and damp places After spending winter in the adult stage, the female lays eggs about
100-200, singly within the tissues of flower buds, tender leaves during February –
March. The nymphs soon after hatching begin to suck the plant sap. Nymphs are
smaller than the adults. The nymphal period lasts for 2-4 weeks. There are two peak
generations of this insect during a year i.e. during February – April and June-August
periods. During flowering, the hoppers develop enormously in number, suck juice from
the inflorescence and other tender plant parts reducing the vigour of the plant leading
to reduction in fruit set and even premature fruit fall. The infestation also leads to
development of sooty mould on the honeydew excreted by the insects. Egg laying also
inflicts injury to the inflorescence. The infestation ranges from 25 to 50 per cent and in
severe case it may lead to total loss of crop. During the remaining part of the year (off
season), these hoppers occur in small numbers inside barks or on leaves of mango.
High humidity in the air during flowering time encourages insect multiplication. The
damage results in the following
❖ Affected flowers wither and drop down.
❖ Presence of black sooty mould on floral and other tender plant parts.
❖ High humidity in orchards due to waterlogging, shading and overcrowding of trees
favour the buildup of the pest.
MANAGEMENT
• Keeping orchard clean • Avoiding overcrowding and waterlogging • Proper pruning
of the tree after harvesting to facilitate proper sunlight and air that minimises hopper
population • Spray schedule is recommended as follows:
At flower bud initiation, endosulfan 3 ml/l or carbaryl 3 g/l.
At emergence of inflorescence stalks and before flower opening (anthesis),
dimethoate 2 ml/l or thiamethoxam 0.3 g/l or imidacloprid 0.3 ml/l
o During anthesis and pollination, insecticides should not be sprayed. In case of very
high population of hoppers at this stage, carbaryl 2ml/l is recommended
o When fruits are of pea size, phosphamidon 1ml/l or dimethoate 2ml/l or acephate
1g/l o Adding sulphur 3.5g/l to the insecticide based on need to check mites and sooty
mould,Capnodium mangiferum o Directing the spray first to stem/ trunk, then
branches, twigs, leaves and finally inforescence is a recommended method.

MANGO STEM BORER Batocera rufomaculata Cerambycidae: Coleoptera

Adult is a well built, conspicuously long, brownish grey beetle measure ring about 4.5
to 5.5 cm. It has two pink dots and lateral spines on thorax and has hard elytra and is
long horned. Female deposits eggs singly under the loose bark or in wounds of the
mango tree [Link] grub bores and tunnels through the bark of branches and stem
feeding on the inner contents. As a result of feeding, the affected branches start drying
up. In severe cases of attack the whole tree dies. The symptoms of damage are
❖ Masses of frass and sap exuding from the bore holes.
❖ Leaves of damaged branches dry and fall
❖ Branches collapse, tree succumbs in severe cases
Full grown grub is yellowish white, fleshy and about 10 cm long with dark brown head
having strong jaws. It pupates inside the larval tunnel in the stem itself. Pupal period
lasts for 4 -6 months. Adult emerges out during May-June.
MANAGEMENT
• The affected portions with grubs and pupae removed and destroyed, if branches are
affected
• The bore holes traced and opened. A swab of cotton wool soaked in chloroform or
petrol 5ml or carbon disulphide or kerosene oil or dichlorvos 10ml/l inserted in to the
hole and sealed with mud.
• Methyl parathion 1 ml/l poured in to the hole or tablet of aluminium phosphide
inserted into the hole to kill the grub.
• When burrows are superficial, extract the grubs with stiff hooked wire and paint
bordeaux paste.
MANGO NUT WEEVIL OR STONE WEEVIL Sternochetus mangiferae Curculionidae:
Coleoptera
It is monophagous and is considered most serious pest of mango.
Adult weevil is about 6-8 mm in length, greyish brown in colour and stoutly built. The
mother weevil selects a place on the developing fruit, makes a boat or crescent
shaped shallow depression by scooping and then lays a single egg and covers
it with a transparent liquid secretion. Single female lays about 15 eggs. The egg
hatches within a week. Grub is white, thick, fleshy and legless. The newly hatched
grub immediately tunnels in a zig- zag manner through pulp, endocarp and seed coat
until it reaches cotyledons and the seed coat hardens afterwards. Inside the stone it
feeds on the cotyledon, As a fruitdevelops, the tunnel gets healed up. The damage
results in
❖ Ovipositional injuries and eggs on marble sized fruits
❖ Tunneled cotyledons
❖ Fruit dropp at marble stage
The adult emerges in about 7 days within the stone also feeds on developing seed.
This hastens the maturity of infested fruit. During the life cycle of the weevil, if the
infested fruit falls and decays, then adult comes out by cutting the stone. If not, adult
makes its way out through pulp. Life cycle is completed in 40-50 days and only one
generation is completed in a year. The infestation sometimes goes up to 100 per cent.
The pest is sensitive to temperature and low humidity and is more confined to humid
areas. Due to this pest, Maryland of the USA does not allow mango imports from
India.
MANAGEMENT
• Collection and destruction of infested fruits
• Ploughing orchard after fruit harvest to expose hibernating adults
• Killing adults before fruiting season by treating bark with spray of monocrotophos 1.6
ml or carbaryl 3 g or fenitrothion 1.0 ml/l at fruit set and one month after fruit set.
• Hot water treatment of fruit for specified period at 60°C kills the weevil inside the
stone, but not fruit fly maggot which is within the pulp.

MANGO FRUIT FLY, Bactrocera dorsalis Tephritidae : Diptera

Adult fly is a brown or dark brown with hyaline wings and yellow legs. Eggs are laid in
small clusters of 2-15 just beneath the skin of the fruit. About 200 eggs are laid by a
single female during a period of 1 month. Egg period is 2-3 days in March and April
and prolonged up to 10 days in winter. Damage to semi ripe fruits is caused by both
maggot and the adult. The oviposition punctures made by the female serves as entry
for fermenting organisms. Maggots feed on the pulp and convert the pulp into bad
smelling discolored semi liquid mass, unfit for use. The fruits develop brown rotten
patches on them and fall to the ground eventually. The symptoms of attack are
❖ Semiripe fruits with decayed spots
❖ Dropping of fruits
Maggots become full grown in 6-29 days depending on the season. Maggots come
out of the fruits and pupate in the soil. Entire life cycle takes about 25 days in the
tropics.
MANAGEMENT
• Collection and destruction of fallen, rotten fruits
• Raking under the trees to expose the pupae
• Mixing of carbaryl 10D in soil @ 50-100 g/tree
• Hanging from tree branches plastic containers with bait made of methyl eugenol 2
ml + carbofuran 3G 3 g + water one litre (200ml of bait/plastic container) to attract and
kill flies
• Foliar spray with malathion 2 ml/l or acephate 1.5 g/l
Post-Harvest Control (Heat treatment techniques):
• Hot water treatment: Submerging fruits in hot water at 43 to 46.7 oC for 35- 90 min.
• Double dip method: Immersion of mango fruits in water at 40oC for 20 minutes,
followed by 10 minutes at 46oC to get 100 per cent mortality of Bactrocera dorsalis
eggs.

MANGO SHOOT BORER Chlumetia transversa Noctuidae: Lepidoptera

Freshly hatched caterpillars bore into midribs of tender leaves and come out after a
couple of days to bore into tender shoots near the growing point tunnelling downwards,
throwing out the excreta out of the entry hole. Damage results in withering and drying
of new terminal shoots. When the caterpillar is full grown, it come out of the shoot and
pupates on dried leaves, bark, soil etc. Clipping off and destruction of affected shoots,
foliar spray with carbaryl 3 g/l or quinalphos 2 ml/l at the time new flush.
MANGO FRUIT BORER, Deanolis albizonalis Pyralidae: Lepidoptera
Adults are brownish. Pest is active from February – May and during off season, larvae
hibernate in dried twigs. The female lays eggs on the apex of the fruits. Caterpillar
bores into fruits at beak region, feeds inside reaching kernel causing secondary
infection, which renders the fruit unsuitable for market or consumption. Bore holes are
seen plugged with excreta. Larval period is 14-20 days. A single caterpillar can
damage many fruits. Pupal period is 9-11 days and adult lives for 8-9 days. There are
2-3 overlapping generations in a year.
Castor shoot and capsule borer Conogethes punctiferalis is also known to bore
into fruits when two fruits are seen attached together. After fruit harvest, removal of
dead wood and bark and burning, collection of damaged fruits on the tree and the
ground and burning, erecting light traps, fires, spraying with NSKE 5 % at 10 days
interval from fruit setting (marble size) until 15 days before harvest are recommended.
Foliar sprays in the evening with dichlorvos 1.5ml/l or chlorpyriphos 1ml/l or carbaryl
3g/l or neem oil 3ml/l + chlorpyriphos 1ml/l. Avoid growing of castor in mango orchards
to eliminate C. punctiferalis which comes as a fruit borer is recommended.

MANGO MEALYBUG Drosicha mangiferae Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera

Female lays eggs in clusters within ovisacs in soil under the trees 5-15 cm deep
during April and May. The adult female crawls down the tree in April-May and enter
the soil for laying eggs which hibernates till November. The eggs hatch during
November- December. The nymphs ascend the trees and settle on inflorescence.
Nymphs and adults suck sap from inflorescence, fruit stalks, fruits etc. leading to flower
drop, pre mature fruit drop etc. They also excrete honey dew on which sooty mould
develops and the fruit development is hampered. Both nymph and adults suck sap
from other tender plant parts thus reducing the plant vigour. Deep summer ploughing
up to base of the tree trunks, after harvesting to expose eggs of mealy bugs. Dusting
methyl parathion 2D or endosulfan 4D around tree and incorporating in to the soil.
Spraying with dichlorvos 1 ml or imidachloprid 0.3 ml/l or phosphamidon 1ml/l when
severe mealybug infestation noticed on the twigs. Wrapping 25 cm wide, 400 guage
polythene sheet on the tree trunk 30 cm above ground level and pasting greeze over
it to prevent migration of freshly hatched first instar nymphs during winter (Nov-Dec)
from soil to trees, one week before their emergence. Crawlers collecting beneath the
polythene sheet may be scraped with a knife.

APHID Toxoptera odinae Aphididae: Hemiptera

It is a brownish species infesting tender shoots and leaves by sucking sap in South
India. Systemic insecticide like dimethoate 2 ml/l is effective.
MANGO LEAF WEBBER, Orthaga exvinacea Noctuidae: Lepidoptera
Caterpillar webs terminal leaves and feeds by scraping green portion. Leaves are
skeletonized, wither and drop away. Dry top shoots are conspicuous and flower stalk
formation is affected. Spraying of quinalphos 2m/l or carbaryl 3 g/l or monocrotophos
1.5 ml/l during July-August is effective.
TERMITES, Odontotermes obesus Termitidae: Isoptera
Colonies of workers feed on bark by constructing galleries and eventually tree may
collapse and die. Applying in the pit at planting time neem cake or methyl parathion
2D 100g/pit, digging termite mounds and destroying queen, drenching chlorpyriphos
10ml/l on dug termite mounds, spraying chlorpyriphos 4ml/l on tree after clearing mud
galleries, applying Bordeaux paste up to 2-3 feet from base after rains cease, are
some of the measures recommended.
THRIPS, Thrips hawaiiensis Thripidae: Thysanoptera
Thrips mainly infest flowers and tender fruits. They lacerate the tissues of tender fruits
and suck oozing out sap. Damage causes scab on fruits which lose their marketability.
Foliar sprays with acephate 1.5g/l or fipronil 2ml/l. when thrips are found along with
mango hoppers, thiamethoxam 0.3g/l are recommended.

MANGO RED TREE ANT, Oecophylla smaragdina Formicidae: Hymenoptera

Ants construct the nest by webbing the leaves together. Though they do not cause
any direct damage, they act as carriers for scale insects, mealy bugs and also cause
nuisance to the workers in the orchards. They are ferocious and workers are badly
bitten. Removal and destruction of nests mechanically and spraying chlorpyriphos
2ml/l or methyl parathion 2ml/l after disturbing the nests have been found effective.

LEAF GALL MIDGES Amradiplosis echinogalliperda Procontarinia matteiana

Cecidomyiidae: Diptera Flies are mosquito like; maggots are small, yellow and
apodous. Areas of ovipositional punctures on leaf develop into galls. Maggots feed
within the [Link] NSKE 5% or endosulfan 2 ml/l at new flush is effective.

RED SPIDER MITE Oligonychus mangiferus Tetranychidae: Acarina

Tiny mites suck sap from older leaves, turning them brittle. They live under silken webs
on undersurface of leaves which turn yellow. In severe infestation, leaves are shed.
Foliar spray with diafenthiuran 1 g/l is recommended.

PESTS OF COCONUT

COCONUT BLACK HEADED CATERPILLAR, Opisina arenosella

(Cryptophasidae: Lepidoptera)
Adult is a greyish white moth measuring 10-15 mm long and 20-25 mm in wingspan
across outstretched wings. The moth is straw to ash grey in colour, medium sized with
uniform pale whitishupper wings. The female moth lays about 130 creamy white scale
like eggs in batches along the underside of the leaflet generally near the old larval
galleries. Caterpillar is light green with red brown stripes and black head, feed
gregariously on the surface tissues of the leaflets scraped out from their lower surface.
The leaflets are reduced to papery tissues. The larva constructs a gallery of silk and
frass and lives and feeds under it. The attacked leaflets turn brown in colour and dry
up. The production of nuts gets adversely affected as photosynthetic activity of the
palm is much reduced. The fronds become unsuitable for thatching and other
purposes. The damage is more during hot months (April-June) and less during rainy
season.
❖ Folded leaflets with silken galleries and frass
❖ Large scale drying of leaflets
❖ In case of severe attack the whole plantation presenting a burnt up appearance
from a distance. The grown up larva is about 15 mm long. Larval period lasts for about
40 days. The larva pupates inside the gallery. Adult emerges after 12-14 [Link]
life history occupies about 45-60 days.

MANAGEMENT:
Due to hidden nature of the caterpillars and height of the plants chemical control
measures are often inadequate.
• Clipping and destroying the infested portions.
• A host of parasites attack different stages of the pest. For obtaining effective control,
schedule release of a combination of these parasites should be adopted four times
depending on the stage of the pest.
→ 1st release immediately when the infestation is observed.
→ 2nd – a fortnight after the first
→ 3rd – a month after the second
→ 4th – a fortnight after the third
These parasites are mass multiplied on suitable alternate hosts at four parasite
breeding stations located in the important coconut growing areas of [Link]., Sompeta
(Srikakaulam), Rajole and Ambajipet (EastGodavari) and Narsapur (West Godavari)
The parasites and their hosts are listed below
Egg parasite Trichogramma chilonis
Early larval Cotesia taragamae
Mid larval Bracon brevicornis
Late larval Goniozus nephantidis
Pre pupal Elamus nephantidis
Pupal Stomatoceros sulcatiscutellum
Trichospilus pupivora
Brachymeria nephantidis
Tetrastichus israeli
• Bacteria like Serratia marcescens and Bacillus thuringiensis cause disease in
larvae.
• Predatory carabid beetle Parena laticincta
• Root feeding technique: A dark brown coloured root is selected for root
administration of monocrotophos to the trees. The root is given a slant [Link] cut end
of the root is kept in polythene bag containing 10 ml of monocrotophos mixed in 10 ml
of water for plants having 15 feet height. Allow the root to absorb the chemical for 24-
48 hours. If the root does not absorb the chemical change the root.
Note: Before administering the chemical the mature nuts should be harvested. After
root administration there should be a gap of at least 45 days for harvest of nuts.

RHINOCEROS BEETLE Oryctes rhinoceros Scarabaeidae: Coleoptera

It has a wide distribution in Asia, Australia and Pacific Islands and is reported from all
regions where coconut is grown. It also attacks coconut, oil palm, date palm,
sugarcane, banana, sisal, pineapple, papaya etc. Adult is a stout beetle measuring
35-50 mm in length, shiny and black above and reddish brown and hairy ventrally. On
the face, beetle has a pointed horn and hence the name, rhinoceros beetle. The
cephalic horn is longer in males than in females. Adult lives for more than 200 days
under favourable conditions. Beetles are attracted to light. The beetle injures the trees
by boring into the central shoots, spathes and petioles. The boring beetle chews the
internal tissues and after ingesting the juicy part throws out the fibrous part which is
indicative of the presence of the beetle in the crowns. The injury by the beetle is clearly.
❖ A series of holes on the fronds when leaf opens out and fan like cutting
❖ Typical ‘V’ shaped clipping/ cuts on mature leaves, in partly damaged crowns
❖ Death of the central growing primordium of both young and old plants in severe
attack
❖ Damaged palms often becoming infected by fungal rots. The damage caused by
the beetle is more serious in young trees. The beetle breeds in decaying organic
substances. White oval eggs are laid singly in rotting plant material, especially dead
palm trunks, compost heaps and rubbish dumps. Grub feeds on decaying organic
matter. Full grown grub is 9-10 cm long, stout, fleshy, dirty white, curved (C- shaped)
with brownish head. Tail end dark, body segments wrinkled. Larval period lasts for 99-
182 days. The mature larva first turns into a prepupa, before becoming a pupa proper.
The pupation takes place in a pupal chamber in the soil or rotting plant material. Pupal
period is about 10-25 days, but the adult beetle may not emerge from the cocoon
immediately and the maturation period is spent within the pupal cocoon. Egg laying
starts 10-60 days after emergence. Total life cycle takes about 6-12 months.
MANAGEMENT
• Periodical examination of the breeding places and destruction of eggs, grubs and
pupae by raking and turning up of the manure pits.
• Treating breeding places with carbaryl 50 WP 3g/l or carbaryl c10D atleast once in
three months i.e. January, April, July, August.
• Crownless trees and dead trees should be cut and dried to avoid breeding of the
pest.
• Extraction of the beetle with a barbed iron hook or wire and filling up the holes with
sand + lindane dust in equal proportions to prevent further attack or filling up holes
with sevidol 8G 25g.
• Providing poisoned breeding traps made out of rotting mustard or castor cake or
dung mixed with lindane to attract and kill beetles.
• The histerid beetle, Santalus parallelus is predaceous on the eggs and all stages of
the grub while its grub is predaceous on the egg and first instar grub Agrypnus sp.
predates on the grubs.
• The green muscardine fungus Metarrhizium anisopliae infects all stages except
eggs.
• The bacteria Serratia marcescens, and Pseudomonas sp. attack the third instar
grubs.
• Nematode, DD 136 or Neoaplectana carpocapsae and the associated bacterium
Achromobacter nematophilus parasitize the g rub.
• Release of Baculovirus infected adults.

RED PALM WEEVIL Rhynchophorus ferrugineus Curculionidae: Coleoptera

It is distributed in Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, S.E. Asia to China, Taiwan and the
Solomon islands. In India it occurs in all coconut growing tracts. It also infests oil palm,
date, sago and other species of Palmae. Adult is a brown weevil about 35 mm long. It
has six dark spots on thorax and in the males the long snout has a tuft of hairs. The
female weevil commences oviposition 1-7 days after pairing and continues it for 25-63
days. Fecundity is 276 eggs. Eggs are laid in small holes scooped out by the weevil
on the soft regions of young palms of up to 7 years age, in the grown up trees the eggs
are laid only in the cuts or wounds which may be present on the stem or leaf stalk. The
plant sap oozing out of the wounds and cuts attract the weevil for oviposition. It prefers
to oviposit in the exposed plant tissues. The infestation by rhinoceros beetle or crown
rot or leaf rot diseases also attracts the
weevil for egg laying and for crown infestation. The creamy white egg hatches in 2-5
days. Grub tunnels inside and lives in any part of young palms but prefers to
concentrate at or near the growing points in trees older than 5 years. A trunk may
harbour 40-45 [Link] grub feeds within the stem tissues in large numbers making
tunnels. The grubs hatched from the eggs laid in crown enter in to the growing point
of the crown and cause damage. The symptoms of damage become clear at an
advanced stage of infestation as follows
❖ Yellowing and wilting leaves of inner and middle whorls.
❖ Presence of circular holes on the stem with brownish black viscous fluid oozing
out from the holes
❖ Longitudinal splitting of leaf bases and presence of cocoons or adult weevil or
chewed up fibres in leaf axis or at the base of the palm.
❖ The sound of feeding by the grub can be heard by keeping the ear on the trunk of
the tree. Larval period ranges from 36-78 [Link] full grown grub is stout, fleshy,
apodous, constructs an oval cocoon with the fibres of the internal tissues and pupates
within it for a period of 12-33 days. The adult female lives for 76 days and the male for
133 days. The weevil multiplies enormously in young coconut plantations, especially
in those close to the forest areas and the damage is to the extent of 5-10 % in young
plantations of 5-20 years age.
MANAGEMENT:
• Disposal of felled trunks, tree stumps, dying and dead palms, dead plants due to
lightening or bud rot
• Avoiding wounds, mechanical injuries and stripping of leaves
• Avoiding damage to roots and stem during cultural operation.
• Removal of rhinoceros beetle from the hole using an arrow headed rod and filling the
hole with neem cake 100 g + 150 g sand to prevent weevil attack on young plants.
• Arranging bucket traps (Pheromone traps) at 1-1.5 m height on tree trunk to attract
the pest and the weevils collected in the buckets destroyed or killed using poison
baiting.
• The affected plant puts scraped off and swabbed with coal tar or Japan black.
• Release of sterile males to compete with the normal males to reduce the progeny.
• Chistling out the affected portions and filling with concrete mixture so that the plant
can withstand strong winds.
• Earwig, Cheliosoches moris feeds on eggs and grubs
• Root feeding with monocrotophos 10 ml mixed with water 10 ml. (Do not harvest the
nuts for the next 45 days).

SLUG CATERPILLARS Contheyla rotunda Macroplectra nararia Latoia lepida

Limacodidae: Lepidoptera
It is a sporadic pest. C. rotunda is common in west coast, while M. nararia is common
in Godavari district. Mango, castor, cashew, pomegranate are other hosts. The
caterpillar feeds on leaves, buds, flower shoots and developing fruits. Caterpillar is
fleshy, slug like with series of tufts of spines highly irritating to touch, hence called
“nettle grub”. Pupation takes place in hard shell like grayish cocoon

MANAGEMENT:
• Clipping the affected leaves along with the larvae.
• Natural parasitisation occurs with larval and pupal parasites.
• Bacterial and fungal infections on larvae and pupae are common in rainy
season. • Spray application of carbaryl 3 g/l or root feeding with monocrotophos is
effective
.
TERMITE Odontotermes obesus Termitidae: Isoptera
Termites damage the seedlings in the nursery and transplanted seedlings. Wilting of
central shoot is a symptom of the attack. Up to 20% of the seedlings are destroyed by
the termites in the laterite soils. Base of trunk is seen plastered with runways made of
soil and fibre. Locating termite mounds in or near the coconut nursery or garden,
digging out the termitarium and destroying the queen, drenching the soil with
chlorpyriphos 10 ml/l of water are effective measures.

COCONUT SCALE Aspidiotus destructor Diaspididae: Hemiptera

Large number of scales sucks sap from undersurface of leaflets which turn yellowish,
finally wither and dry up, thus reducing vitality of plant Root feeding with
monocrotophos after harvest of nuts, spraying with carbaryl 3g/l or dimethoate 2ml/l
are effective.

COCONUT ERIOPHYID MITE Eriophyes guerreronis Eriophyidae: Acarina

It became a threat to coconut in south India causiong economic losses. The
microscopic wormlike eriophyid mites are seen in thousands under inner bracts of the
perianth. They also feed in colonies on lower leaf surface causing yellow speckling
and chlorosis.
❖ Triangular pale or yellow patches close to perianth initially at the level of perianth
which turn into brown patches with longitudinal fissures and splits on the husk (warting)
❖ Shedding of butons
❖ Oozing of the gummy exudation from the affected surface.
❖ Reduced nut size and copra content.
❖ Malformed nuts with cracks and hardened husk.
MANAGEMENT:
• Application of urea 1.3 kg., super phosphate 2.0 kg and murate of potash 3.5 kg./
palm / year.
• Application of neem cake 5 kg and organic manure 50 kg / palm / year.
• Grow intercrops, banana, cacao, turmeric, vegetables in rich soils and shelter belt
with causuarina all around the coconut garden tominimize the pest.
• Spraying twice at weekly interval on buttons and developing nuts on bunches with
wettable sulphur 6g/l or prophano[phos 5ml/l or methyl demeton 6ml/l or triazophos
5ml/l
• Spraying azadirachtin 10000 ppm 5ml/l on fruit bunchus or root feeding thrice a year
with azadiractin 10000ppm 10ml + 10 ml of water /tree.

CONSTRAINTS IN IPM IMPLEMENTATION:

1. Institutional constraints: IPM requires interdisciplinary approach to solve pest
problem. Fragmentation between research, extension and implementation, and
between institutes all lead to a lack of Institutional integration. National
programmes of developing countries have lacked a policy commitment to IPM.
The research in many cases doesn’t address the real needs of farmers, who
eventually are the end users and who select to adopt or reject the technology.
Lack of coordination among different Institutions. Research programme based
on farmers’ need is lacking.
2. Informational constraints: Lack of information on IPM among farmers and
extension workers. Farmers are not even aware of the concept of IPM, even if
they aware the concept, they are reported to be lacking the skills necessary to
practise IPM. Little knowledge is available on control techniques in an
integrated fashion under farm conditions. Lack of training materials, curricula
and experienced teachers on principles and practices of IPM.
3. Sociological constrainsts: The conditioning of most farmers and farm level
extension workers by the pesticide industry has created a situation where
chemicals are presented as highly effective and simple to apply. Some farmers
feel it is risky to adopt IPM compared to use of pesticides alone. Our farmers
are habituated to use more pesticides.
4. Economic constraints: IPM must be viewed as investment and requires an
outlay. In the long run, IPM programmes may become self generating due to
saving on resource inputs for production. Majority of farmers purchase
pesticides on credit and depend on shopkeepers and pesticide dealers for
information about the pest control measures. Lack of funds for training farmers
and extension workers on the use of IPM.
 5. Political constraints: Low status of plant protection workers in the
administrative hierarchy is a constraint to general improvement in plant
protection. Associated with the morale and financial standing of these workers.
The continuance of pesticide subsidy by the government for political reasons
and its tie up with the government provided credit for crop production act as
main constraint to farmer’s acceptance of IPM. Various vested interests
associated with the pesticide trade also act as a political constraint on the
implementation of IPM.
Lecture No. 15. Political, social and legal implication of IPM - Safety issues in pesticide uses
– legislative measures – Awareness about IPM, Farmers participation – Government
support.

Implications of IPM:

Political implications of IPM:

A reduction in pesticide use is considered to be one of the most important policies in
the world, from both the economic and environmental point of view. IPM has now
been adopted by most countries as away of achieving this goal. In general, the
strategy is different in each country. Policies of most countries are aimed at reducing
the pesticides use by 50% within a certain period of time.
Example:
In Ontario, Canada, the reduction of pesticides was adopted as policy even though
Canada’s consumptions of pesticides was very low when compared to other countries.
The motivation was mainly political. The international IPM programme started in 1980.
Different countries developed their own programmes based on their own national
research and extenstion systems. Farmers can be trained by extension staff to master
IPM field skills, reduce the use of pesticides, increase their yields and profits.
Social implications of IPM:
Most of the biopesticides and bioagents are host specific, slow in action and have
short shelf life. Application of these components is labour intensive. Their
technological characteristics create an apprehension among the farming community
about their efficacy. Problems can be overcome by providing incentives to rural
unemployed and youth to establish small scale biopesticide production at village level.
The management practices like synchronity of sowing dates, use of high yielding
varieties, crop rotations etc require close cooperation among the farmers. Local
bodies such as panchayats, Panchayats, NGOs etc should promote the principles of
collective action. Incentives and awards should be given to those farmers following
IPM approach.

Legal implications of IPM:

National policies promote IPM require close regulation of all stages related to the
importation, manufacture, distribution, use and disposal of pesticides. For which
conditions laid out by FAO code of conduct on regulation, distribution and use of
pesticides should be adopted. Pesticide subcidies need to be eliminated to make IPM
an attractive alternative. The funds so saved may be utilised for implementation of
IPM, Reseach programmes to IPM oriented plant protection programmes. Certain
farmers called ‘ spoiler holdouts’ may impair the success of IPM programmes by failing
to adopt a necessary practice thus causing damage to adjacent areas. To overcome
spoiler holdouts and free riders, it may be necessary to impose a programme upon an
unwilling through legislative measures.

STRATEGIES FOR IPM IMPLEMENTATION: In order to overcome the constraints in

implementation of IPM, the following strategies may be followed.

Farmer participation: Placing the farmer at the centre of development process and
making him a confidant manager and decision maker. The researchers, extension
workers and NGOs need to act as facilitators and collaborators stimulating and
empowering the farmers to analyse their own situation. Some times convincing the
farmer to play the IPM game is also the toughest task in IPM.

Government support: Both the national programmes and donor agencies must have
a policy commitment to IPM in the context of national economic planning and
agricultural development. The funds so saved may be utilised for implementation of
IPM, Reseach programmes to IPM oriented plant protection programmes. Additional
funds may be generated through cocoperation with bilateral/ multi lateral agencies
willing to support IPM programmes. Subsidies for pesticide companies may be
eliminated for IPM to work properly.

Legislative measures: These measures should be taken to enforce insecticide

companies to pay for the costs of environmental degradation. IPM is an information
are made to bear the full cost of the use of these toxicants, they find IPM a more
economical and attractive alternative. If the risks of not adopting IPM are high, we
need a legislation to enforce farmers to join IPM and prevent free raiding and spoiler
holdouts in the situation where the IPM is the only viable way of pest control.

Improved Institutioal infrastructure: This is needed to coordinate international

efforts as well as diverse agencies within the Government for IPM education and
implementation. For this there is a need to develop and support National programme
capabilities for on-farm testing and technology extrapolation. Establishment of IPM
Working Group to coordinate and monitor funding of IPM projects. Lack of reliable
database has also hampered progress of IPM programmes. A reliable source of
accurate information on the status of crops and pests in farmers fields is necessary
for IPM activities. .A reasonably accurate system of monitoring and evaluating
biological and environmental parameters in the agroecosystem.

Improved awareness aboout IPM: This is to convince the public about the failure to
sustain non IPM agriculture, to promote a more environmentally friendly agriculture or
organic agriculture practices. Increased education and awareness regarding the
objective, techniques and impact of IPM programmes are required at all levels
including policy makers, planners, farmers consumers and general public so as to
support the implementation of IPM programmes by demanding residue free
commodities. NGOs and consumer groups need to be strengthened.

Safety issues in pesticide uses:

1. Mixing and loading operations are the most hazardous because they generally
result in possibilities of exposure i.e. spills
2. Read label carrying out the necessary calculations for the required dilution of the
insecticide
3. Obtain proper equipment, including protective clothing, etc
4. Never work alone while handling highly hazardous insecticides
5. Mix insecticides outside or in a well ventilated area. Never position any part of the
body directly over the seal while opening .Always stand upwind when mixing or loading
the insecticides
6. Clean up spilled insecticide immediately from skin, clothing etc.
7. Persons engaged in handling, mixing or applying insecticides should not smoke, eat
or drink while working.
8. Do not use mouth to siphon an insecticide from the container.
9. Avoid drift.
10. Guard against drift of insecticides on to near by crops, field, fish pond, stream or
livestock
11. Do not spray when it is windy .
12. Do not spray or dust when it is likely to rain.
13. Do not use poor quality or leaky equipment
14. Take the most needed parts/tools to the field (site of application)
15. Never allow the children to apply insecticides
16. Do not blow out the clogged nozzles with the mouth
17. Cleanliness and maintenance of insecticide application equipments and keep
separate sprayers for herbicides
18. Do not eat, drink or smoke during application operation and later do these only
after washing hands and face thoroughly
19. Never leave insecticides and equipments unattended in the field
20. The insecticides should always be stored in their original containers and kept in a
locked cup board where they are out of reach of the children and the domestic animals
21. These should be kept away from food or feed stuffs and medicines
22. Instructions found on the labels should be carefully read and strictly followed.
23. The empty containers, after the use of the insecticide, should be destroyed and
should not be put into some other use.
24. Persons engaged in handling insecticides should undergo regular medicinal
check-up.
25. In case of any suspected poisoning due to insecticides, the nearest physician
should be called immediately.
Lecture No.16. Safety issues in pesticide uses – Pesticide risk assessment, management and
communication, use in agriculture. Environmental impact – health effects – residues,
resurgence and resistance – effect on non target organisms – Strengths and weaknesses of
pesticides.

Safety issues in pesticide uses –( Already furnished in Lecture No. 15)

Pesticide Risk assessment, management and communications use in agriculture:

Pesticide Risk Analysis: When the risk analysis is conducted taking into consideration the use
of pesticides only is termed as Pesticide risk analysis. It provides a systematic approach to
estimate the risk, to identify and and implement appropriate measures to control the risk,
and to communicate the information about the risk and the control measures applied.
National Agricultural Pesticide Risk Analysis (NAPRA) was developed by National Resources
Conservation Services (NRCS) to evaluate potential losses of pesticides to ground and surface
waters. The goal is to help farmers to choose pesticide management alternatives that reduce
the hazardous pesticide losses in environment. Pesticide Risk analysis contains 3
components, viz., 1. Pesticide Risk assessment, 2. Pesticide Risk management and 3. Pesticide
Risk communication.

Pesticide Risk assessment: It is defined as scientifically based process consisting of hazard

identification, , exposure assessment and risk characterisation. The results of this assessment
are the base for health surveillance of exposed workers. For pesticide residues, Maximum
Residue Limits (MRLs) are derived from controlled studies and are generally established so
that the theoretical maximum daily intake of residues doesn’t exceed the Acceptible Daily
Intake (ADI).
Pesticide Risk management: This includes legislation to register the pesticides in every
country. For registration data on persistence in soil, ability to contaminate ground water,
residues in food, hazards to non-target organisms etc are to be generated. If pesticides are
found to have adverse effects, they can be withdrawn.
Pesticide Risk communication: Successful risk communication on hazards, risks is a
prerequisite for effective risk management and risk assessment.
Strenghs of Pesticides:
1. Chemicals are powerful tools for pest management.
2. Highly effective, rapid curative action and adoptable to most situation.
3. Flexible in changing agronomic and ecological conditions.
4. It is economical.
5. Insecticides are only tools available when pest is crossing threshold levels.
6. For many of pest problems chemical control is the only acceptable solution.
7. They are easy to obtain and apply
Weakness of Pesticides:
1. Harmful to non target organisms.
2. Many pesticides bring about the secondary infestation of non target pests and
resurgence of target pests.
3. Other beneficial insects like pollinators, honeybees, weed killers may also be killed.
4. There is a risk to man and livestock.
5. Some pesticides may cause phytotoxicity.
6. Some insecticides leave residues which cause environmental pollution.
7. Some insects may develop resistance to insecticides.
8. Some insecticides accumulate in body tissue become dangerous even without any
prior indications.
9. Some insecticides have a tendency to be passed over from one food source to
another food source.

INSECT RESISTANCE TO INSECTICIDES

The development of an ability in a strain of insects to tolerate a dose of an insecticide
toxicant, which would prove lethal to majority of individuals in a normal population of
the same species. The Division Entomology, IARI, New Delhi was the first to report
insecticide resistance (IR) in the Singhara beetle, Galerucella birmanica in India . At
present there are many insects have developed resistance to insecticides.
Resistance is of three types:
a. Simple resistance: Where resistance to only one insecticide and not to related ones
b. Cross resistance: Where an insect resistance to one insecticide and is also
resistance to the related ones
c. Multiple resistance: Resistance to insecticides belong to more than one group of
insecticides
There are three phases in development of resistance:
1. Resistance insects are very low in a population and insecticides gives a satisfactory
control
2. With continuous use of the same insecticide or related ones, frequency of resistant
individuals increases in leading to occasional crop failures.
3. Large increase of resistant individuals in a population and becomes ineffective.
Mechanisms of Resistance:
A. Physiological mechanism
a. Detoxification: Resistance to insecticide is due to the ability of insects to detoxify
(degrade) toxicants by enzymes, mixed function oxidases (MFO). These detoxifying
enzymes are more in resistant strains (R) than in susceptible (S) strains. These non-
toxic break down products can be excreted or stored in the body without any harm to
the insects
b. Cuticular penetration: Insecticides penetration through cuticle is slow in ‘R’ strains
than in ‘S’ strains because of bristles, thick pulvilli etc
c. Increased storage: The ability of storing in the non sensitive tissues like fat body
variable in ’R’ and ‘S’ strains.
d. Increased excretion: ‘R’ strains detoxify and excrete insecticides faster than ‘S’
strains.
e. Penetration into target organs: A ChE is present only in ganglia, so a toxicant must
enter the ganglia to inhibit AChE slow in ‘R’, fast in case of ‘S’
B. Behavioural mechanisms:
a. Avoidance of treated areas: ‘R’ strains do not prefer treated surfaces.
b. Decreased period of contact: ‘R’ insects fly away from treated surface so contact
period with treated area is less.
INSECT RESURGENCE
It refers to an abnormal increase in pest population or damage following insecticide
application often for exceeding the EIL’s. Pest resurgence mostly noticed in
Homoptera,
Lepidoptera and phytophagous mites. Resurgence occurs due to insecticides in two
ways
1. They induce resistance in insects so that after an initial decline, they start growing
in numbers again.
2. Insecticides not only kill the pests but also the natural enemies , thus natural control
over the pests is minimized leading to their resurgence. A well-known example in rice
cultivation is the resurgence of brown plant hopper (BPH). If no pesticides are used,
BPH is kept under control by its natural enemies (mirid bugs, ladybird beetles, spiders
and various pathogens). Pesticides kill the beneficials and create a situation where
populations of BPH can multiply rapidly and thus become a man made pest
Insecticide(s) Resurgence of insect species
Quinalphos , phorate , Carbaryl
Deltamethrin, methyl parathion
Monocrotophos, - BPH
Synthetic pyrethroids - Aphids, whiteflies, mite in cotton
Carbaryl - Mites on mango and brinjal

INSECTICIDE RESIDUES
The very small quantity of insecticide that can remain in a crop after harvesting or
storage and makes its way into food chain is called insecticide [Link]
insecticides continue to remain toxic for long periods after application this period of
activity is called persistence or residual action Pyrethrum and rotenone are less
persistent (12 hrs) while Organochlorines are most persistent. Longer residual toxicity
is desirable for pest control , it is not desirable from safety point of view to man ad his
animals.
Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) (Residue Tolerance Level)
The amount of the residue of the toxicant that can be permitted to be present in / on
the produce used by man and his animals is called tolerance limits. It is expressed in
ppm. The residues should not exceed than the tolerance limits when offered for
consumption. It is measure of safety against the harmful effects of pesticide
Endosulfan - cabbage, brinjal, tomato 2.00 ppm
Malathion - cabbage, brinjal tomato 8.00 ppm
When pesticide residues persist more than their prescribed MRL , in fruits and
vegetables, washing the contaminated fruits and vegetables could dislodge the
residues to the extent of 20-25 % with water, 20-35 % with dilute solutions of salt, 40-
60 % with detergent solutions and 40-100 % by peeling the fruit skin , processing and
cooking.
Waiting period:
The waiting period must be observed between the time of pesticide application and
harvest of produce so that toxicants are metabolized into non toxic level
Acceptable Daily In take (ADI):
It is the amount of a chemical in food and water that can be ingested on daily basis
over a life time without appreciable risk. It is expressed as mg per kg body weight per
day.

Insecticides Act, 1968:

The Government of India passed an Insecticide Act in 1968to regulate the import,
manufacture, sale, transport, distribution and use of insecticides with a view to prevent
risk to human beings or animals. All the provisions of the Insecticides Act was brought
into force with effect from 1st August, 1971. In the Act and the Rules framed there
under, there is compulsory registration of the pesticides at the Central level and licence
for their manufacture, formulation and sale are dealt with at the State level. With the
enforcement of the Insecticides Act in the country pesticides of very high quality are
made available to the farmers and general public for house-hold use, for protecting
the agricultural crops from the ravages of their pests, humans from diseases and
nuisance caused by public health pests and the health hazards involved in their use
have been minimised to a great extent. For the effective enforcement of the
Insecticides Act, the following bodies have been constituted at the Central level.
Central Insecticide Board:The Government has constituted Central Insecticides
Board under the Chairmanship of Director General of Health Services with 29
members from different speciality and government organisations.
Functions:
1. To advise the Central and state Governments on technical matters on technical
matters arising out of administration
2. To specify the uses of the classification of insecticides on the basis of their toxicity
3. To advise tolerance limits for insecticides, residues and an establishment of
minimum intervals between the application of insecticides and harvest in respect of
various commodities
4. To specify the shelf-life of insecticides
Registration committee
Registration Committee consisting of a Chairman and other five persons who shall be
members of the Board. The main objective the committee is to register insecticide after
scrutinizing their formulae and verifying claims made by the importer or the
manufacturer, as the case may be, as regards their efficacy and safety to human being
and animals. The function of the registration committee is to specify the precautions
to be taken against poisoning through the use or handling of insecticides. For import
and manufacture of insecticides, registration certificate is essential and a separate
certificate for each insecticide.
Types of registration
A) Provisional registration: Provisional registration for 2 years for data Generation but
not for commercialisation
B) Regular or full registration: is done when committee satisfy on the data produce.
C) Repeat registration: Registration for already registered product for a subsequent
applicant. Data requirement is less.
Central Insecticide Laboratory:
1. To analyze samples of insecticides and submission of certificates of analysis to
the concerned authority; 2. To analyze samples of materials for insecticide residues
3. To carry out such investigations as may be necessary for the purpose of ensuring
the conditions of registration of insecticides;
4. To determine the efficacy and toxicity of insecticides