Hall Effect
When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, which is perpendicular to the
current, a voltage is developed across the conductor perpendicular to both the current and
magnetic field directions. This voltage is called Hall voltage and the effect is known as Hall
effect. It is named after R. N. Hall who discovered it in 1879.
A) Hall effect in metals:
Consider a metal as shown in fig. Let a voltage is applied in the x-direction across the conductor.
This causes a current Ix to flow. The electrons move in the opposite direction. Now apply a
magnetic field in the z-direction as shown in the figure. This causes a force q (V × B) to act on
the electrons. This is the Lorentz force. This force causes the electrons to move towards the +y-
direction. Therefore, the +y-face of the conductor accumulates electrons, causing it to become
negatively charged relative to the -y-face. Therefore, we have a opposite field established in the
y-direction which ultimately becomes equal to the Lorentz field. When this happens, no more
electrons move to the +y-face. Thus y-field is called the Hall effect.
Now Ix = -nq <Vd> ------------------------------------ (A)
where <Vd> is the average drift velocity and n is the number density of electrons.
Now F = -q (V × B) Lorentz Force
From here,
Fx = -qVyBz ------------------------------------ (1)
Fy = qVxBz ------------------------------------ (2)
Fz = 0 ------------------------------------ (3)
From eq. (2), Ey = Fy/q = VxBz
or Ey = -IxBz/nq = + RH Ix Bz ------------------------------------ (4)
where RH = -1/nq is called the Hall coefficient.
Let d be the thickness of the conductor in y-direction:
Then, VH = Ey d [VH is the Hall voltage]
Now RH Bz = Ey/Ix is known as Hall Resistance.
Since n is very high for metals, therefore from eq. 4, Ey is going to be a very small value, hence
Hall voltage for metals should be very small.
Typically, its value is a few microvolts.
B) Hall effect in Semiconductors:
In semiconductors, we have charge carriers having positive charge as well as negative charge. In
your solid-state Physics course, and circuits and devices course, you have already studies that the
positive charge carriers are called holes.
Now let us consider a semiconductor having electrons and holes in it.
The figure shows one such electron and one such hole. If an electric field is applied in the z-
direction, current will flow because of the both. However, the motion of electrons and holes will
be opposite to each other as shown in Figure.
Ixe = -nq <Vde> = -nq (-Vxe) = nqVxe
= nqEx μe [Vd = E μ]
where μe is the mobility of electron.
Similarly,
Ipx = pq <Vdn> = pq Vxp = pq Ex μp
Ix = Ixe + Ixp
= qEx (n μe +p μp)
When magnetic field Bz is applied (perpendicular to x), both the electrons and holes will deflect
to the bottom (+y-direction). F = q (V × B) = qVBz
For electrons: q and v are both -ve.
For holes: q and v are both +ve.
So, the direction of force is same.
These deflected charge carriers create a field Ey and, therefore, current flows in y-direction.
Again, we will have both electron and hole currents in the y-direction. The net current in the y-
direction will become zero when equilibrium is reached i.e. when Ey cancels the Lorentz force.
Hence,
Iy(e) + Iy(p) = 0
or nq μn Ey + pq μp Ey = 0
or n μn + p μp = 0
which is not possible!!!!
Here we must include the force on the moving charges in addition to the one corresponding to E y
due to the deposited charge on the sides.
Now Ey due to Lorentz force is given by Ey* = μe Ex Bz
Similarly, for holes: Ey* = -μp Ex Bz
This additional Ey has to be put in the eq. (1), i.e.
I = nq μn [Ey + μn Ex Bz] + pq μp [Ey - μp Ex Bz]
I = 0 [for equilibrium]
=> Ey [nq μn + pq μp ] = [pq μ2p – nq μ2n] Bz Ex
Using the values of Ex and simplifying,
1 𝑝μ𝑝 2 − 𝑛μ𝑛 2
𝐸𝑦 = [ ]𝐼 𝐵
𝑞 (𝑛μ + 𝑝μ )2 𝑥 𝑍
𝑛 𝑝
= RH Ix Bz
1 𝑝μ𝑝 2 −𝑛μ𝑛 2
Where RH = [𝑞 2 ] is the Hall coefficient for semiconductors.
(𝑛μ𝑛 +𝑝μ𝑝 )
For an n-type s/c,
Use n >> p => p → 0, μp → 0
Gives RH (n-type) = -1/qn
While for p-type
RH = 1/qp
Now if we have a pure p-type; the hall voltage produced would have opposite sign to that
produced by an n-type material.
From the above we conclude the following about the Hall voltage:
VH Iz
VH BZ
Effect of temperature on Hall voltage for n or p-type semiconductor
Fig. shows carrier concentration versus temperature for n-type material. One can see that as you
increase the temperature, the behavior approaches to that of an intrinsic material. For intrinsic
material, n=p. Therefore, for high temperature, an n (or p) type material, VH → 0 as shown in the
fig.
Bandgap
From basics of semiconductors,
ni = Nc Nv exp [-Eg / 2kT] ------- (1)
where ni is the intrinsic carrier content, Eg = bandgap.
This equation can be used to determine bandgap of a S/c.
The conductivity for a S/c is given by:
𝜎𝑖 = qni (μn + μp ) ----------- (2)
Nc Nv: density of states in the conduction / valence band
Assuming Nc and Nv not to have temperature dependence,
𝜎𝑖 can be expressed as
𝜎𝑖 = 𝜎0 exp [-Eg / 2kT]
Putting (1) in (2)
=> ln 𝜎𝑖 = ln 𝜎0 – Eg / 2kT --------(3)
Now 𝜎 = a / (b × c) . Vσ [a = length, b = breadth, c = thickness of the crystal]
From eq. (3), plotting ln 𝜎𝑖 versus 1/kT gives a straight line with slope [-Eg / 2]
Note: we have to use an intrinsic material to find the bandgap.
