In this document you will thoroughly understand the following

topics:

Electricity originated from the Greek words “Electrica” and

“Elektron”. The greek philosopher Thales was the first to observe
the attracting capacity of certain materials when rubbed together.
1. Electric Current and Circuit

• Electricity
is one of the most convenient and widely used
forms of energy in the world.
• Conductors are those substances in which electric charge can
flow freely. Metals are electric
conductors. Copper and aluminium are the two most
 commonly used metals in electricity.

• Electrical
insulators are those materials in which electric
charges do not move freely. Rubber, glass and plastic are
examples of
insulators.

Electrical Insulators

• Currentelectricity is the electricity which deals with moving

charges.
 •A continuous and closed path of an electric current is called

an electric circuit.
Electric Circuit

• Electric current is defined as the rate of flow of electric charge

through a cross-section of a

conductor.

The flow of electric

current
 • S.I. unit of electric current is ‘ampere' (A). One-ampere current
is equivalent to the flow of 1 coulomb of charge per second
through a section of a conductor. Thus, 1 A = 1 C s-1.
• Direction of flow of electric current is taken as opposite to the
direction of the flow of negatively charged electrons. In
other terms, the direction of conventional current is taken as
the direction along which positive charges will move, if
allowed to do so.
• In conductors flow of electric current is due to the flow of
electrons. The flow of 6.25 x 10 18 electrons per second
across a cross-section of a conductor constitutes a current of
1 ampere.

Try yourself:Which of the given is the SI Unit of Electric Current?

• a.

Ohm

• b.

Ampere

• c.

Volt

• d.

Faraday
View Solution

2. Electric Potential & Potential Difference

• The flow of electric charge in a circuit is similar to water flow

in a pipe.
 • The water pipe is analogous to the electric conductor and
the amount of water flowing across a section per
second corresponds to electric current.
• As water flows from higher pressure (level) to lower
pressure (level), the electric current flows from higher
electric potential to lower electric potential.
• The potential difference across a conductor is maintained
by using a cell or battery.
• The chemical action within a cell generates the potential
difference between its electrodes, due to which current
flows through the circuit.
• Potential difference between two points in an electric circuit
carrying current is defined as the work done to move a unit
positive charge from one point to another. If be the amount
of work done in taking a charge Q from point B to point A,
then

• The SI unit of electric potential difference is volt (V), where

3. Circuit Diagram

• A circuit diagram is a simplified representation of the

components of an electrical circuit using either the images of
the distinct parts or standard symbols.
• It shows the relative positions of all the elements and their
connections to one another.
• It is often used to provide a visual representation of the circuit
to an electrician. The following figure shows a simple circuit
diagram.
Components of Circuit Diagram
4. Ohm's Law

• George Simon Ohm established a relationship between the

electric current flowing through a conductor and the
potential difference across its ends, due to which current
flows.
 • According to Ohm’s law, the temperature remaining constant,
the current passing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across its ends, i.e.,

V ∝ I or V = IR

• Here, constant R is known as the resistance of the given

conductor. For a given conductor its resistance is constant at
a given temperature.
• Electrical resistance of a conductor may be considered as a
measure of the opposition offered by it for the flow of
electric charge through it.

Mathematically, Resistance

• S.I. unit of electrical resistance is oh(Ω), where 1 Ω = 1V/1A.

Try yourself:The obstruction offered by material of conductor to the passage of electric

current is known as:

• a.

Resistance

• b.

Conductance

• c.

Inductance

• d.

None of these
View Solution

5. Factors Effecting Resistance of a Conductor

• At a given temperature resistance of a conductor depends on
its:
(i) Length L
(ii) Cross-section area A
(iii) Nature of the material of the conductor.
• It is found that R ∝ L and

Mathematically, R = ρL/A

• Where ρ is a constant known as the resistivity of the material

of the conductor, its value depends only on the nature of the
material of the conductor and the temperature and is
independent of the dimensions (i.e., length and cross-section
area) of the conductor.
• The resistivity of a given material is defined as the resistance
offered by a cube of that material of side 1 m when current
flows perpendicular to the opposite faces. Its unit is ohm-
metre (Ω m).
• Metals and alloys have low resistivity in the range of 10 -8 Ω m
to 10-6 Ω m and are good conductors of electricity.
• Insulators like rubber and glass have a resistivity of the order
of 1012 to 1017 Ω m.
• Resistance, as well as the resistivity of a material, vary with
temperature. For metallic conductors resistance as well as
resistivity increases with increase in temperature.
• Resistivity of pure metals is very-very low. On account of this
reason, metals like copper and aluminium are used for
electrical transmission lines.
• Resistivity of alloys is greater than that of pure metals.
However, alloys do not oxidise easily, and their change in
resistivity with rise in temperature is small. Due to these
properties, they are used as electrical elements in most of the
electric appliances. Generally, nichrome elements are used in
electric iron, heater, radiator, geyser etc.
• Tungsten filaments are used in electric lamps because
the melting point of tungsten is extremely high.
• A rheostat is a variable resistance device used in electrical
circuits. It is used to regulate the current in the circuit
without changing the voltage source.

A Rheostat

• Anammeter is an instrument which can measure the electric

current flowing in an electric circuit directly in amperes and
its submultiples.
 Ammeter

•A voltmeter is an instrument used to measure the potential

difference across two given points in an electrical circuit
directly in volts.

Voltmeter
6. Resistance of System of Resistors
• Inan electric circuit resistances may be connected in:
(i) Series
(ii) Parallel Arrangement

• In the series grouping of resistances:

(i) The current flowing through all the resistances is the same.
(ii) The total voltage across the combination is equal to the
sum of the voltage drops across the individual resistors.
(iii) The total resistance of the combination is equal to the
sum of the individual resistances.
• If R 1, R 2, R 3,... be the individual resistors joined in series then
the equivalent resistor R s is given by Rs = R1 + R2 + R3 + ...
• In the parallel grouping of resistances:
(i) The voltage across each resistor is the same and equal to
the voltage across the whole combination.
(ii) The currents in various resistors are inversely proportional
to the resistances, and the total current is the sum of the
currents flowing through different resistances, and (Hi) the
sum of the reciprocals of the separate resistances is equal to
the reciprocal of equivalent resistance. If R 1, R2, R3,... be the
individual resistors joined in parallel then the equivalent
resistance R p is given as :

• Inhousehold electric circuits, a series circuit is not followed. It

is because if one component of the series circuit fails, the
entire circuit is broken and none of the components works.
 Moreover, the same current flows through all the
components irrespective of their operating needs.
• A parallel circuit divides the current in various components
(appliances), and each component can draw current as per its
appropriate operation. Separate on/off switch can be put
with each component in the parallel circuit. Moreover, the
total resistance in parallel circuit arrangement decreases and
hence a stronger current can be drawn from a voltage source.
Due to these reasons, all appliances are connected in parallel
in our household electric circuit.

7. Heating Effect of Electric Current

• If on applying, a potential difference V across the ends of a

conductor of resistance R, the current I flows for a time t,
then as per Joule’s law of heating the electric energy
consumed is given by:

• Generally, it is convenient to use the formula W = I2Rt for

series-connected circuits because the current I is same in all
resistors. For parallel arrangement, we prefer to use the

relation because here V is the same across all

branches of the circuit.
• The dissipated electrical energy reappears as heat. Thus, the
heat produced:

Practical Applications of Heating Effect of Electric Current

The heating effect of electric current is used in a large number of
devices like electric iron, electric toaster, electric oven, electric
kettle, electric heater, electric radiator, geyser etc.

• Electric heating is also used to produce light in electric bulbs.

As bulb filament operates at very high temperature, the
 filament should be thermally insulated. The bulb is filled with
chemically inactive nitrogen and argon gases to prolong the
life of bulb filament.
• Electric fuse protects an electric circuit or appliance by
stopping the flow of any unduly high electric current.
• A fuse consists of a piece of wire of a metal or an
alloy of appropriate melting point and is placed in
series with the circuit.
• If a current larger than specified value flows through
the circuit, the temperature of fuse wire rises beyond
its melting point, and fuse melts. As a result, circuit
breaks.

• The fuse of appropriate current capacity is used in an

electric circuit.
8. Electric Power

• The time rate of doing electric work is called electric power.

Thus,

• SIunit of electric power is watt (W), where 1 watt = 1-volt * 1

ampere
• A watt-hour and kilowatt-hour are practical units of electric
energy. The commercial unit of electric energy is a kilowatt-
hour (kW h), where

1 kW h = 1000 Wh = 3.6 x 10 6 J.

Try yourself:Amount of energy delivered by a power of one kilowatt in one hour is called
_______

• a.

Kilogram-second

• b.

Kilowatt-second

• c.

Watt-hour

• d.

Kilowatt-hour
View Solution

Frequently Asked Questions

Q.1: Why is resistance more in series combination?
Ans: We know R ∝ L. In series combination of resistors, the
effective length of the conductor increases, so the resistance
increases.
Q.2: Why is it not advisable to handle high voltage electrical circuit
with wet hands?
Ans: The resistance of dry-skin human body is about 50,000 Ω.
When the skin is wet, the resistance gets lowered to about 10,000
Ω. If a person with wet hands touches the electrical circuit, high
current will flow through the body causing risk of life.
Q.3: How does use of a fuse wire protect electrical appliances?
Ans: If a current larger than a specified value flows in a circuit,
temperature of fuse wire increase its melting point. The fuse wire
melts and the circuit breaks.
What is a Resistor?
A passive electrical component with two terminals that are used for
either limiting or regulating the flow of electric current in electrical
circuits.

•A conducting material (e.g., a wire) of a particular resistance

meant for use in a circuit is called a resistor.
• A resistor is sometimes simply referred to as resistance. It is
represented by the symbol.
• Two or more resistors can be connected in series, in parallel or
in a manner that is a combination of these two.
Resistor
Resistors in Series

Two or more resistors are said to be connected in series if the

current flowing through one also flows through the rest.
The total potential difference across the combination of resistors
connected in series is equal to the sum of the potential differences
across the individual resistors.
V = V1 + V2 + V3
Equivalent Resistance in Series Connection

Figure (a) shows three resistors of resistances R 1, R2 and

R3 connected in series. The cell connected across the combination
maintains a potential difference V across the combination. The
current through the cell is i. The same current i flows through each
resistor.
Let us replace the combination of resistors by a single resistor
Req such that the current does not change, i.e., it remains i. This
resistance is called the equivalent resistance of the combination,
and its value is given by Ohm's law as R eq = V / i
Thus V = i R eq.
The potential differences V 1 , V2 and V3 across the resistors R 1 ,
R2 and R3 respectively are given by
Ohm's law as : V 1 = iR1 , V2 = iR2 , V3 = iR3
Since the resistors are in series, V = V 1 + V2 + V3
Substituting the values of the potential differences in the above
equation,
iReq = iR1 + iR2 + iR3
or iReq = i(R1 +R2 +R3)
or Req = R1 + R2 + R3
Similarly, for n resistors connected in series,
Equivalent resistance of resistors in series : R eq = R1 + R2 + R3 + ....
Rn

Try yourself:Three resistors of 1 Ω, 2 ft and 3 Ω are connected in parallel. The combined

resistance of the three resistors should be

• a.

greater than 3 Ω

• b.

less than 1 Ω

• c.

equal to 2 Ω

• d.

between 1 Ω and 3 Ω
View Solution
Resistors in Parallel

The total current flowing into the combination is equal to the sum of
the currents passing through the individual resistors.
i = i1 + i2 + i3
If resistors are connected in such a way that the same potential
difference gets applied to each of them, they are said to be
connected in parallel.

Equivalent Resistance in Parallel Connection

Figure (a) shows three resistors of resistances R 1, R2 and

R3 connected in parallel across the points A and B. The cell
connected across these two points maintains a potential difference
V across each resistor. The current through the cell is i. It gets
divided at A into three parts i 1, i2 and i3, which flow through R 1,
R2 and R3 respectively.

Let us replace the combination of resistors by an equivalent resistor

Req such that the current i in the circuit does not change (Fig). The
equivalent resistance is given by Ohm's law as R eq = V/i.
Thus,

The currents i1 , i2 and i3 through the resistors R1, R2 and

R3 respectively are given by Ohm's law as
Since the resistors are in parallel,
i = i 1 + i 2 + i3
Substituting the values of the currents in the above equation,

Similarly, if there are n resistors connected in parallel, their

equivalent resistance R eq is given by

Equivalent resistance of resistors in parallel:

For two resistances R 1 and R2 connected in parallel,

The equivalent resistance in a parallel connection is less than each

of the resistances.
When a resistance is joined parallel to a comparatively smaller
resistance, the equivalent resistance is very close to the value of the
smaller resistance.
Note: If a resistor connected in series with others is removed or
fails, the current through each resistor becomes zero. On the other
hand, if a resistor connected in parallel with others fails or is
removed, the current continues to flow through the other resistors.

Try yourself:The effective resistance between A and B is

 • a.

4Ω

• b.

6Ω

• c.

May be 10 Ω

• d.

Must be 10 Ω
View Solution

Distribution of Current in Two Resistors in Parallel

Consider the circuit in fig. The resistors R 1 and R2 are connected in
parallel. The current i gets distributed in the two resistors.

i = i 1 + i2 .....(i)
Applying Ohm's law to the resistor R 1
VA - VB =R1i1· .....(ii)
And applying Ohm's law to the resistor R 2
VA - VB = R2i2 .... (iii)
From (ii) and (iii), R 1i1 = R2i2 or
Substituting for i 2 in (i), we have

or

Similarly,

Thus,
The current through each branch in a parallel combination of
resistors is inversely proportional to its resistance.
Devices in Series and Parallel
You must have seen tiny bulbs strung together for decorating
buildings during festivals like Diwali, and occasions like marriages,
etc.

• These bulbs are connected in series, and the mains voltage is

applied to the combination. The potential difference (V) of
the mains gets divided across the bulbs (V = V 1 + V2 + V3 + ...
).
• So, a small potential difference exists across each bulb, close to
that required to make the bulb work. However, the same
current flows through all the bulbs. So, if one bulb goes bad,
the current through it stops, and this stops the current
through the rest of the bulbs as well.
• To make the chain of lights work, we have to find and replace
the defective bulb. This problem does not occur with the
lights in our house. That is because in houses, lights, fans,
etc., are connected in parallel.
• In a parallel connection, the same mains voltage gets applied to
each device, but the current through each is different. If one
 of them goes bad, the current in the other branches of the
parallel connection does not stop.
• Another advantage of parallel connection is that, unlike series
connection, each device can draw a different current, as per
its requirement.

Electricity

The source of all electricity is in charge. As the charge is the basis of

all electrical phenomena, we need to know the amount of charge on
a body. It is measured in coulombs. The coulomb is the SI unit of
charge, and its symbol is C.

Electricity passing
through a wire

• The matter is generally made of protons, electrons and

neutrons. Each proton carries a charge of 1.6 × 10-
19 coulomb, and each electron carries an equal negative

charge.
• Neutrons do not carry any net charge. Normally, a body has
equal number of protons and electrons, and is, therefore,
electrically neutral.
• In certain situations, the balance of charges in a body is
disturbed.
Example: When a glass rod is rubbed with a silk cloth, some
electrons get transferred from the glass rod to the silk. The
silk cloth, which gains electrons,
 becomes negatively charged. And the glass rod, which is left
with more protons than electrons, becomes positively
charged.
• Charged particles or objects can exert forces on each other.
• Unlike charges attract each other.

• Like (similar) charges repel each

other.
Electrostatic Repulsion
 • Anotherimportant thing about charged particles is that they
can flow, i.e., they can move in a particular direction. This
flow of charged particles is called an electric current.
Charged particles such as electrons are present in all
substances. But they do not flow on their own. For the flow
of charges, there has to be a potential difference.

Potential Difference and the Flow of Charge

• The potential difference between two points A and B is the

work done per unit charge in taking charge from B to A.
• We express this mathematically as:
 • Here, V is the potential difference between the points A and B,
and VA and VB are the potentials at these points. The potential
at infinity is chosen as zero.
• If B is the reference point, the potential at B is V B = O.
• From Equation, the potential at A is V A = W/q. So, the
potential at a point is the work done per unit charge in taking
charge to that point from a chosen reference point.
The equation may also be written as:
W= qV
• The work done on the charge q is stored as the electric
potential energy (U) of the group of charges.
U = qV
• Unit of potential difference
The unit of potential difference (and potential) is the volt,
whose symbol is V. One volt is the potential difference
between two points in a current-carrying conductor when 1
joule of work is done to move a charge of 1 coulomb from one
point to the other.

• The potential difference between two points is sometimes also

called the voltage.
• Flow of Charge

Flow of Charge
 • Consider two identical metallic spheres P and N, carrying equal
amounts of positive and negative charges, respectively. A
positive charge is to be taken from B to A. It is attracted by the
negatively charged sphere N and repelled by the positively
charged sphere P. So, to move the charge towards A, one has
to apply a force on it towards the left. Thus, the work done
is positive. Hence, the potential difference V A - VB is positive.
This means V A > VB
• As one move towards P, the workdone increases; so, the
potential increases. And on moving towards N, the potential
decreases. So, the potential of P is higher than that of N.

In general, the potential of a positively charged body is taken as

higher than that of a negatively charged body.

What happens when a free-to-move charge is placed between the

spheres?
A positive charge will move towards the negatively charged sphere. And a
negative charge will move towards the positively charged sphere. That is, a
free positive charge moves towards lower potential. And a free negative
charge moves towards higher potential.
If the two spheres are connected by a metal wire, electrons from
the negatively charged sphere (at a lower potential) will flow to the
positively charged sphere (at a higher potential). Eventually, the
flow of electrons causes the charges on the spheres to become
balanced. When that happens, the spheres no longer carry a net
charge, and therefore, have equal potential. So, the flow of
electrons stops. So we can say that a potential difference causes
charges to flow.
A Cell Provides a Constant Potential Difference

• The potential difference provided by things like-charged

spheres reduces to zero quickly once charges start to flow. So,
we have to use cells to provide the constant potential
difference for a long time.
• Cells have chemicals inside. Reactions in the cell cause positive
and negative charges to gather separately. This creates a
potential difference between the terminals of the cell.
• The terminal at higher potential is called
the positive terminal, and the one at lower potential is called
the negative terminal.
• The cells that we commonly use are called dry cells (fig a). In a
common dry cell, the small metallic cap at one end is the
positive terminal, while the flat metallic plate at the other end
is the negative terminal. It provides a potential difference of
1.5 V.
• A cell is represented by the symbol shown in fig (b). The larger
line represents the positive terminal, while the shorter
line represents the negative terminal.

Dry cell and symbol of a cell

A combination of cells is called a battery.

Battery

• Quite often, multiple cells are combined to get a higher

potential difference than that of a single cell.
Example: We connect two 1.5V cells to get a potential
difference of 3V (Figure (c)) This is shown using symbols in
Figure (d).

Electric Current

• Consider a metallic wire ACB connected across a cell of

potential difference V. Since the end A is connected to the
positive terminal, it is at a higher potential than the end B.
• In metals, some electrons are loosely bound to the atoms and
can move within it. These are called free
 electrons.

Free electrons

• In the metallic wire, these electrons (negative charges) move

from the low-potential side B to the high-potential side A.
• After reaching A, they enter the cell. The chemical reactions in
the cell drive these electrons to the negative terminal. From
there, they re-enter the wire at the end B. Thus, there is a
continuous flow of electrons in the wire from B to C to A.
• We say that there is an electric current in the wire. In a metal,
the flow of negative charges constitutes the current.

• An electric current can also be a flow of positive charges. So, a

flow of charge is called an electric current.
• By convention, the direction of current is taken as the
direction of flow of positive charges. Thus, the direction of the
 current is opposite to the direction of flow of negative
charges.
• So, when a wire is connected to a cell, the current in the wire is
from the positive-terminal end to the negative terminal end.

Measurement of Current

• The charge passing per unit time through a given place(area) is

the magnitude of the electric current at that place. Thus,

• Here Q is the charge that passes through a place in time t.

• Unit of current from Equation, we find that current is charge
divided by time. The SI unit of charge is the coulomb and that
of time is the second. The SI unit of current, therefore,
is coulomb/second. This unit is called the ampere, whose
symbol is A. Thus if one coulomb of charge passes through a
place in one second, the current there is 1 ampere.
Conductors and Insulators

• Materials that conduct electricity easily are called good

conductors or simply, conductors. And, materials that do not
conduct electricity easily are called insulators.
• All metals conduct electricity because they have some loosely
bound free electrons, which flow when a potential difference is
applied. However, some metals conduct electricity better than
others. Silver is the best conductor. But because of the high
cost of silver, electric wires are made of copper, or in some
cases aluminium.
• Most nonmetallic solids do not conduct electricity. Although
diamond and graphite are both forms of carbon (a nonmetal),
graphite is a conductor while diamond is an insulator.
• Insulators do not conduct electricity because their electrons
are tightly bound to the atoms. Rubber, plastics, wood, glass
 and porcelain are some examples of insulators. Insulators have
many uses. For example, they are used as protective covers on
electric wires and electrician's tools.
• Certain liquids also conduct electricity. While distilled water is
an insulator, the addition of certain salts, acids or bases allows
it to conduct electricity. Under normal circumstances, gases do
not conduct electricity.
• Electric Circuits and Measuring Instruments

• A closed path in which a current can flow is called an electric

circuit. An electric circuit may have one or more electric
elements such as bulbs (or lamps), cells, switches (or plug keys),
metal wires, etc. Each element of a circuit has a specific
function to play. For example, wires can be used to connect
one element to the next. And a plug key or a switch can be
used to either complete or break the closed path, thereby
starting or stopping the current in the circuit.
Some common circuit elements and their symbols.

•
• Fig. Some symbols used in circuit diagrams
• Common Measuring Instruments
• The electric current in a circuit is measured by an instrument
called the ammeter, and the potential difference between two
points in it is measured by a voltmeter (in voltage
stabilizers). In these meters, a needle moving over a graduated
scale gives the value of the measured quantity. Each meter has
two terminals. The terminal marked '+' is connected by a wire
to the higher-potential side of a circuit, while the terminal
marked '- ' is connected to the lower-potential side.
• Using an Ammeter to measure Current
To measure the current through an element of a circuit, an
ammeter is connected in such a way that the current flowing
through it also flows through the element. Such a connection is
called a series connection. In Figure, the current i flowing
through the lamp also flows through the ammeter. The reading
of the ammeter gives the current through the lamp. Note that
if the ammeter is removed, there will be a gap, and the current
through the circuit will stop.

•
• Two or more electric elements are said to be connected in
series if the current flowing through one also flows through
the rest.
An ammeter is always connected in series in a circuit.
• Using a Voltmeter to measure Potential Difference
• Figure shows a circuit that has two lamps connected to a cell.
We want to measure the potential difference across the lamp
L2, i.e., between the points A and B. As A is on the side of the
positive terminal of the cell, its potential is higher than that of
B. So, the '+' terminal of the voltmeter is connected to A, and
the '- ' terminal, to B. The reading of the voltmeter gives the
potential difference across L 2. The current flowing through the
 voltmeter is different from those flowing through the other
elements of the circuit. Also, even if the voltmeter is removed,
the current continues to flow in the circuit. Note that the
potential difference across L2 and the voltmeter is the same.
Such a connection is called a parallel connection.

•
• Two or more electric elements are said to be connected in
parallel if the same potential difference exists across them.
•
• Ohm's Law

• The electric current through a metallic element or wire is

directly proportional to the potential difference applied
between its ends, provided the temperature remains constant.
• If a potential difference V is applied to an element and a
current i passes through it,
• i ∝ V

• or
• Thus Ohm's Law V = iR
• Here R is a constant for the given element (metallic wire) at a
given temperature and is called its resistance. It is the propert y
of a conductor to resist the flow of charges through it.
•
• Resistance

• From equation,
•

• So, for a given potential difference,

• Thus, for a given potential difference, the current is inversely
proportional to the resistance. The higher is the resistance, the
lower is the current. If the resistance is doubled, the current is
halved. Good conductors have low resistance, while insulators
have very high resistance.
• Unit of Resistance

• Potential difference is measured in volts, and current is

measured in amperes. From Equation, R = V/i. So, the unit of
resistance is volt/ampere. This unit is called the ohm, and its
symbol is W. We can define one ohm as follows.
• If a potential difference of 1 volt is applied across an element,
and a current of 1 ampere passes through it, the resistance of
the element is called 1 ohm.

•
•

•
• Factors on which the Resistance of a Conductor Depends

• The resistance of the conductor depends

• (i) on its length,
• (ii) on its area of cross-section, and
• (iii) on the nature of its material.
• Resistance of a uniform metallic conductor is directly
proportional to its length (l) and inversely proportional to the
area of cross-section (A).
•
• Combining eqs. we get

•
• Where ρ(rho) is a constant of proportionality and is called
electrical resistivity of the material of the conductor. The SI
unit of resistivity is Ωm.
• Heating Effect of Electric Current

• When an electric current passes through a bulb, the filament

gets so hot that it glows and emits light. When a current passes
through the filament of an electric iron, the iron becomes very
hot. This increase in temperature is due to what is called 'the
heat produced due to current'.Suppose a resistor R is
connected to a cell. The cell maintains a potential difference V
across the resistor, driving a current i through it.
• So, V = iR ......(i)

•
• The current through the resistor is actually a flow of negative
charges (electrons). Inside the cell, the negative charges flow
from the positive to the negative terminal. The cell does work
= QV to take a charge through the potential difference V
between its terminals. This increases the energy of the charge
by QV. This increased energy gets converted to heat in the
resistor. So, the energy appearing as heat is given by
• U = QV .....(ii)
• The charge that passes through the wire in time t is
• Q =it. ......(iii)
• Using (i), (ii) and (iii), we find that the heat produced in the wire
in time t is
• U =QV = (it)
• (iR) =i2 Rt.
• From Equation the heat produced is proportional to the square
of the current, if R and t remain constant. So, if the current
passing for a given time through a given resistance is doubled,
the heat produced becomes four times. Similarly, for a given i
and t, the heat produced is proportional to R. If the same
current i passes through two resistances in a given time, more
heat will be produced in the larger resistance. The heat
produced can also be written as.

•
• or

•
• For a given V and t, the heat produced is inversely proportional
to R. So, if the same potential difference is applied across two
resistances, more heat will be produced in the smaller
resistance.
• We have seen above that the increased energy of a charge
gets converted to heat in the resistor. The increase in energy
comes from the work done by the cell. This uses up the
chemical energy of the cell. So, the energy appearing as heat in
the resistor ultimately comes at the expense of the chemical
energy of the cell.
• Not always is the work done by a cell converted to heat.
Immediately after a motor is connected to a cell, the speed of
the shaft of the motor increases. A part of the work done by
the cell goes into producing the increase in kinetic energy. And
a part is used to overcome friction, etc. When the motor
achieves a constant speed, its kinetic energy does not change.
So the work done by the cell is only used to overcome friction,
 etc. This appears as heat. That is why the cover over a motor
becomes warm on use.
•
• Electric Power

•
Power is the rate of doing work, or the rate at which energy is
produced or consumed. The electrical energy produced or consumed
per unit time is called electric power. In an electric circuit, the power
is

•
• Using iR = V
• P = Vi

•
• The energy consumed and power are related as
• U = Pt.
• Unit of Power
• The SI unit of energy is the joule, and that of time is the
second. The SI unit of power is, therefore, joule/second. This
unit is called the watt, whose symbol is W.
•
• Practical Applications of Heating Effect of Electric Current

• The heating effect of electric current has many uses. Electric

bulbs, room heaters, electric irons, immersion heaters, toasters,
electric fuses, and a number of other appliances work on this
principle. In all of these, a wire of suitable resistance,
commonly called the heating element, is connected to the
power supply. The current passing through the element
produces heat in it, which is used for some specific purpose.
• Electric bulb

• An electric bulb has a simple structure. It consists of a sealed

glass bulb that has a tungsten filament connected to two
electrical contacts. The bulb is filled with an unreactive gas like
argon or nitrogen. To produce white light, the filament has to
be heated to about 3000°C by passing a current through it.
Obviously, the material of the filament should such that it does
not melt at this temperature. Tungsten is used for the filament
because its melting point is about 3400°C. The sealed glass
bulb serves two purposes. First, it protects the filament from
oxidation and the effects of humidity. Secondly, the small
enclosed volume makes it easier to maintain the required
temperature, as without it the loss of heat would be more.
• Fuse

• A fuse is a safety device that does not allow excessive current

to flow through an electric circuit. It consists of a metallic wire
of low melting point, fixed between the two terminals of a fuse
plug. The fuse plug fits into a fuse socket connected in the
circuit. Fuses are available in various shapes. The fuse plug is
used in household wiring. It is made of porcelain.
• A fuse is connected in series with an appliance (such as a TV)
or a group of appliances (such as the lights and fans in a room).
So, the current through the fuse is the same as the current
through the appliance or the group of appliances. If this
current exceeds a safe value, the heat produced in the fuse
wire causes it to melt immediately. This breaks the circuit,
preventing any damage. Figure shows examples of how a fuse
is connected in circuits.
• Good-quality fuse wires are made of tin, as it has a low melting
point. Some fuse wires are made of an alloy of tin and copper.
The thickness of the fuse wire depends on the circuit in which
it is to be used. If a section of the circuit is meant to carry a
maximum of 5A current, the fuse wire should also be able to
carry currents up to 5A. Similarly, for wiring meant for 15A, the
fuse wire should be thicker, and should be able to carry
currents up to 15A.

•
• Disadvantages of the Heating Effect of Current

• A current always produces some heat, whether we use the

heat or not. If the heat produced cannot be utilized, it
represents a wastage of energy. A considerable amount of
energy is thus wasted in the transmission of electricity from
the generating station to our homes. Sometimes, the heat
produced in a device is so much that it can damage the device,
unless proper cooling arrangements are made. To dissipate the
heat produced in TV sets, monitors, etc., their cabinets have
grills for air to pass. Certain components of a computer get so
hot that they have fans to cool them.
•
 • Rating of Electric Appliances

• Take an electric bulb and see what is written on it. Apart from
the name and the symbol of the company, we will find values
of power and potential difference. For example, it could be
60W, 220V. It means that 220V should be applied across this
bulb, and when 220V is applied, the power consumed will be
60W. We will find similar markings on all electric· appliances.
For an electric appliance, the values of power and voltage
taken together form what is called the rating of the appliance.
From the rating of an appliance, you can easily calculate its

resistance by using the equation P = . Note that higher the

power rating, smaller the resistance. So, a 1000W heater has
less resistance than a 100W bulb. We can also calculate the

current drawn by an appliance by using the relation i = .

• Kilowatt hour
Power is the rate of energy consumed or produced. If 1 joule
of energy is used per second, the energy is used at the rate of
1 watt. In other words, if energy is used at the rate of 1 watt,
the total energy used in 1 second is 1 joule. How much energy
is used in 1 hour if it is used at the rate of 1000 watt?
• It is (1000 watt) × (3600 second) = 3,600,000 joule.
This amount of energy is called 1 kilowatt hour, written in
short as kWh. Thus, 1 kWh =3,600,000 J = 3.6 × 10 6J. The
electrical energy used in houses, factories, etc., is measured in
kilowatt hours. The cost of electricity is fixed per kilowatt
hour. One kilowatt hour of electrical energy is called one unit.
Fundamentalfundamental
Introduction

• Charge is a fundamental particle in an atom. It may be positive

or negative.
• Like charges repel each other.
• Unlike charges attract each other.
 • Coulomb (C): S. I. unit of charge
• 1 Coulomb charge = Charge present on approx. 6 ×
1018 electrons
• Charge on 1 electron = Negative charge of 1.6 × 10 -19 C
i.e. Q = ne
Where, Q = Charge (total)
n = No. of electrons
e = Charge on 1 electron

Current
Current (I): The rate of flow of charge is called current.
Current = Charge/Time ⇒ I = Q/T

S. I. unit of current = Ampere (A)

⇒ 1 A = 1 Cs-1
⇒ 1 mA = 10-3 A
⇒ 1 µA = 10-6 A

• Current is measured by Ammeter. Its symbol is

• Ammeter has low resistance and always connected in series.

• Direction of current is taken opposite to flow of electrons as
electrons were not known at the time when the
phenomenon of electricity was discovered first and current
was considered to be flow of positive charge.

Potential Difference
 • Potential Difference (V): Work done to move a unit charge
from one point to another.
V = W/Q
• 1 Volt: When 1 joule work is done in carrying one Coulomb
charge then potential difference is called 1 volt.
• S. I. unit of Potential difference = Volt (V)
1 V = 1 JC-1
• 1 Volt: When 1 joule work is done in carrying one Coulomb
charge then potential difference is called 1 volt.
V = W/Q
• Voltmeter: It is an instrument to measure the potential
difference.
• It has high resistance and always connected in
parallel. Symbol is

• Cellis the simplest device to maintain potential difference.

• Current always flow from higher potential to lower potential.

Symbols of Some Commonly Used Components in Circuit

Ohm’s Law
Potential difference across the two points of a metallic conductor is
directly proportional to current passing through the circuit provided
that temperature remains constant.

• Mathematical expression for Ohm’s law

V∝I
⇒ V = IR
• R is a constant called resistance for a given metal.
• V-I graph for Ohm’s law
 • Resistance (R): It is the property of a conductor to resist the
flow of charges through it.
• Ohm (Ω): S. I. unit of resistance.
• 1 ohm = 1 volt/1ampere
• When potential difference is 1 V and current through
the circuit is 1 A, then resistance is 1 ohm.
• Rheostat: Variable resistance is a component used to regulate
current without changing the source of voltage.

Factors on which the Resistance of a Conductor depends

• Resistance of a uniform metallic conductor is:

(i) directly proportional to the length of conductor,
(ii) inversely proportional to the area of cross-section,
(iii) directly proportional to the temperature and
(iv) depend on nature of material.
• Resistivity (P): It is defined as the resistance offered by a cube
of a material of side 1m when current flows perpendicular to
its opposite faces.
• Its S.I. unit is ohm-metre (Ωm).
 • Resistivity does not change with change in length or
area of cross-section but it changes with change in
temperature.
• Range of resistivity of metals and alloys is 10 -8 to 10-
6 Ωm.

• Range of resistivity of insulators is 10 12 to 1017 Ωm.

• Resistivity of alloy is generally higher than that of its
constituent metals.
• Alloys do not oxidize (burn) readily at high
temperature, so they are commonly used in electrical
heating devices.
• Copper and aluminium are used for electrical
transmission lines as they have low resistivity.

Resistors in Series

• When two or more resistors are connected end to end, the

arrangement is called series combination.

Total/resultant/overall/effective resistance in series

Rs = R 1 + R2 + R3

• Current through each resistor is same.

• Equivalent resistance is larger than the largest individual
resistance.
• Total voltage = Sum of voltage drops
V = V1 + V2 + V3

Voltage across each resistor

 • V1 = IR 1
• V 2 = IR 2 [V 1 + V 2 + V 3 = V]
• V 3 = IR 3V = IR

⇒ V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3

∝ IR = I(R 1 + R 2 + R3)
∝ R = R1 + R2 + R 3
Resistors in Parallel

• Voltage across each resistor is same and equal to the applied

voltage.
• Total current is equal to sum of currents through the individual
reistances.
I = I 1 + I2 + I 3
⇒ V/R = V/R 1 + V/R 2 + V/R3
• Reciprocal of equivalent resistance is equal to sum of
reciprocals of individual resistances.
1/Rp = 1/R 1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
• Equivalent resistance is less than the value of the smallest
individual resistance in the combination.

Advantages of Parallel Combination over Series Combination

(i) In series circuit, when one component fails, the circuit is broken
and none of the component works.
(ii) Different appliances have different requirement of current. This
cannot be satisfied in series as current remains same.
(iii) The total resistance in a parallel circuit is decreased.
Heating Effect of Electric Circuit

• If an electric circuit is purely resistive, the source of energy

continually get dissipated entirely in form of heat. This is
known as heating effect of electric current.
As E = P×T ∝ VIt {E = H}
Heat produced, H = VIt {V = IR}
Or, Heat produced, H = I 2Rt

Joule’s Law of Heating Effect of Electric Current

• It states that the heat produced in a resistor is (i) directly

proportional to square of current, H ∝ I2
• It is directly proportional to resistance for a given current, H ∝
R
• It is directly proportional to time for which current flows
through the conductor, H ∝ t.
So, H = I2Rt
• Heating effect is desirable in devices like electric heater,
electric iron, electric bulb, electric fuse, etc.
• Heating effect is undesirable in devices like computers,
computer monitors (CRT), TV, refrigerators etc.
• In electric bulb, most of the power consumed by the filament
appears a heat and a small part of it is radiated in form of
light.

Filament of electric bulb is made up of tungsten because:

(i) it does not oxidise readily at high temperature.
(ii) it has high melting point (3380º C).

• The bulbs are filled with chemically inactive gases like nitrogen
and argon to prolong the life of filament.

Electric Fuse: It is a safety device that protects our electrical

appliances in case of short circuit or overloading.
 • Fuse is made up of pure tin or alloy of copper and tin.
• Fuse is always connected in series with live wire.
• Fuse has low melting point.
• Current capacity of fuse is slightly higher than that of the
appliance.

Electric Power: The rate at which electric energy is consumed or

dissipated in an electric circuit.
P = VI
⇒ P = I2R = V 2/R
S.I. unit of power = Watt (W)
⇒ 1 Watt = 1 volt × 1 ampere
Commercial unit of electric energy = Kilo Watt hour (KWh)
⇒ 1 KWh = 3.6 × 10 6 J
⇒ 1 KWh = 1 unit of electric energy