CHapteR two

SQl Data Manipulation language

 Introduction
SQL Data Manipulation Language (DML) is used to manipulate and
retrieve data from a database.

DML commands are essential for accessing, transforming, and

analysing data.

The main DML commands include:

1) SELECT – Retrieve data from tables.
2) INSERT – Add new records to a table.
3) UPDATE – Modify existing records.
4) DELETE – Remove records from a table.
1. The SELECT Statement (Retrieving Data)
The SELECT statement fetches data from one or more tables.

It can be used with filtering (WHERE), sorting (ORDER BY), and
grouping (GROUP BY).

Basic Syntax: SELECT column1, column2, ... FROM table_name

WHERE condition;

column1, column2, ... → Specifies which columns to retrieve.

table_name → The table from which to fetch data.

WHERE condition → (Optional) Filters the results.

 Examples
i. Retrieve All Data: SELECT * FROM employees;

ii. Retrieve Specific Columns: SELECT name, salary FROM

employees;

iii. Filter Data (WHERE Clause): SELECT name, salary FROM

employees WHERE salary > 5000;

iv. Sorting Results (ORDER BY Clause): Sort employees by salary in

descending order:

SELECT name, salary FROM employees ORDER BY salary

DESC;
 2. INSERT Statement (Adding Data)
The INSERT statement adds new records to a table.
 There are multiple ways to use INSERT, depending on whether you're
adding specific values, inserting data from another table, or inserting
multiple rows at once.
 Syntax: INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, ...) VALUES
(value1, value2, ...);
 table_name: The name of the table where data will be inserted.
 column1, column2, ... → The columns where values will be
inserted.
 VALUES (value1, value2, ...) → The values to be inserted.
 Examples
i. Insert a Single Row: INSERT INTO students (student_id, name, age,
grade) VALUES (101, 'Alice Johnson', 21, 'A');
ii. Insert Multiple Rows:
INSERT INTO students (student_id, name, age, grade) VALUES
(102, 'Bob Smith', 22, 'B'),
(103, 'Charlie Brown', 20, 'A'),
(104, 'Diana Prince', 23, 'B+');
iii. Insert Data Without Specifying Columns: If inserting values into all
columns in order, you can omit column names:
INSERT INTO students
VALUES (105, 'Edward Norton', 24, 'A-');
 Note: This requires that values match the exact order of the columns in the table.
 Continued..
iv. Insert Data from Another Table: You can insert data from another
table using a SELECT statement.

INSERT INTO graduates (student_id, name, graduation_year)

SELECT student_id, name, 2025 FROM students WHERE grade =

'A';

v. Insert with Default Values: This assumes other columns have

default values or allow NULLs. If some columns have default
values, you can insert partial data:

INSERT INTO employees (name, department) VALUES ('John

Doe', 'IT');
 3. UPDATE Statement (Modifying Data)
The UPDATE statement modifies existing records in a table.

Syntax:

 UPDATE table_name SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2

WHERE condition;

SET column1 = value1 → Defines the changes.

WHERE condition → Specifies which rows to update.

 Examples:
1. Increase Salary of Employees in HR by 10%
UPDATE employees SET salary = salary * 1.10 WHERE
department = 'HR';
2. Change Employee Department
UPDATE employees SET department = 'Marketing' WHERE name
= 'Alice';
3. Increase Salary for All Employees
UPDATE employees SET salary = salary + 500;
Note: Without a WHERE clause, all records in the table will be
updated.
 4. DELETE Statement (Removing Data)
The DELETE statement removes records from a table.

Syntax:

 DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition;

WHERE condition → Specifies which rows to delete.

 Examples:
1. Delete a Specific Employees

DELETE FROM employees WHERE name = 'Bob';

2. Delete All Employees in a Department

DELETE FROM employees WHERE department = 'Sales';

Note: Omitting WHERE will delete all records.

 DELETE FROM employees; -- Deletes all rows!

3. Delete Employees with Salary Below 4000

DELETE FROM employees WHERE salary < 4000;

 5. GROUP BY (Grouping and Aggregation)
The GROUP BY clause groups rows that have the same values in
specified columns.

It is often used with aggregate functions.

Syntax:
SELECT column_name, aggregate_function(column_name)
FROM table_name GROUP BY column_name;

aggregate_function(column_name) → Performs calculations like

COUNT(), SUM(), AVG(), MIN(), MAX().
 Examples:
1. Count Employees in Each Department

SELECT department, COUNT(*) FROM employees GROUP BY

department;

2. Find Average Salary Per Department

SELECT department, AVG(salary) FROM employees GROUP BY

department;

3. Get Maximum Salary in Each Department

SELECT department, MAX(salary) FROM employees GROUP BY

department;
6. Aggregate Functions (Mathematical Calculations)
Aggregate functions operate on a set of values and return a single result.
Function Description
COUNT()  It counts the number of rows.
 Ex: Count the Number of Employees
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM employees;
SUM()  Returns the sum of values
 Ex: Find Total Salary Paid to Employees
SELECT SUM(salary) FROM employees;
AVG() Returns the average value
MIN()  Returns the smallest value
 Ex: Find Minimum and Maximum Salary
SELECT MIN(salary), MAX(salary) FROM employees;
MAX()  Returns the largest value
 7. SQL Operators
A. Arithmetic Operators

Operator Description Example

+ Addition SELECT 10 + 5; → Returns 15

- Subtraction SELECT 10 - 5; → Returns 5

* Multiplication SELECT 10 * 5; → Returns 50

/ Division SELECT 10 / 5; → Returns 2

% Modulus (Remainder) SELECT 10 % 3; → Returns 1

 Example: Calculate new salary with a 10% bonus:

SELECT name, salary, salary * 1.10 AS new_salary FROM employees;
 Cont.….
B. Comparison Operators: Used to compare values in SQL queries.

Operator Description Example

Equal to SELECT * FROM employees WHERE salary = 5000;
=
Not equal to SELECT * FROM employees WHERE salary <> 5000;
!= or <>
Greater than SELECT * FROM employees WHERE salary > 5000;
>
Less than SELECT * FROM employees WHERE salary < 5000;
<
Greater than or equal to SELECT * FROM employees WHERE salary >= 5000;
>=
Less than or equal to SELECT * FROM employees WHERE salary <= 5000;
<=

 Example: Find employees earning more than 6000:

SELECT name, salary FROM employees WHERE salary > 6000;

 Cont.….
C. Logical Operators: Used to combine multiple conditions in WHERE clauses.
Operator Description Example

AND Both conditions must be SELECT * FROM employees WHERE

department = 'IT' AND salary > 5000;
true
OR At least one condition SELECT * FROM employees WHERE
department = 'IT' OR department = 'HR';
must be true
NOT Negates a condition SELECT * FROM employees WHERE
NOT department = 'Sales';

 Example: Find employees in IT with salaries above 5000:

SELECT * FROM employees WHERE department = 'IT' AND salary > 5000;
 Cont.….
D. Set Operators (Combining Query Results):

Set operators in SQL allow you to combine the results of

two or more SELECT queries into a single result set.

The main set operators are:

 UNION – Combines results and removes duplicates.

 UNION ALL – Combines results and keeps duplicates.

 INTERSECT – Returns only common rows between queries.

 EXCEPT (or MINUS in Oracle) – Returns rows from the first query that are
not in the second query.
 Cont.….
1. UNION (Removes Duplicates)
The UNION operator merges the results of two or more SELECT statements and
automatically removes duplicate rows.

Syntax: SELECT column1, column2 FROM table1 UNION SELECT column1,

column2 FROM table2;

Example: Retrieve a unique list of employee names from employees and managers
tables:
 SELECT name FROM employees UNION SELECT name FROM managers;

Key Points:
 Both SELECT statements must have the same number of columns.
 The corresponding columns must have compatible data types.
 The result set does not contain duplicate rows.
 Cont.….
2. UNION ALL (Keeps Duplicates)
The UNION ALL operator merges results from multiple SELECT
queries without removing duplicates.

Syntax: SELECT column1, column2 FROM table1 UNION ALL

SELECT column1, column2 FROM table2;

Example: Retrieve all employee names, including duplicates:

SELECT name FROM employees UNION ALL SELECT name

FROM managers;
 Cont.….
3. INTERSECT (Common Rows)
The INTERSECT operator returns only the rows that are common between the two
queries.

Syntax: SELECT column1, column2 FROM table1 INTERSECT SELECT

column1, column2 FROM table2;
Example: Find employees who are also listed as managers:
 SELECT name FROM employees INTERSECT SELECT name FROM
managers;

 Not supported in MySQL (but can be simulated using INNER JOIN or

EXISTS).

 Alternative for MySQL: SELECT name FROM employees WHERE name

IN (SELECT name FROM managers);
 Cont.….
4. EXCEPT (or MINUS in Oracle)
The EXCEPT operator returns rows from the first query that do not appear in the
second query.
Syntax: SELECT column1, column2 FROM table1 EXCEPT SELECT column1,
column2 FROM table2;
Example: Find employees who are not managers:
 SELECT name FROM employees EXCEPT SELECT name FROM managers;

 EXCEPT is not supported in MySQL, but you can use LEFT JOIN to achieve
the same result:

 Alternative for MySQL: SELECT [Link] FROM employees e LEFT

JOIN managers m ON [Link] = [Link] WHERE [Link] IS NULL;
 Cont.….
E. Concatenation Operator in SQL
Concatenation operators are used to join two or more string values together in SQL.
The way concatenation is done depends on the database system you are using.
 In Oracle, the | | operator is used to concatenate strings.
 Example: SELECT first_name || ' ' || last_name AS full_name FROM
employees;
 SQL Server uses the + operator for string concatenation.
 Example: SELECT first_name + ' ' + last_name AS full_name FROM
employees;
 Important Note: If any column contains NULL, the result will be NULL. To
avoid this, use the COALESCE() function:
 SELECT COALESCE(first_name, '') + ' ' + COALESCE(last_name, '') AS
full_name FROM employees;
 MySQL and PostgreSQL use the CONCAT() function.
 Ex: SELECT CONCAT(first_name, ' ', last_name) AS full_name FROM employees;
 Cont.….
F. SQL EXISTS Operator in SQL
The EXISTS operator is used in SQL to check whether a subquery returns any rows.
 If the subquery returns at least one row, EXISTS evaluates to TRUE; otherwise, it
evaluates to FALSE.
Syntax: SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE EXISTS (
SELECT 1 FROM another_table WHERE condition );
Example 1: Find employees who belong to a department:
 SELECT name FROM employees WHERE EXISTS ( SELECT 1 FROM
departments WHERE employees.department_id = [Link] );
Example 2: Find students who have enrolled in a course:
 SELECT student_name FROM students WHERE EXISTS ( SELECT 1
FROM enrollments WHERE students.student_id = enrollments.student_id );