Contents

1 Electrostatics 1
1.1 The origin of electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Conservation of charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Coulomb’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 The electric field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4.1 Electric fields and conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 Electric potential and potential difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6 The electron volt — a unit of energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.7 Electric field and electric potential of a point charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.8 Electric field between parallel plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.9 Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.9.1 Capacitors in series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.9.2 Capacitors in parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.10 Energy storage in a Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2 Current Electricity 11
2.1 Electric Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Ohm’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3 Resistance and Resistivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4 Resistors in series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.5 Resistors in parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.6 Electric power and energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.6.1 Joule heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.6.2 The kilowatt hour — a unit of energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.7 Chemical cells and batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.7.1 Internal resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.7.2 Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.7.3 Ampere-hour rating of a battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.8 Voltmeters and Ammeters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.9 Alternating Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

3 Magnetism 22
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1.1 Magnetic poles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.2 Magnetic fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.3 The force on a current-carrying wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.4 The Magnetic field of a long, straight wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.5 The force between two long, current-carrying wires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.6 Electromagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.7 The transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Revision of some elementary mathematics 27

Problems 28

Index 35

i
List of Examples
1.1 The number of electrons in a charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Neutral point in the field due to two point charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Force on a charge in a uniform electric field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Electric field and electric potential due to a point charge . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Charged particle in the field of parallel plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6 The equivalent capacitance of a combination of capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1 The resistivity of a wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2 The resistance of a wire at different temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3 Equivalent resistance of a resistor combination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4 The cost of using electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.5 Terminal voltage of a battery under load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.6 Amp-hour rating of a battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.1 Wire carrying current in a uniform magnetic field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2 A step-down transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

ii
1 Electrostatics
1.1 The origin of electricity
An atom consists of a nucleus made up of particles called protons and neutrons, around which
exists a diffuse cloud of particles called electrons. Electric charge, like mass, is an intrinsic
property of protons and electrons. Experiments have shown the following facts:
1. There exist two types of electric charge which we now call positive and negative.

2. The charge on the proton is exactly equal and opposite to the charge on the electron.

3. Like charges repel and unlike charges attract.

The magnitude of the charge on the proton or electron is denoted by the symbol e. The
SI unit of charge is the coulomb (C) and is found experimentally to have the value∗

e = 1.60 × 10−19 C.

By convention, the charge of the proton is +e and the charge of the electron is −e. The
charge e is the smallest amount of free charge that has been discovered. Any charge q is
therefore an integer multiple of e. Thus if N is an integer.

q = Ne . (1)

Because any electrical charge q can be expressed as a multiple of an elementary charge e,

electric charge is said to be quantized.
Atoms normally have an equal number of protons and electrons and therefore have no net
charge since the algebraic sum of the charges of all the protons and electrons is zero. An atom
that carries no net charge is said to be electrically neutral. An atom that has a net electrical
charge (because it has lost or gained one or more electrons) is called an ion.

Example 1.1: The number of electrons in a charge

Determine the number of electrons required to produce a charge of 1 coulomb.
Solution:
The charge of an electron is e = 1.60 × 10−19 C. Hence the number of electrons required
to produce a charge of 1 C may be found using Equation (1):
q 1
N= = = 6.25 × 1018 electrons.
e 1.60 × 10−19

1.2 Conservation of charge

It is possible to transfer charge from one object to another. One manner in which charge can
be transferred is when two unlike materials are rubbed together. For example when hard rubber
is rubbed against animal fur, electrons are transferred from atoms in the fur to the rubber. As
a result, the rubber gains a net negative charge and the fur gains a net positive charge. No
electrons or protons are created or destroyed when charge is transferred. Experiments have
verified that during any process the law of conservation of electric charge is obeyed.
∗
The coulomb is defined in Section 3.5

1
The law of conservation of electric charge
The algebraic sum of all electric charges in an isolated system remains constant.
Electric charge can not only be transferred to and from different objects, it can also move
through materials. An electrical conductor is a material through which an electric charge is
readily transferred. Most metals are good conductors. An electrical insulator is a material
through which an electric charge is not readily transferred. Good insulators are such poor
conductors that we consider them to be nonconductors. Glass, rubbers, plastics etc. are good
insulators.

1.3 Coulomb’s law

The electrostatic force that two charges exert on each other depends on the amount of charge
on each object and the distance between the two objects. For two stationary charges q1 and
q2 separated by a distance r this force is given by Coulomb’s law:
kq1 q2
F = (2)
r2
The constant of proportionality k in Coulomb’s law is determined experimentally and has a value
of 9.0 × 109 N m2 C−2 if the charges are in vacuum (and also in air to a good approximation).
It is common practice to express the constant k as
1
k=
4πε0
where ε0 is the permittivity of free space.
The force in Equation (2) between two point charges at rest acts along the line joining
the charges and is attractive if the charges have opposite signs and repulsive if the charges
have the same sign (see figure 1).
+F −F
q1 q2
r

−F q1 q2 +F

Figure 1: The force between two charges at rest acts along the line joining them. The force
is attractive for unlike charges and repulsive for like charges.

1.4 The electric field

The region of space surrounding a charged body is affected by the presence of the charge. A
second charge brought into this region experiences a force according to Coulomb’s law. Because
electrical forces involve interactions over a distance it is helpful to introduce the concept of
electric field E.
Electric field
We define the electric field E at a point as the force per unit charge exerted on a stationary,
positive, test charge placed at that point.

2
 F
E= (3)
q

Note that E is a vector quantity and therefore has direction as well as magnitude. The SI
unit of electric field is newton per coulomb (N C−1 ).
To visualise the electric field, it is useful to introduce the idea of electric field lines (or lines
of force). Figure 2 shows some field lines near an isolated positive charge. The field pattern is
the same for a negative charge except that the direction of the arrows is reversed.

+q
+Q

Figure 2: The electric field of an isolated positive charge Q.

Electric field lines are drawn according to the following conventions:

1. They begin on positive charges and end on negative charges (if necessary assumed
at infinity). They cannot start or stop in free space.

2. Their direction at any point is the direction of the force which would act on a positive
charge placed at the point. Thus the tangent to a line of force at any point gives the
direction of the electric field strength at that point.

3. The magnitude of the electric field strength is represented by the number of lines of
force per unit area passing perpendicularly through a small area at that point. If at
any point the net electric field is zero, then no lines of force will pass through it. Such a
point is called a neutral point.

In figures 3(a), and 3(b), the electric field due to two equal charges of opposite sign and
two equal charges of the same sign are shown.

1.4.1 Electric fields and conductors

Consider a conductor in or near an electrostatic field. The following properties can be shown
to be true:

1. E = 0 inside the conductor because electrons in the metal move until the force on them
is zero.

2. Any excess charge placed on a conductor resides entirely on the surface of the conductor.

3. An electric field line always meets a conducting surface at right angles.

3
 +q

+Q Q +Q +Q

(a) (b)

Figure 3: Electric field lines of (a) two unlike charges and (b) two like charges.

Example 1.2: Neutral point in the field due to two point charges
Charges of +5 nC and +20 nC are located 30 cm apart in air. Calculate

1. the force between them, and

2. the position of the neutral point in the resulting electric field.

Solution:
1. Since both charges are positive, they repel each other. The force is given by Equa-
tion (2):



kq1 q2 9 × 109 × 5 × 10−9 20 × 10−9
F = = = 1.0 × 10−5 N.
r2 0.32
2. The neutral point will be where the net force exerted on a test charge q0 is zero.
This has to be between the charges, on the line joining the charges and closer to the
smaller charge. Let x be the unknown distance.

5 nC q0 20 nC
x
0.3 m

Use Equation (2) to determine the force on a test charge q0 for each charge. Thus

k × 5 × 10−9 × q0 k × 20 × 10−9 × q0
= ,
x2 (0.3 − x)2

which gives
5 20
= .
x2 (0.3 − x)2

Solving the above equation gives x = −0.3 m or x = 0.1 m. We reject the negative
solution as unphysical.

4
Example 1.3: Force on a charge in a uniform electric field
Calculate the force on an electron (e = 1.60 × 10−19 C) in a uniform electric field E of mag-
nitude E = 1.5 × 106 N C−1 .
Solution:
Since the charge of an electron is negative, we use q = −1.60 × 10−19 C in Equation (3).
Thus
F = qE = −1.6 × 10−19 × 1.5 × 106 = −2.4 × 10−13 N.

The negative sign indicates that the force is in the opposite direction to E.

1.5 Electric potential and potential difference

A charge in an electric field experiences a force according to Coulomb’s law. If the charge
moves in response to this force, work is done by the electric field and energy is removed from
the system. However, if the charge is moved against the Coulomb force of the electric field,
work is done on it by an external agent and energy is stored in the system.
If work is done as a charge moves from one point to another in an electric field, or if work
is required to move a charge from one point to another, these two points are said to differ in
electric potential.
Potential difference
The potential difference between two points in an electric field is the work done per unit
charge in slowly transferring a small positive test charge from one point to the other.
If the potential difference is denoted V , then in symbols,
W
V = , (4)
q
where W is the work done on a charge q. The unit of potential difference (or p.d.) in the SI
system is the volt (1 V = 1 J C−1 ).
Volt
One volt is the p.d. between two points in an electric field if 1 joule of work moves a charge
of 1 coulomb between these points.
Note that V is a scalar quantity.

1.6 The electron volt — a unit of energy

The joule is a very large unit for dealing with energies of electrons, atoms or molecules. For
this purpose, the electron volt is used (abbreviated eV).
Electron volt
One electron volt is defined as the energy acquired by an electron when moving through a
potential difference of 1 V.
From Equation (4):


W = qV = 1.6 × 10−19 C × (1 V),
hence we have
1 eV = 1.6 × 10−19 J.

5
1.7 Electric field and electric potential of a point charge
The defining equations: E = F/q and V = W/q are general definitions of electric field and
electric potential. They can be used to find E and V for specific cases. The simplest case that
one can treat is an isolated, stationary point charge q. It is possible to show that at a distance
r from a point charge q the electric field is given by
kq
E= , (5)
r2
where the direction of E is determined by the convention discussed in Section 1.4.
The electric potential at any point has meaning only with reference to a potential at zero.
Often infinity is chosen, although for practical purposes the surface of the earth may be regarded
as at zero potential. The potential of any point is then the work done in transferring a small
positive test charge from the reference point to the point in question. It can also be shown
that the electric potential V at a distance r from a point charge q is given by
kq
V = . (6)
r
Note that V is a scalar and therefore has no direction associated with it. The sign of V is
determined by the sign of the charge q. If q is negative, then V is negative.

Example 1.4: Electric field and electric potential due to a point charge
Calculate (a) the electric field, and (b) the electric potential at a distance of 15 cm from an
isolated point charge of 5 µC.
Solution:
(a) The electric field due to a point charge is given by Equation (5):


kq 9 × 109 × 5 × 10−6
E= 2 =
2 = 2 × 106 V m−1 .
r 15 × 10 −2

Hence E = 2 × 106 V m−1 radially outwards (see Figure 2).

(b) The electric potential due to a point charge is found from Equation (6):


kq 9 × 109 × 5 × 10−6
V = =
= 3 × 105 V.
r 15 × 10−2

1.8 Electric field between parallel plates

Consider two parallel metal plates separated by a distance d and connected to a battery. The
top plate is positively charged with respect to the bottom plate as shown in Figure 4 (a).
This is an important arrangement because it produces a uniform electric field in the space
between the plates. That is, an electric field whose value is the same (in both magnitude and
direction) at any point in the space.
Figure 4 (b) shows some lines of electric field for parallel plates. Because the field is uniform,
the lines are equally spaced and all point in the same direction.
The magnitude of the electric field between the plates can be shown to be
V
E= , (7)
d

6
 + + + + +
+ + +
d V
− − −
− − − − −
(a) (b)

Figure 4: The electric field between parallel plates.

where V is the potential difference (or voltage) across the plates. Note that Equation (7) gives
as units for electric field V m−1 . (1 V m−1 is the same as 1 N C−1 — these units are equivalent.)

Example 1.5: Charged particle in the field of parallel plates

A 1 kV p.d. is connected across two parallel metal plates which are 10 cm apart. Calculate
(a) the magnitude of the electric field between them; (b) the energy gained in eV by (i)
an electron, and (ii) an O2− ion when travelling freely from one plate to the other; (c) the
speed reached by the electron in (b)(i) above, if it starts from rest. (The mass of an electron
me = 9.1 × 10−31 kg.)
Solution:
(a) From Equation (7):
V 1000
E= = = 10 000 V m−1 .
d 0.1

(b) (i) 1 eV is the energy gained by the electron if it moves freely through a p.d. of
1 volt.

∴ energy gained 1 kV × e = 1000 eV.

(ii) The oxygen ion has charge 2e.

∴ energy gained = 1000 × 2 = 2000 eV.

(c) The work done by the field in accelerating the electron (Equation (4)) equals the
change in kinetic energy of the electron. Hence

W = eV = ∆KE = 21 m vf2 − vi2 .

The electron starts from rest, hence vi = 0 and

r s
2eV 2 × 1.60 × 10−19 × 1000
vf = = = 1.88 × 107 m s−1 .
m 9.1 × 10−31

7
1.9 Capacitance
Capacitors are devices which store electric charge. They consist of two conductors of any
shape, placed near, but not touching one another. Often the space between the conductors
is filled with an electrically insulating material. According to this definition, the parallel plate
arrangement discussed earlier is a capacitor. Each plate carries a charge of the same magni-
tude, one being positive, while the other is negative. The charge that is stored on the plates
of a capacitor is proportional to the potential difference across the plates. Thus

q = CV , (8)

where C is the capacitance. The unit of capacitance is the farad: 1 F = 1 C V−1 .

One farad is a very large unit and in practice, capacitances are normally much less than
this. Some common capacitances are:

1 µF = 10 × 10−6 F (micro)
1 nF = 10 × 10−9 F (nano)
1 pF = 10 × 10−12 F (pico).

In electric circuits, the symbol for an ordinary capacitor is . For these capacitors,
it does not matter which way round they are connected in a circuit. However, there are
+
special capacitors called electrolytic capacitors denoted by the symbol , which have
to be connected with the ‘positive’ plate (denoted by the straight line in the symbol) being
connected to the point of higher positive potential in the circuit.
Capacitors can be connected together in different ways. Two important combinations are
considered below.

1.9.1 Capacitors in series

Capacitors connected in series can be replaced by a single equivalent capacitor Ceq .

C1 C2 C3 Ceq

q q q q
V1 V2 V3 V

Capacitors in series all carry the same charge which is equal to the charge on Ceq . The sum
of the potential difference across each capacitor is equal to the potential difference across Ceq .
Using Equation (8) it can be shown that
1 1 1 1
= + + + ··· . (9)
Ceq C1 C2 C3

1.9.2 Capacitors in parallel

Capacitors connected in parallel all experience the same potential difference across them.

8
 C1

C2 Ceq

C3

The total charge on all the individual capacitors is the same as the charge that would be stored
on a single equivalent capacitor. It can be shown using Equation (8) that for any number of
capacitors connected in parallel

Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 + · · · . (10)

1.10 Energy storage in a Capacitor

Charging a capacitor requires energy. The work done in completely charging a capacitor C is
given by W = qV where V is the average voltage across the plates during charging. If the final
voltage is V then V = 12 V and the work done is

W = qV = 21 qV,

which is stored as electric potential energy in the capacitor. Since q = CV the energy stored
becomes
q2
Energy = 21 qV = 12 CV 2 = . (11)
2C

Example 1.6: The equivalent capacitance of a combination of capacitors

For the arrangement shown alongside, calculate C2 = 2 µF

(a) the single equivalent capacitance, C1 = 10 µF

(b) the p.d. across the 10 µF capacitor,

(c) the energy stored in the 2 µF capacitor.

C3 = 3 µF

100 V
Solution:
(a) For the 2 µF and 3 µF capacitors in parallel:

C = C2 + C3 = 5 µF.

9
 For the (equivalent) 5 µF and 10 µF capacitors in series:
1 1 1
= + ,
Ctot 5 10
which gives Ctot = 3.3 µF.
(b) The charge Q that would exist on Ctot is

Q = Ctot × V = 3.33 × 100 = 333 µC,

which is also the charge on the 10 µF capacitor. Hence the p.d. across the 10 µF
capacitor
Q 333
V10 µF = = = 33.3 V.
C 10

(c) The p.d. across the combination C2 and C3 , V = 100 − 33.3 = 66.7 V. Therefore the
energy stored in the 2 µF capacitor

E = 12 CV 2 = 1
2 × 2 × 10−6 × 66.72 = 4.45 × 10−3 J.

10
2 Current Electricity
2.1 Electric Current
So far we have considered only static distributions of electric charge. We shall now extend
the discussion to moving charges. To do this we consider a metallic wire. If we maintain a
potential difference (or voltage) across the ends of the wire, electrons in the wire will move.
These moving charges constitute an electric current I.
Current
The current I is defined as the charge passing through any cross-sectional area of a conductor
per unit time.

q
I= , (12)
t

where q is the charge passing through the area in a time t. The SI unit of charge is the
ampere∗ (1 A = 1 C s−1 ).

Figure 5: Electric current is the amount of charge per unit time that passes through a surface
perpendicular to the motion of the charges.

We shall adopt the convention that the direction of a current is the direction in which
positive charge carriers move. In metals the charge carriers are electrons and these move in the
opposite direction to the conventional current. In gases and ionic solutions the charge carriers
are both positive and negative ions. For most of our purposes we will not be concerned with
the nature of the charge carriers.

2.2 Ohm’s law

If the same potential difference is applied between the ends of a rod of copper and of a rod of
wood, very different currents result. The characteristic of the conductor that enters here is its
resistance.
Resistance
The resistance (R) of a material (resistor) is defined as the ratio of the potential difference
V applied across a piece of the material to the current I through the material.
Thus

V
R= . (13)
I
∗
The ampere is defined in Section 3.5.

11
The SI unit of resistance is the V A−1 or ohm: 1 V A−1 = 1 Ω.
For many materials (e.g. metals), the potential difference V across some part of the
material is proportional to the current I flowing through it at constant temperature.

V ∝I

For such materials, the resistance R = constant. Materials for which the resistance is constant
at constant temperature obey Ohm’s law and are called ohmic conductors.

2.3 Resistance and Resistivity

For a wide range of materials, the resistance of a piece of material of length ℓ and cross-
sectional area A is
ℓ
R=ρ , (14)
A
where ρ is a proportionality constant known as the resistivity of the material. For most metals
near room temperature ρ ≈ 10−8 Ω m whereas for a good insulator ρ might be ≈ 1019 Ω m.
Resistance and resistivity change with temperature. For many conductors, one finds an
approximately linear dependence of resistance on temperature over a considerable range.

resistance (Ω)

RT

R0

temperature (◦C)
0 ◦C T
Figure 6: The relation between resistance R and temperature T for many conductors.

Thus

RT = R0 (1 + αT ), (15)

where R0 is the resistance at 0 ◦C, RT is the resistance at temperature T ◦C and α is the

mean temperature coefficient of resistance between 0 ◦C and T ◦C. For typical metals
α ≈ 10−3 ◦C−1 .

Example 2.1: The resistivity of a wire

A current of 0.5 A passes through a copper wire 1.8 m long and 0.1 mm in diameter at 20 ◦C.
If the p.d. across the ends of the wire is 2 V, calculate

1. the resistance of the wire, and

2. the resistivity of copper.

12
Solution:
1. Copper at 20 ◦C is an ohmic conducter so we may use Equation (13):
V 2
R= = = 4 Ω.
I 0.5
2. The resistivity is obtained from Equation (14) with
A = πr 2 = π(0.05 × 10−3 )2 = 7.85 × 10−9 m2 .
Hence
RA 4 × 7.85 × 10−9
ρ= = = 1.74 × 10−8 Ω m.
ℓ 1.8

Example 2.2: The resistance of a wire at different temperatures

Calculate the resistance of the copper wire in the example above, if its temperature rises from
20 ◦C to 100 ◦C. Take αCu = 3.9 × 10−3 ◦C−1 .
Solution:
We use Equation (15). The resistance at 20 ◦C and 100 ◦C is
R20 = R0 (1 + 20α)
R100 = R0 (1 + 100α).
The resistance at 0 ◦C is unknown, hence we divide the above equations to elliminate R0 :
R100 R0 (1 + 100α) 1 + 100α
= = .
R20 R0 (1 + 20α) 1 + 20α
From part (a) of Exercise 2.1 above, R20 = 4 Ω. Using α = 3.9 × 10−3 ◦C−1 gives


R100 1 + 100 × 3.9 × 10−3
=
= 1.289.
4 1 + 20 × 3.9 × 10−3
Therefore
R100 = 4 × 1.289 = 5.16 Ω.

2.4 Resistors in series

In electric circuits, the symbol used for a resistor is . Some resistances are designed so
that they are adjustable, the symbol for a variable resistor is . A rheostat is a resistor
that is continuously adjustable. The symbol for a rheostat is .
Suppose we connect three resistors R1 , R2 and R3 in series as shown below.

I R1 R2 R3 I Req

V1 V2 V3
V V

13
The same current I passes through all three resistors. From Equation (13) we have V = IR,
so

IReq = IR1 + IR2 + IR3

and therefore

Req = R1 + R2 + R3 . (16)

Equation (16) can be generalized to any number of resistors connected in series.

2.5 Resistors in parallel

Now suppose we connect the above three resistors in parallel.

R1

I1
I2 R2 Req
I I I

I3 R3
V
V

Here the voltage across all three resistors is the same and the current divides into I1 through
R1 , I2 through R2 and I3 through R3 . Then
V V V
I = I1 + I2 + I3 = + + .
R1 R2 R3
If Req is the equivalent resistance, then

V V V V
= + + .
Req R1 R2 R3

For resistors in parallel therefore

1 1 1 1
= + + . (17)
Req R1 R2 R3

Equation (17) can also be generalized to any number of resistors in parallel.

1 1
Note that > , where Rs is the smallest resistance in the set, so Req < Rs . Hence the
Req Rs
combined resistance of a number of resistances in parallel is always smaller than the smallest
resistor in the set.

14
Example 2.3: Equivalent resistance of a resistor combination

3Ω

I1
A 4Ω B C
b b b

I = 5A
I2
6Ω

Determine the combined resistance RAC for the circuit above. Calculate the p.d.’s VAB , VBC
and VAC and the currents I1 and I2 .
Solution:
We first determine the equivalent resistance of the parallel network BC:
1 1 1 1
= + = Ω−1 , hence RBC = 2 Ω.
RBC 3 6 2
The equivalent resistance RAC is therefore

RAC = RAB + RBC = 4 + 2 = 6 Ω.

To determine the potentials VAB , VBC and VAC we use Equation (13). Thus

VAB = 4 × 5 = 20 V
VBC = 2 × 5 = 10 V
VAC = 6 × 5 = 30 V

Notice that VAC = VAB + VBC as expected.

The currents I1 and I2 may be found by considering each branch of the parallel network BC
separately and again using Equation (13). We find

VBC 10
I1 = = = 3.3 A
3 3
and
VBC 10
I2 = = = 1.7 A.
6 6
Notice that I = I1 + I2 as expected.

15
2.6 Electric power and energy
I
In the figure opposite, the source could be a battery,
power supply, mains outlet etc. The load might be
a resistor, motor, or a combination of devices.
By definition, whatever the nature of the load, a source load
charge q passing through the load loses energy W
given by W = V q (see Equation (4)). The rate at
which energy is transferred from the source to the
load is given by the power
I

W q
P = =V
t t
or, using Equation (12)

P = V I. (18)

Equation (18) is a general definition of power dissipation. The SI unit of power is the watt
(1 W = 1 V A = 1 J s−1 ).
Equation (18) enables us to calculate the rate at which the load converts electrical energy
to other forms of energy. For example, if the load is a resistor, electrical energy is converted
to heat, or if the load is an electric motor, to mechanical work, etc.

2.6.1 Joule heating

For a resistor carrying a steady current I, we obtain, using the definition of resistance (Equa-
tion (13)), the equivalent forms:

V2
P = I 2R = . (19)
R
In a time t, the electrical energy converted into heat is given by

V2
W = I 2 Rt = t. (20)
R
Equations (20) are known as Joule’s laws.
Note that Equations (19) and (20) apply only to Ohmic conductors.

2.6.2 The kilowatt hour — a unit of energy

Most municipalities measure electrical energy in kilowatt hours (kW h). One kilowatt hour is
defined as the electrical energy converted to other forms when a power of 1 kW is used for
1 hour. Thus
1 kW h = (1000 watts) × (3600 seconds)
= 3.6 × 106 W s
= 3.6 × 106 J.

Note: The kilowatt hour is a unit of energy not power.

16
Example 2.4: The cost of using electricity
A domestic electric heater is rated at 230 V; 9 A. If the consumer pays 30 c/kW h for electricity,
what is the cost of running this appliance continuously for 11 hours?
Solution:
First determine the power rating of the kettle in kW:

P = V I = 230 × 9 × 10−3 = 2.07 kW.

The kettle is on for 11 hours, therefore the work done in kW h is

W = P t = 2.07 × 11 = 22.77 kW h.

One kW h costs 30 cents, hence 22.77 kW h costs

22.77 × 30 = 342 cents = R 6.83.

2.7 Chemical cells and batteries

Certain chemical reactions (called redox reactions) take place in an electrochemical cell. The
essential components of an electrochemical cell are an electrolyte and two electrodes of unlike
materials, one of which reacts with the electrolyte. There are two types of chemical cells called
primary (or voltaic) cells and secondary (or storage) cells. The essential difference is that in
the latter type the chemical reactions in a cell may be reversed by passing a “charging” current
through it while in the former they cannot. The normal type of cell in a torch is a primary cell
— once it has gone “flat” it must be discarded.
The symbol for a cell is : the long line represents the positive terminal and the short
line is the negative terminal. When an external resistance is connected across the terminals,
charge flows through the complete circuit including the cell. We expect and experimentally
find that all cells possess some internal resistance.
Electromotive force
The electromotive force (EMF) E of a cell may be defined as the energy it will supply per
unit charge to drive charge round a complete circuit.

2.7.1 Internal resistance

In the circuit depicted in Figure 7, a cell of emf E having internal resistance r is connected to
a load resistance R. Suppose the cell drives a charge Q around the circuit in time t.

E r

I
R

Figure 7: A cell with emf E connected to a load resistance R. The internal resistance of the
cell is r .

17
    
  energy to drive energy to drive
Total energy
=  Q through the  +  Q through the 
supplied
load resistance R internal resistance r
2
EQ = I Rt + I 2r t
∴ EQ = QIR + QIr
or E = V + Ir
Hence the potential difference V measured across a cell connected in a circuit is given by

V = E − Ir. (21)

The potential difference Ir is commonly referred to as the “lost volts”. Note that:

(a) If I = 0 then V = E
See the diagrams below.
(b) If I > 0 then V < E

V V

E r E r

Switch
Switch
open
closed
(I = 0)
R R

Voltmeter reads E Voltmeter reads less than E

Example 2.5: Terminal voltage of a battery under load

A battery has an emf of 12.0 V and an internal resistance of 0.15 Ω. What is the terminal
voltage when the battery is connected to a 1.50 Ω resistor?
Solution:
The total resistance is the sum of the internal resistance and the resistance of the load
(see Equation (16)):

Rtot = r + R = 0.15 + 1.50 = 1.65 Ω.

The current in the circuit is given by Ohm’s law (Equation (13)):

E 12.0
I= = = 7.27 A.
Rtot 1.65
The terminal resistance may now be determined from Equation (21):

V = E − Ir = 12.0 − 7.27 × 0.15 = 10.9 V.

18
2.7.2 Batteries
Groups of cells can be connected together in different ways to form a battery. A car battery
for instance consists of several cells connected in series.
The table below summarizes two common ways in which cells can be combined. In these
diagrams, r represents the internal resistance of the cell.

Cells in series Cells in parallel

E1 E2 r1 E1
b b b b

r2 E2
r1 r2

1 1 1
effective r = r1 + r2 effective r given by = +
r r1 r2
effective E = E1 + E2 effective E:
(a) when E1 = E2 then E = E1

(b) when E1 6= E2 we don’t con-

sider in this course.

2.7.3 Ampere-hour rating of a battery

A useful quantity to look for when buying a battery is the ampere-hour rating. This is best
illustrated by means of an example. A 12 V car battery rated at 40 ampere-hour (40 A h)
means that this battery can deliver 40 A for 1 hour whilst maintaining a potential difference of
12 V across its terminals. Hence the total available energy is E = V It = 12 × 40 × 3600 =
1.728 × 106 J. As a rule of thumb remember that: ampere-hour rating = number of amps
delivered × time in hours.

Example 2.6: Amp-hour rating of a battery

If the 40 A h car battery above supplies 800 mA at 12 V, how long will it last?
Solution:
The time the battery lasts, multiplied by the current supplied by the battery must equal
40 A h. Thus

40 × 1 = 0.8 × time

which gives

time = 40/0.8 = 50 hours.

2.8 Voltmeters and Ammeters

Voltmeters are used to measure potential differences in a circuit. An ideal voltmeter has infinite
internal resistance. As such, a voltmeter is always connected across a resistor or cell. (‘Across’
usually means ‘in parallel with’.)

19
 Ammeters are used to measure current in a circuit. An ideal ammeter has zero internal
resistance and is always connected in series with a cell or resistor.
Note: Real meters can be made to approximate these ideal requirements rather well.

2.9 Alternating Current

When a battery is connected to a circuit, the current flows steadily in one direction. This is
called a direct current (dc). Electric generators at power stations, however, produce alternat-
ing current (ac). An alternating current reverses direction many times per second. Figure 8(a)
below shows a steady direct current. Its value does not change with time. Figure 8(b), on the
other hand, shows how an alternating current varies with time. The electrons in a wire move
first in one direction and then in the other.

current current

0
time

time
(a) (b)

Figure 8: Variation of current with time for (a) direct current and (b) alternating current.

The voltage generated at a power station is sinusoidal and so the current it produces is also
sinusoidal. We can write the voltage V as a function of the time t as

V = V0 sin (2πf t), (22)

where V0 is called the peak voltage and f is the frequency. Note the following:

1. V oscillates between +V0 and −V0 .

2. f measures the number of cycles per second. It is measured in Hertz (Hz).

From Ohm’s law, if an alternating voltage V = V0 sin(2πf t) exists across a resistance R,

the current I is
V V0
I= = sin (2πf t) = I0 sin (2πf t), (23)
R R
where I0 = V0 /R is the peak current. The current is considered positive when the electrons
flow in one direction and negative when they flow in the opposite direction. It is clear from
Figure 8(b), that an alternating current is positive as often as it is negative.
The power delivered to a resistor R at any instant is (c.f. Equation (19))

P = I 2 R = I02 R sin2 (2πf t)

20
 power

I02 R

time

Figure 9: Variation of power with time for a sinusoidally varying current.

Because the current is squared, the power is always positive. This is plotted in Figure 9.
The quantity sin2 (2πf t) varies between 0 and 1 and its average value is 12 . Thus the average
power (P ) is

P = 21 I02 R.

Since power can also be written P = V 2 /R = (V02 /R) sin2 (2πf t) (see Equation (19) and 22),
we can similarly show that the average power is

1 V02
P = .
2R
The two equations for P above can be written as
2 √
2
V0 / 2

I
P = √0 R= .
2 R

We define the root-mean-square (rms) current and voltage as

I0 V0
Irms = √ and Vrms = √ . (24)
2 2
Then
2
2 Vrms
P = Irms R= , (25)
R
which is a familiar form. The rms values of V and I are sometimes called the effective values.
A direct current whose values of I and V equal the rms values of I and V for an alternating
current will produce the same power.
In South Africa, the domestic mains voltage provided by Eskom has V0 = 333 volts and
f = 50 Hz. These values may be different in other countries.

21
3 Magnetism
3.1 Introduction
Consider an experiment with two bar magnets, close to, but not touching one another. We
find that the magnets exert a force on each other. This force can be either attractive or
repulsive depending on how we orient the magnets with respect to each other. Now perhaps
this reminds us of a similar experiment in electrostatics. Namely, that like charges repel and
unlike charges attract. It turns out that magnetism is due to the motion of electric charges.
Clearly then, there must be a link between magnetism and electricity; but they are not the
same phenomenon.
At an atomic level, two kinds of electron motions are important in our modern concept of
magnetism:

1. An electron revolving about the nucleus of an atom imparts a magnetic property to the
atom structure.

2. The second kind of electron motion is due to the spinning of the electron about its own
axis.

3.1.1 Magnetic poles

In magnetism there are no magnetic charges; we speak instead about magnetic poles. We
distinguish the two ends of our bar magnet using the labels: north pole and south pole, and
we say that

like poles repel and unlike poles attract .

Magnets usually have two well-defined poles, one N and one S. Long bar magnets may
sometimes acquire more than two poles, and an iron ring may have no poles at all when
magnetized. We believe that a single isolated pole is not a physical possibility. Scientists
have tried to isolate a magnetic “monopole”, but none have succeeded.

Note: Do not confuse magnetic poles with electric charge; they are not the same thing.

3.2 Magnetic fields

We found it useful to speak of an electric field surrounding an electric charge. In the same way
we can imagine a magnetic field surrounding a magnet. Figure 10 shows the magnetic field
lines of a bar magnet.
By convention, the magnetic field lines always point away from a north pole and towards
a south pole. As in the case of the electric field, the magnetic field is strongest where the
lines are closest together. We shall use the symbol B to denote magnetic field. B is a vector
quantity.

22
 N S

Figure 10: Magnetic field lines of a bar magnet.

3.3 The force on a current-carrying wire

Experiment shows that a current I in a straight wire
of length ℓ perpendicular to a magnetic field experi- I
ences a force F that is directly proportional to both
B and ℓ. So F ∝ Iℓ or F = BIℓ. The constant of N S
proportionality is written as B, the magnitude of the
magnetic field. The units of B are N A−1 m−1 . We
use shorthand: 1 N A−1 m−1 = 1 T (tesla). If the
wire makes an angle θ with B then

F = BIℓ sin θ. (26)

right-hand rule
Since force is a vector, it has a direction. The right- F B
hand rule gives this direction. Hold your right hand
flat, with thumb extended. Point your fingers in the
direction of B and your thumb in the direction of I. 90◦

The direction in which you would push with this flat I

right hand, is the direction of F.

Example 3.1: Wire carrying current in a uniform magnetic field

A wire carrying 30 A has a length ℓ = 12 cm

between the faces of a magnet at an angle θ
θ = 60◦ as shown. The field is approximately S N
uniform at 0.90 T. Calculate the force on the ℓ
length ℓ of the wire.
I
Solution:
The force on the wire may be calculated directly from Equation (26).

F = BIℓ sin θ = 0.9 × 30 × 0.12 × sin 60 = 2.8 N.

Applying the right-hand push rule, the force is found to be downwards (into the page).

23
3.4 The Magnetic field of a long, straight wire
Consider a long straight wire carrying a current I. Experiments show that B at a distance r
from the wire is directly proportional to I and inversely proportional to r . Thus
I
B=k , (27)
r
µ0
where k = = 2 × 10−7 T m A−1 . The constant µ0 is known as the permeability of free
2π
space.
right-hand rule No.2
I
The figure opposite shows the magnetic field lines around
a straight wire. We use the right-hand rule for finding the
direction of B. When the thumb points in the direction
of I, your fingers wrapped around the wire curl in the
direction of the magnetic field.

3.5 The force between two long, current-carrying wires

We now consider two long, parallel wires a distance L apart. Suppose they carry currents I1
and I2 respectively. Each current produces a magnetic field that is “felt” by the other. The
force exerted on wire 2 is given by
F = B1 I2 ℓ2 ,
where B1 is the field at wire 2 due to wire 1 and ℓ2 is the length of wire 2. But from
I1
Equation (27), B1 = k so
L
kI1 I2 ℓ2
F =
L
or
F kI1 I2
= , (28)
ℓ L
where k = 2 × 10−7 T m A−1 . Equation (28) is the force per unit length experienced by either
wire. By Newton’s third law, the force which wire 1 exerts on wire 2 is equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction to the force which wire 2 exerts on wire 1.
Equation (28) can be used to define the ampere. If I1 = I2 = 1 A and the two wires are
1 m apart, then
 
F (2 × 10−7 ) × 1 × 1
= = 2 × 10−7 N m−1 .
ℓ 1
Ampere
1 ampere is defined as that current flowing in each of two long, parallel wires 1m apart, which
results in a force of 2 × 10−7 N per metre length of each conductor.
The definition of the ampere in turns allows us to define the coulomb.
Coulomb
One coulomb is the quantity of electric charge that passes a given point in a conductor in
one second when the current is one ampere.
Note: We can use the right-hand rule to prove the important result that like currents attract
and unlike currents repel.

24
3.6 Electromagnetism
We have discussed two ways in which electricity and magnetism are related.

(a) An electric current produces a magnetic field, and

(b) A magnetic field exerts a force on an electric current.

These discoveries were made in 1820–1821. Scientists then began to wonder if the reverse of
(a) might be true. That is, is it possible for a magnetic field to produce an electric current?
Michael Faraday (and others) in an elegant series of experiments showed that the answer is
yes. Below we consider one practical manifestation of Faraday’s experiments: the transformer.

3.7 The transformer

A transformer is a device for increasing or decreasing
an ac voltage. A transformer consists of two coils Primary Secondary
of wire, known as the primary and secondary coils.
A simple transformer is shown opposite.
When an ac voltage is applied to the primary, the Vp Vs
changing magnetic field it produces will induce an (input) (output)
ac voltage of the same frequency in the secondary.
However, the voltages will be different according to Laminated iron core
the number of loops in each coil. It can be shown
that
Vs ns
= , (29)
Vp np

where Vs and Vp are the maximum values of voltage on secondary and primary windings respec-
tively. Here ns is the number of turns on the secondary coil and np is the number of turns on
the primary coil. The ratio ns /np is called the turns ratio∗ n. If n > 1, we have a step-up
transformer (output V > input V ). If n < 1, we have a step-down transformer (output V <
input V ).
If Ip , Is are the primary and secondary currents, then assuming negligible power loss, Ip Vp =
Is Vs (note that if voltage is increased, current is decreased and vice versa). So

Ip Vs ns
= = = n. (30)
Is Vp np

Note: Transformers will not work on dc.

Example 3.2: A step-down transformer

A transformer reduces 240 V ac to 9 V ac to operate a cd player. The secondary coil contains
30 turns and the cd player draws 400 mA. Calculate (a) the number of turns in the primary
coil, (b) the power transformed and (c) the current in the primary coil.
Solution:
∗
There does not appear to be consensus whether the turns ration is ns /np or np /ns . Most elementary physics
textbooks give the definition provided here, whereas most electrical engineering texts prefer np /ns . To avoid
confusion it is advisable to state which ratio is referred to, or to state whether the transformer is a step-up or
step-down transformer.

25
 Since the voltage is stepped down, this is a step-down transformer.

(a) From Equation (29):

 
Vp 240
np = ns = 30 × = 800 turns.
Vs 9

(b) The power transformed may be calculated from Equation (18). Thus

Power = Vs Is = 9 × 0.4 = 3.6 W.

(c) Assuming power loss is negligible, then

Vp Ip = Vs Is = 3.6 W

and

Ip = 3.6/240 = 0.015 A.

Transformers are used in power transmission from one place to another (e.g. from a power
station to a city). By stepping up the voltage, the current is decreased. Since power depends
on I 2 R (see Equation (19)), the joule losses are reduced.

26
 Revision of some elementary mathematics

Trigonometry
Definitions
opposite y
sin θ = =
hypotenuse r
adjacent x
cos θ = =
hypotenuse r
opposite y
tan θ = =
adjacent x
Identities
sin(90 − θ) = cos θ cos(90 − θ) = sin θ
sin θ
tan θ = sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1
cos θ
sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ cos 2θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ

Rules for triangles

sin A sin B sin C
sine rule: = =
a b c
cosine rule: a2 = b2 + c 2 − 2bc cos A
b2 = c 2 + a2 − 2ca cos B
c 2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C

Quadratic formula
Suppose ax 2 + bx + c = 0 where a, b and c are constants independent of the variable x.
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
Roots are: x=
2a

Exponents
1 yn
= y −n y n y m = y n+m = y n−m
yn ym
y n z n = (y z)n (y n )m = y nm

Geometry
Sphere radius R:
surface area = 4πR2 ; volume = 34 πR3 .
Cylinder length ℓ and radius R:
surface area = 2πR2 + 2πRℓ; volume = πR2 ℓ.

27
 Problems
Coulomb’s law
1. A small sphere A carries a charge of +120 µC. Calculate the magnitude and direction of
the force which it exerts on a second small sphere B carrying a charge of −300 µC if the
distance between them is 30 cm.

2. A small metal sphere is given a charge of 20 µC and a second identical sphere located
25 cm away is given a charge of −5 µC.

(a) What is the force of attraction between the charges?

(b) Calculate the number of excess electrons on the negative sphere.

3. The two spheres of Question 2 are allowed to touch and are again placed 25 cm apart.

(a) What charge is transferred between the spheres?

(b) What force exists between them now?

4. Two non-conducting spheres carry a total charge of 190 µC. When placed 1.0 m apart,
the force each exerts on the other is 54.0 N and is repulsive.

(a) What is the charge on each?

(b) What if the force were attractive?

5. A 4.5 µC and a −0.5 µC charge are placed 18 cm apart. Where can a third charge be
placed so that it experiences no net force?

6. Two equally charged balls, each of mass 0.1 g, are suspended from the same point by
threads 13 cm long. The balls come to rest 10 cm apart due to repulsion. Determine the
charge q on each ball.

7. Three point charges of +2, +3 and +4 µC are at the vertices of the equilateral triangle
ABP having sides of 10 cm. What is the magnitude of the resultant force R acting on
the +4 µC charge?

Electric field and electric current

8. Consider a point 2.0 m away from a −3.0 µC point charge. Calculate

(a) the electric field E and

(b) the electric potential V at this point.

9. An electron in a uniform electric field experiences a force of 8.0 × 10−16 N. What is the
magnitude and direction of E at this point?

10. Calculate the magnitude of the electric field at the centre of a square 20 cm on a side if
one corner is occupied by a 3.0 µC charge and the other three are occupied by −2.0 µC
charges.

11. A small sphere is given a positive charge and is then brought near a large metal plate.
Draw a diagram showing the electric field lines.

28
 12. A force of 0.032 N is required to move a charge of 40 µC in an electric field between two
points 25 cm apart. What potential difference exists between the two points?

13. An electron is accelerated in a machine in which it is subjected to a potential difference

of 50 × 106 V. What energy has the electron acquired? Express your answer in eV.

14. What is the speed of a 350 eV electron? Take me = 9.1 × 10−31 kg.

15. What is the acceleration of an electron in a 2200 N C−1 electric field? The mass of an
electron is 9.1 × 10−31 kg.

16. What potential difference is needed to give a helium nucleus (q = 3.2 × 10−19 C) 8.0 keV
of kinetic energy?

17. The work done to move a 125 nC charge from point P to point Q is 3.0 × 10−5 J. If the
charge started from rest and had 1.0 × 10−5 J of kinetic energy when it reached point Q,
calculate the potential difference between P and Q.

18. Two parallel plates are 2 cm apart and connected across 120 volts. Find

(a) the electric field E (assumed uniform) in the region between the plates,
(b) the force on an electron between the plates due to the electric field,
(c) the energy gained by an electron (i) in electron volts (ii) in joules, if it travels freely
from one plate to the other,
(d) the ratio of the electric force to the gravitational force on the electron in (c),
(e) the speed of the electron in (c) when it reaches the positive plate.

me = 9.1 × 10−31 kg; e = 1.60 × 10−19 C.

19. A charged particle remains stationary in an upwardly directed field between two horizontal
parallel charged plates separated by 2 cm. Calculate the potential difference V between
the plates if the particle has mass 4 × 10−13 kg and charge 2.4 × 10−18 C.

Capacitance
20. How much charge flows from a 12.0 V battery when it is connected to a 2.0 µF capacitor?

21. The two plates of a capacitor carry +1500 µC and −1500 µC of charge respectively, when
the potential difference is 300 V. Calculate the capacitance.

22. Calculate the magnitude of the electric field between the plates of a 20 µF capacitor if
they are 2.0 mm apart and each has a charge of 300 µC.

23. Three capacitors having capacitances of 0.16 µF, 0.22 µF and 0.47 µF are connected in
parallel and charged to a potential difference of 240 V.

(a) Determine the charge on each capacitor.

(b) What is the total capacitance of the combination?
(c) What is the total charge acquired?

24. A 6.0 µF and a 4.0 µF capacitor are connected in series to a 60.0 V battery.

29
 (a) Calculate the equivalent capacitance.
(b) What is the charge on each capacitor?
(c) Determine the voltage across each capacitor.

25. Calculate the energy stored in a 600 pF capacitor that is charged to 100 V.

26. It takes 6.0 J of energy to move a 2000 µC charge from one plate of a 5.0 µF capacitor
to the other. Calculate the charge on each plate.

27. A 16.0 µF and a 4.0 µF capacitor are connected in parallel and charged by a 22.0 V battery.
What voltage is required to charge a series combination of the two capacitors with the
same total energy?

Current, resistance and resistivity

28. Most of the wiring in a typical house can safely handle about 15 A of current. At this
current level, how much charge flows through a wire in one hour?

29. A wire carries a current of 5 A. How many electrons are flowing past any point in this
wire per minute?

30. Calculate the resistance of a 2.0 m length of copper wire 0.15 mm in diameter. Take
ρCu = 1.7 × 10−8 Ω m.

31. A wire of length 0.24 m and diameter 3.0 × 10−5 m has a resistance of 160 Ω. Calculate
the resistivity of its material.

32. Consider a cube 5 mm on a side, made of carbon. Estimate the resistance between a pair
of opposite faces given ρC = 3.5 × 10−5 Ω m.

33. A 0.5 Ω wire is drawn out (“stretched”) to four times its original length. Assuming that
the density of the wire does not change, calculate its new resistance.

34. A 33 Ω resistor is made from a coil of copper wire whose total mass is 12 g. What is
the diameter of the wire and how long is it? Take dCu = 8.9 × 103 kg m−3 and ρCu =
1.7 × 10−8 Ω m.

35. A 100 W light bulb has a resistance of about 12 Ω when cold and 140 Ω when “on” (hot).
Estimate the temperature of the filament when “on”, assuming a mean temperature-
coefficient of resistance of 6 × 10−3 ◦C−1 .

36. A coil of wire has a resistance R0 at 0 ◦C and a temperature coefficient of resistance α.

If its resistance is 20 Ω at 25 ◦C and 25 Ω at 100 ◦C, calculate α and R0 .

37. An iron wire has a resistance of 5.90 Ω at 20 ◦C and a gold wire has a resistance of
6.70 Ω at the same temperature. At what temperature T ◦C do the wires have the same
resistance? (Take the mean temperature coefficients of resistance of iron and gold over
the range from 20 ◦C to T ◦C as 5.0 × 10−3 ◦C−1 and 3.4 × 10−3 ◦C−1 , respectively.)

38. Three 100 Ω resistors can be connected together in four different ways, making series
and/or parallel combinations. What are these four ways and what is the net resistance
in each case?

30
 39. In each of the combinations below, calculate the equivalent resistance between points A
and B.
60 Ω 10 Ω 8Ω

A 50 Ω B A 5Ω B
b b b b

40 Ω 6Ω
(a) (b)
8Ω
3Ω 1Ω A 2Ω 4Ω 6Ω
b

A B

10 Ω
24 Ω

8Ω

5Ω
b b

30 Ω B 3Ω
b

(c) (d)
40. A standard resistor marked 5 Ω is tested and found to have an actual resistance of 5.05 Ω.
What length of nichrome wire of resistance 135 Ω m−1 must be connected in parallel with
the resistor to make the combined resistance of 5 Ω?

Ohm’s law
41. The heating element of a clothes drier has a resistance of 11 Ω and is connected across
a 240 V electrical outlet. What is the current in the heating element?

42. Three resistors, 25 Ω, 45 Ω and 75 Ω are connected in series, and a 0.51 A current passes
through them. What is (a) the equivalent resistance and (b) the total potential difference
across the three resistors?

43. The current in a series circuit is 15.0 A. When an additional 8.00 Ω resistor is inserted in
series, the current drops to 12.0 A. What is the resistance in the original circuit?

44. Suppose you want to run some apparatus that is 200 m from the plug point. Each of the
two wires connecting the apparatus to the 240 V supply has a resistance per unit length
of 0.006 Ω m−1 . If the apparatus draws a current of 5 A, what will be the voltage drop
across the lead, and what voltage will be applied to your apparatus?

Electrical power
45. The element of an electric oven is designed to produce 3.0 kW of heat when connected
to a 220 V source. What must be the resistance of the element?

46. A car starter motor draws 150 A from the 12 V battery. How much power is this?

47. How many kW h does a 1500 W electric frying pan use in 15 minutes of operation?

48. At 30 c per kW h, what does it cost to leave a 60 W light bulb on all day and night for
one year?

49. What is the total amount of energy stored in a 12 V, 60 A h car battery when it is fully
charged?

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 50. A person accidentally leaves a car with the lights on. The two front lights use 40 W each
and the two rear lights use 6 W each. How long will a fresh 12 V battery last if it is rated
at 75 A h? Assume the full 12 V appears across each bulb.

51. Eight identical Christmas-tree lights are connected in parallel to a 240 V source by two
leads of total resistance 6.0 Ω. If 50 mA flows through each bulb, what is the resistance
of each, and what fraction of the total power is wasted in the leads?

EMF, internal resistance and DC circuits

52. A 2.00 Ω resistor is connected across a 6.00 V battery. The voltage between the terminals
of the battery is observed to be only 4.90 V. Find the internal resistance of the battery.

53. A battery produces 50.0 V when 5.0 A is drawn from it and 48.5 V when 20.0 A is drawn.
Calculate the emf and internal resistance of the battery.

54. A battery whose emf is 6.0 V and internal resistance is 1.0 Ω is connected to a circuit
whose net resistance is 23 Ω. What is the terminal voltage of the battery?

55. A dry cell having an emf of 1.55 V and an internal resistance of 0.08 Ω supplies current
to a 2.0 Ω resistor.

(a) Determine the current in the circuit.

(b) Calculate the terminal voltage of the cell.

56. How many cells, each having an emf of 1.5 V and an internal resistance of 0.50 Ω must
be connected in series to supply a current of 1.0 A to operate an instrument having a
resistance of 12 Ω?

57. A battery has an internal resistance of 0.50 Ω. A number of identical light bulbs, each
with a resistance of 15 Ω, are connected in parallel across the battery terminals. The
terminal voltage of the battery is observed to be half the emf of the battery. How many
bulbs are connected?

58. The internal resistance of a 1.35 V mercury cell is 0.04 Ω, whereas that of a 1.5 V dry cell
is 0.50 Ω. Explain why three mercury cells can more effectively power a 2 W hearing aid
that requires 4.0 V than can three dry cells. Include relevant calculations in your answer.
24 V
59. A battery of emf 24 V and internal resistance
0.7 Ω is connected to three 15 Ω coils arranged
r = 0.7 Ω
in parallel, and a 0.3 Ω resistor is connected in
15 Ω

15 Ω

15 Ω

series as shown in the diagram. Determine

(a) the current in the circuit, 0.3 Ω

(b) the current in each parallel branch,
(c) the potential difference across the parallel group and across the 0.3 Ω resistance,
(d) the terminal voltage of the battery while it delivers current.

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 2Ω 4Ω
60. The current in the 2 Ω resistor in the circuit along-
side is 3 A. Determine 5Ω 3A

(a) the current i in the 3 Ω resistor i

(b) the total current I 3Ω
I
(c) the terminal p.d. of the battery
(d) the internal resistance r of the battery. r E = 72 V

Alternating currents and voltages

61. In the wires connecting an electric clock to a wall socket, how many times a day does
the alternating current reverse its direction if run off South African mains?

62. Calculate the peak current passing through a 60 W light bulb connected to a 240 V ac
supply.

63. An ac voltage, whose peak value is 90 V, is across a 35 Ω resistor. What is the value of
the peak and rms currents in the resistor?

64. Suppose that a current is given by the equation: I = 2.5 sin(120t) (with I in amps and
t in seconds).

(a) What is the frequency?

(b) What is the rms value of the current?
(c) If this current is through a 50 Ω resistor, what is the equation that describes the
voltage as a function of time?

Magnetic fields and forces

65. A wire 1.0 m long carries a current of 10 A and makes an angle of 30◦ with a uniform
magnetic field with B = 1.5 T. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the force on
the wire.

66. (a) Calculate the force per unit length on a wire carrying a current of 0.5 A when
perpendicular to a 4.0 T magnetic field.
(b) What if the angle between the wire and the field is 45◦ ?

67. The force on a wire carrying 20 A is a maximum of 3.6 N when placed between the pole
faces of a magnet. If the wire is 15 cm long, what is the approximate magnitude of B?

68. How much current is flowing in a wire 2.0 m long if the maximum force on it is 0.7 N
when placed in a uniform 0.03 T field?

69. Calculate the magnetic force on a 140 m length of wire stretched between two towers
carrying a 200 A current. The earth’s magnetic field of 5 × 10−5 T makes an angle of
60◦ with the wire.

70. Calculate the magnitude of the magnetic field B, 32 cm from a long, straight wire carrying
8.0 A.

33
 71. How much current does a wire carry if B = 0.03 T at a point 12 cm from it?

72. How far from a long, straight wire carrying 10 A will the magnetic field be 1.0 × 10−2 T?

73. Determine the magnetic field midway between two long, straight wires 10 cm apart if one
carries 10 A and the other 8.0 A and these currents are

(a) in the same direction, and

(b) in opposite directions.

74. Two long, fixed vertical wires A and B are 50 cm apart and carry currents of 100 A and
60 A respectively in opposite directions. Determine

(a) the force per unit length exerted by wire A on wire B,

(b) the magnetic field at P 100 cm from A and 150 cm from B, and
(c) the position of any neutral point in a horizontal plane.

75. Two long, parallel wires 12 cm apart carry 15 A currents in the same direction. Determine
the magnitude of the magnetic field B at a point 10 cm from one wire and 20 cm from
the other. (Hint: make a drawing in a plane containing the field lines and recall the rules
for vector addition.)

76. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the force between two parallel wires 85 m long
and 30 cm apart, each carrying 60 A in the same direction.

77. A vertical, straight wire carrying 5 A exerts an attractive force per unit length 6 × 10−4 N m−1
on a second, parallel wire 8.0 cm away. What current (magnitude and direction) flows in
the second wire?

Transformers
78. A transformer changes 12 V to 18 000 V and there are 6000 turns in the secondary. How
many turns are there in the primary?

79. A transformer has 145 turns in the primary and 55 in the secondary. What kind of
transformer is this, and by what factor does it change the voltage?

80. A step-up transformer increases 30 V to 120 V. What is the current in the secondary as
compared to the primary?

81. Describe a transformer that could be used to light a 6 V bulb from a 240 V, 50 Hz source.

82. A transformer has 1500 primary turns and 120 secondary turns. The input voltage
is 240 V and the output current is 8.0 A. What is the secondary voltage and primary
current?

34
Index
Ampere, 11, 24 Transformer, 25

Batteries, 19 Volt, 5
Voltage, 7
Capacitance, 8 rms, 21
Capacitor
energy stored in, 9
parallel, 8
series, 8
Coulomb, 1, 24
Coulomb’s law, 2
Current
alternating, 20
direct, 20
rms, 21

Electric charge, 1
conservation of, 2
Electric current, 11
Electric field, 2
Electric field lines, 3
Electric power, 16
Electrical conductor, 2
Electrical insulator, 2
Electron volt, 5
EMF, 17

Internal resistance, 17

Joule heating, 16

Kilowatt hour, 16

Magnetic fields, 22
Magnetic poles, 22

Ohm’s law, 11

Potential difference, 5

Resistance, 11
Resistivity, 12
Resistor
parallel, 14
series, 13
Right hand rule
No.1, 23
No.2, 24

35