SQL notes
Agenda:
Detailed agenda:
Basic level-
Intermediate level-
Advanced SQL-
Introduction
Everything generates data, everywhere we have data.
Where to store the data? - excel/text files are not a good option to store data.
Here is where Database comes into picture. Database is like a huge container
which stores data in an organized manner for easy access and management of
data.
With conventional excel and text files, it would be very difficult to understand
data and get answers.
When data stores in a database, we can speak with the database about our
query to get results.
How can we speak with database – using SQL – Structured Query language.
SQL Structured Query language is a programming language used to
communicate with database.
*Conventional excel/text files will not handle huge amounts of data, so we use
Database which will handle huge amounts of data.
*Also, its safe and secure to store critical information in database than storing
in Excel/text files and we can control who can have access.
A database can have many requests from users, application and then
Visualization tools.
In-order to manage all these requests we need a management system that will
manage all the incoming requests. – A database Management system
Database Management system is a software that manages all the different
requests to our database, and makes priority which query to be executed first
and also checks the security.
Types of Databases
Database Structure
Table: A table is like a spreadsheet which organizes data into columns and rows.
Columns- are also called as fields. The column defines the data that you store.
Rows- are also called as records. The row is actually where data stores. In
above example each row represents one customer info.
Primary key: A unique identifier for each row.
Data type: What kind of data we are storing.
Types of SQL Commands
Data Definition language – used to perform actions related to table-
create/modify/delete a table.
Data manipulation language – used to perform actions related to rows –
Insert/Update/Delete a row.
Data query Language – query to get results.
Why SQL
Basic level
Create database
1) Right click Database>Click on New Database>Provide database name.
2) Using script to create database.
USE master;
GO
-- Drop and recreate the 'Database_name' database
IF EXISTS (SELECT 1 FROM [Link] WHERE name = 'Database_name')
BEGIN
ALTER DATABASE Database_name SET SINGLE_USER WITH ROLLBACK IMMEDIATE;
DROP DATABASE Database_name;
END;
GO
-- Create the 'Database_name' database
CREATE DATABASE Database_name;
Restore database
Url: [Link]
configure?view=sql-server-ver16&tabs=ssms
Download .bak file.
Place the file in the location: C:\Program Files\Microsoft SQL
Server\[Link]\MSSQL\Backup
Open SSMS >Right click on Database>Click on Restore Database>Select device>Select
database>Click Ok.
SQL Components
SQL Statement
A SQL statement is a single command or query written in the SQL (Structured Query
Language) syntax to interact with a database. SQL statements are used to perform various
tasks, such as retrieving, inserting, updating, deleting, or managing data within a database.
SQL Comments
In SQL, comments are annotations or notes that you can add to your code to make it easier
to understand. They are not executed by the database engine and are purely meant for
human readability. Comments are particularly helpful when collaborating with others or
when you revisit your code after some time.
There are two main types of comments in SQL:
1) Single-Line Comments: Start with -- (double hyphen). Anything after these symbols
on the same line is considered a comment.
2) Multi-Line Comments: Enclosed between /* and */. These can span multiple lines.
SQL Clause
A SQL clause is a component of a SQL statement used to define specific conditions or modify
its behaviour. Clauses help refine queries, control data manipulation, and manage database
interactions more effectively.
SELECT DISTINCT CASE
FROM UNION / UNION ALL SET
WHERE EXCEPT ALTER
ORDER BY INTERSECT INSERT INTO
GROUP BY IN DELETE
HAVING BETWEEN TRUNCATE
JOIN (INNER, LEFT, RIGHT, FULL OUTER) LIKE WITH (Common Table Expressions, or CTEs)
LIMIT / TOP / FETCH IS NULL / IS NOT NULL
Keywords
Keywords in SQL are reserved words that have special meanings and are part of the
language syntax. They cannot be used as identifiers (like table names, column names, etc.)
unless enclosed in quotes.
ADD DELETE INNER PRIMARY
ALL DESC INSERT REFERENCES
ALTER DISTINCT INTERSECT REVOKE
AND DROP INTO RIGHT
ANY ELSE IS ROLLBACK
AS EXISTS JOIN SELECT
ASC FETCH KEY SET
BETWEEN FOR LEFT TABLE
BY FOREIGN LIKE TOP
CASE FROM LIMIT TRUNCATE
CHECK FULL NOT UNION
COLUMN GRANT NULL UNIQUE
COMMIT GROUP ON UPDATE
CONSTRAINT HAVING OR VALUES
CREATE IN ORDER VIEW
DEFAULT INDEX OUTER WHERE
WITH
Functions
Functions in SQL are built-in operations that allow you to manipulate and process data
effectively. They can perform calculations, modify values, and analyze data. SQL functions
are broadly categorized into:
1. Aggregate Functions [Link] Functions [Link] Functions
COUNT() UPPER() SUBSTRING() / MID()
SUM() LOWER() TRIM()
AVG() LENGTH() / LEN() REPLACE()
MAX() ROUND() CONCAT()
MIN() CHARINDEX() / INSTR()
4. Date and Time 5. Mathematical [Link]
Functions Functions Functions
GETDATE() / NOW() ABS() Cast()
DATEPART() POWER() Convert()
YEAR(), MONTH(), DAY() SQRT() Format()
DATENAME() ROUND()
DATEDIFF() CEIL() / CEILING()
DATEADD() FLOOR()
7. Others
COALESCE()
ISNULL() / IFNULL()
CASE()
Identifiers
Identifiers in SQL are the names used to represent database objects like tables, columns,
indexes, views, procedures, and more. They serve as unique labels that help identify and
refer to these objects in SQL queries and commands.
1. Rules for Naming:
An identifier typically starts with a letter (A-Z or a-z) or an underscore (_), followed by
letters, numbers (0-9), or underscores.
Special characters (e.g., @, $, #) and spaces are generally not allowed unless
enclosed in double quotes (") or square brackets ([]) in some systems.
Reserved keywords in SQL (e.g., SELECT, WHERE) cannot be used as identifiers unless
enclosed.
2. Case Sensitivity:
SQL identifiers' case sensitivity depends on the database system. For instance, SQL
Server treats identifiers as case-insensitive by default, whereas PostgreSQL treats
them as case-sensitive when enclosed in double quotes.
3. Types of Identifiers:
Regular Identifiers: Follow the standard naming conventions and do not require
quotes.
Delimited Identifiers: Enclosed in double quotes (") or square brackets ([]), allowing
the use of special characters and reserved keywords.
4. Naming Best Practices:
Use meaningful names (e.g., user_id, order_date) to improve code readability.
Stick to a consistent naming convention, like snake_case (order_details) or camelCase
(orderDetails).
Operators
SQL operators are symbols or keywords used to perform various operations on data stored in
a database. They help manipulate and query data efficiently. Here’s an overview of the types
of operators in SQL:
1. Arithmetic Operators 2. Comparison Operators
These are used for mathematical
computations: These are used to compare two values:
+ (Addition) = (Equal to)'
- (Subtraction) <> or != (Not equal to)
* (Multiplication) > (Greater than)
/ (Division) < (Less than)
% (Modulo) >= (Greater than or equal to)
<= (Less than or equal to)
3. Logical Operators 4. Bitwise Operators
These combine multiple conditions: Operate at the binary level:
AND (Both conditions must be true) & (Bitwise AND)
OR (At least one condition must be true) | (Bitwise OR)
NOT (Negates a condition) ^ (Bitwise XOR)
5. Set Operators 6. Other Operators
These are used to combine results of two
LIKE: Used for pattern matching (e.g., WHERE name LIKE 'A%').
queries:
UNION (Combines results, removes
IN: Checks if a value exists in a list (e.g., WHERE id IN (1, 2, 3)).
duplicates)
UNION ALL (Combines results, keeps BETWEEN: Checks if a value falls within a range (e.g., WHERE age
duplicates) BETWEEN 18 AND 25).
INTERSECT (Returns common results) IS NULL: Tests for null values.
EXCEPT (Returns results from the first
EXISTS: Checks if a subquery returns any rows.
query not present in the second)
Types of SQL Commands
Data Query Language
1)Select all the columns
2)Select only mentioned columns in the SQL Statement
SQL Order of execution
Using where clause
Using Order by clause
Order by 2 columns
Using Group by clause
Using Having
To select Distinct values
To select Top n rows
Execution order
Complete execution order
Data Definition Language
Create a table
Alter a table
1
Drop a table
Data Manipulation Language
INSERT INTO employees (id, name, position, salary)
VALUES
(1, 'Alice Johnson', 'Manager', 75000),
(2, 'Bob Smith', 'Developer', 60000),
(3, 'Charlie Brown', 'Analyst', 50000),
(4, 'Diana Green', 'Designer', 55000);
UPDATE employees
SET salary = 70000
WHERE name = 'Charlie Brown';
DELETE FROM employees
WHERE id = 3;
