What is Python?

Python is a popular programming language. It was created by Guido van

Rossum, and released in 1991.

It is used for:

 web development (server-side),

 software development,
 mathematics,
 system scripting.

What can Python do?

 Python can be used on a server to create web applications.
 Python can be used alongside software to create workflows.
 Python can connect to database systems. It can also read and modify
files.
 Python can be used to handle big data and perform complex
mathematics.
 Python can be used for rapid prototyping, or for production-ready
software development.

Why Python?
 Python works on different platforms (Windows, Mac, Linux, Raspberry Pi,
etc).
 Python has a simple syntax similar to the English language.
 Python has syntax that allows developers to write programs with fewer
lines than some other programming languages.
 Python runs on an interpreter system, meaning that code can be
executed as soon as it is written. This means that prototyping can be very
quick.
 Python can be treated in a procedural way, an object-orientated way or a
functional way.

Good to know
 The most recent major version of Python is Python 3, which we shall be
using in this tutorial. However, Python 2, although not being updated with
anything other than security updates, is still quite popular.
 In this tutorial Python will be written in a text editor. It is possible to write
Python in an Integrated Development Environment, such as Thonny,
 Pycharm, Netbeans or Eclipse which are particularly useful when
managing larger collections of Python files.

Python Syntax compared to other programming languages

 Python was designed for readability, and has some similarities to the
English language with influence from mathematics.
 Python uses new lines to complete a command, as opposed to other
programming languages which often use semicolons or parentheses.
 Python relies on indentation, using whitespace, to define scope; such as
the scope of loops, functions and classes. Other programming languages
often use curly-brackets for this purpose.

Execute Python Syntax

As we learned in the previous page, Python syntax can be executed by writing
directly in the Command Line:

>>>print("Hello, World!")
Hello, World!

Or by creating a python file on the server, using the .py file extension, and
running it in the Command Line:

C:\Users\Your Name>python [Link]

Python Indentation
Indentation refers to the spaces at the beginning of a code line.

Where in other programming languages the indentation in code is for readability

only, the indentation in Python is very important.

Python uses indentation to indicate a block of code.

Example
if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")
Python will give you an error if you skip the indentation:

Example
Syntax Error:

if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")

The number of spaces is up to you as a programmer, but it has to be at least

one.

Example
if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")
if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")

You have to use the same number of spaces in the same block of code,
otherwise Python will give you an error:

Example
Syntax Error:

if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")
print("Five is greater than two!")

Python Variables
In Python variables are created the moment you assign a value to it:

Example
Variables in Python:

x = 5
y = "Hello, World!"

Python has no command for declaring a variable.

You will learn more about variables in the Python Variables chapter.

Comments
Python has commenting capability for the purpose of in-code documentation.

Comments start with a #, and Python will render the rest of the line as a
comment:

Example
Comments in Python:

#This is a comment.
print("Hello, World!")

Python Comments

Comments can be used to explain Python code.

Comments can be used to make the code more readable.

Comments can be used to prevent execution when testing code.

Creating a Comment
Comments starts with a #, and Python will ignore them:

Example
#This is a comment
print("Hello, World!")
Comments can be placed at the end of a line, and Python will ignore the rest of
the line:

Example
print("Hello, World!") #This is a comment

Comments does not have to be text to explain the code, it can also be used to
prevent Python from executing code:

Example
#print("Hello, World!")
print("Cheers, Mate!")

Multi Line Comments

Python does not really have a syntax for multi line comments.

To add a multiline comment you could insert a # for each line:

Example
#This is a comment
#written in
#more than just one line
print("Hello, World!")

Or, not quite as intended, you can use a multiline string.

Since Python will ignore string literals that are not assigned to a variable, you
can add a multiline string (triple quotes) in your code, and place your comment
inside it:

Example
"""
This is a comment
written in
more than just one line
"""
print("Hello, World!")

As long as the string is not assigned to a variable, Python will read the code, but
then ignore it, and you have made a multiline comment.

Python Variables
Creating Variables
Variables are containers for storing data values.

Unlike other programming languages, Python has no command for declaring a

variable.

A variable is created the moment you first assign a value to it.

Example
x = 5
y = "John"
print(x)
print(y)

Variables do not need to be declared with any particular type and can even
change type after they have been set.

Example
x = 4 # x is of type int
x = "Sally" # x is now of type str
print(x)

String variables can be declared either by using single or double quotes:

Example
x = "John"
# is the same as
x = 'John'
Variable Names
A variable can have a short name (like x and y) or a more descriptive name
(age, carname, total_volume). Rules for Python variables:

 A variable name must start with a letter or the underscore character

 A variable name cannot start with a number
 A variable name can only contain alpha-numeric characters and
underscores (A-z, 0-9, and _ )
 Variable names are case-sensitive (age, Age and AGE are three different
variables)

Remember that variable names are case-sensitive

Assign Value to Multiple Variables

Python allows you to assign values to multiple variables in one line:

Example
x, y, z = "Orange", "Banana", "Cherry"
print(x)
print(y)
print(z)

And you can assign the same value to multiple variables in one line:

Example
x = y = z = "Orange"
print(x)
print(y)
print(z)

Output Variables
The Python print statement is often used to output variables.

To combine both text and a variable, Python uses the + character:

Example
x = "awesome"
print("Python is " + x)

You can also use the + character to add a variable to another variable:

Example
x = "Python is "
y = "awesome"
z = x + y
print(z)

For numbers, the + character works as a mathematical operator:

Example
x = 5
y = 10
print(x + y)

If you try to combine a string and a number, Python will give you an error:

Example
x = 5
y = "John"
print(x + y)

Global Variables
Variables that are created outside of a function (as in all of the examples above)
are known as global variables.

Global variables can be used by everyone, both inside of functions and outside.

Example
Create a variable outside of a function, and use it inside the function

x = "awesome"
def myfunc():
print("Python is " + x)

myfunc()

If you create a variable with the same name inside a function, this variable will
be local, and can only be used inside the function. The global variable with the
same name will remain as it was, global and with the original value.

Example
Create a variable inside a function, with the same name as the global variable

x = "awesome"

def myfunc():
x = "fantastic"
print("Python is " + x)

myfunc()

print("Python is " + x)

The global Keyword

Normally, when you create a variable inside a function, that variable is local,
and can only be used inside that function.

To create a global variable inside a function, you can use the global keyword.

Example
If you use the global keyword, the variable belongs to the global scope:

def myfunc():
global x
x = "fantastic"

myfunc()

print("Python is " + x)
Also, use the global keyword if you want to change a global variable inside a
function.

Example
To change the value of a global variable inside a function, refer to the variable
by using the global keyword:

x = "awesome"

def myfunc():
global x
x = "fantastic"

myfunc()

print("Python is " + x)

Python Data Types

Built-in Data Types
In programming, data type is an important concept.

Variables can store data of different types, and different types can do different
things.

Python has the following data types built-in by default, in these categories:

Text Type: str

Numeric Types: int, float, complex

Sequence Types: list, tuple, range

Mapping Type: dict

Set Types: set, frozenset

Boolean Type: bool

Binary Types: bytes, bytearray, memoryview

Getting the Data Type

You can get the data type of any object by using the type() function:

Example
Print the data type of the variable x:

x = 5
print(type(x))

Setting the Data Type

In Python, the data type is set when you assign a value to a variable:

Example Data Type

x = "Hello World" str

x = 20 int

x = 20.5 float
x = 1j complex

x = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"] list

x = ("apple", "banana", "cherry") tuple

x = range(6) range

x = {"name" : "John", "age" : 36} dict

x = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"} set

x = frozenset({"apple", "banana", "cherry"}) frozenset

x = True bool

x = b"Hello" bytes

x = bytearray(5) bytearray

x = memoryview(bytes(5)) memoryview
Setting the Specific Data Type
If you want to specify the data type, you can use the following constructor
functions:

Example Data Type

x = str("Hello World") str

x = int(20) int

x = float(20.5) float

x = complex(1j) complex

x = list(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) list

x = tuple(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) tuple

x = range(6) range

x = dict(name="John", age=36) dict

set
x = set(("apple", "banana", "cherry"))

x = frozenset(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) frozenset

x = bool(5) bool

x = bytes(5) bytes

x = bytearray(5) bytearray

x = memoryview(bytes(5)) memoryview

tring Literals
String literals in python are surrounded by either single quotation marks, or
double quotation marks.

'hello' is the same as "hello".

You can display a string literal with the print() function:

Example
print("Hello")
print('Hello')

Run example »

Assign String to a Variable

Assigning a string to a variable is done with the variable name followed by an
equal sign and the string:

Example
a = "Hello"
print(a)

Run example »

Multiline Strings
You can assign a multiline string to a variable by using three quotes:

Example
You can use three double quotes:

a = """Loremipsum dolor sit amet,

consecteturadipiscingelit,
sed do eiusmodtemporincididunt
utlabore et dolore magna aliqua."""
print(a)

Run example »

Or three single quotes:

Example
a = '''Loremipsum dolor sit amet,
consecteturadipiscingelit,
sed do eiusmodtemporincididunt
utlabore et dolore magna aliqua.'''
print(a)

Run example »

Python Operators
Operators are used to perform operations on variables and values.
Python divides the operators in the following groups:

 Arithmetic operators
 Assignment operators
 Comparison operators
 Logical operators
 Identity operators
 Membership operators
 Bitwise operators

Python Arithmetic Operators

Arithmetic operators are used with numeric values to perform common
mathematical operations:

Operator Name Example

+ Addition x+y

- Subtraction x-y

* Multiplication x*y

/ Division x/y

% Modulus x%y

** Exponentiation x ** y
// Floor division x // y

Python Assignment Operators

Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables:

Operator Example Same As

= x=5 x=5

+= x += 3 x=x+3

-= x -= 3 x=x-3

*= x *= 3 x=x*3

/= x /= 3 x=x/3

%= x %= 3 x=x%3

//= x //= 3 x = x // 3
**= x **= 3 x = x ** 3

&= x &= 3 x=x&3

|= x |= 3 x=x|3

^= x ^= 3 x=x^3

>>= x >>= 3 x = x >> 3

<<= x <<= 3 x = x << 3

Python Comparison Operators

Comparison operators are used to compare two values:

Operator Name Example

== Equal x == y

!= Not equal x != y
> Greater than x>y

< Less than x<y

>= Greater than or equal to x >= y

<= Less than or equal to x <= y

Python Logical Operators

Logical operators are used to combine conditional statements:

Operator Description Example

and Returns True if both statements are true x < 5 and x < 10

or Returns True if one of the statements is true x < 5 or x < 4

not Reverse the result, returns False if the result is not(x < 5 and x < 10
true

Python Membership Operators

Membership operators are used to test if a sequence is presented in an object:
Operator Description Example

in Returns True if a sequence with the specified value is x in y

present in the object

not in Returns True if a sequence with the specified value is x not in y

not present in the object

Python Lists
PreviousNext

Python Collections (Arrays)

There are four collection data types in the Python programming language:

 List is a collection which is ordered and changeable. Allows duplicate

members.
 Tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable. Allows duplicate
members.
 Set is a collection which is unordered and unindexed. No duplicate
members.
 Dictionary is a collection which is unordered, changeable and indexed.
No duplicate members.

When choosing a collection type, it is useful to understand the properties of that

type. Choosing the right type for a particular data set could mean retention of
meaning, and, it could mean an increase in efficiency or security.

List
A list is a collection which is ordered and changeable. In Python lists are written
with square brackets.

Example
Create a List:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(thislist)

Run example »

Access Items
You access the list items by referring to the index number:

Example
Print the second item of the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(thislist[1])

Run example »

Negative Indexing
Negative indexing means beginning from the end, -1 refers to the last item, -
2 refers to the second last item etc.

Example
Print the last item of the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(thislist[-1])

Run example »

Range of Indexes
You can specify a range of indexes by specifying where to start and where to
end the range.

When specifying a range, the return value will be a new list with the specified
items.

Example
Return the third, fourth, and fifth item:

thislist =
["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]
print(thislist[2:5])

Run example »

Note: The search will start at index 2 (included) and end at index 5 (not
included).

Remember that the first item has index 0.

By leaving out the start value, the range will start at the first item:

Example
This example returns the items from the beginning to "orange":

thislist =
["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]
print(thislist[:4])

Run example »

By leaving out the end value, the range will go on to the end of the list:

Example
This example returns the items from "cherry" and to the end:

thislist =
["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]
print(thislist[2:])

Run example »
Range of Negative Indexes
Specify negative indexes if you want to start the search from the end of the list:

Example
This example returns the items from index -4 (included) to index -1 (excluded)

thislist =
["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]
print(thislist[-4:-1])

Run example »

Change Item Value

To change the value of a specific item, refer to the index number:

Example
Change the second item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist[1] = "blackcurrant"
print(thislist)

Run example »

Loop Through a List

You can loop through the list items by using a for loop:

Example
Print all items in the list, one by one:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
for x in thislist:
print(x)

Run example »

You will learn more about for loops in our Python For Loops Chapter.

Check if Item Exists

To determine if a specified item is present in a list use the in keyword:

Example
Check if "apple" is present in the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

if "apple" in thislist:
print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits list")

Run example »

List Length
To determine how many items a list has, use the len() function:

Example
Print the number of items in the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(len(thislist))

Run example »
Add Items
To add an item to the end of the list, use the append() method:

Example
Using the append() method to append an item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

[Link]("orange")
print(thislist)

Run example »

To add an item at the specified index, use the insert() method:

Example
Insert an item as the second position:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

[Link](1, "orange")
print(thislist)

Run example »

Remove Item
There are several methods to remove items from a list:

Example
The remove() method removes the specified item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

[Link]("banana")
print(thislist)

Run example »
Example
The pop() method removes the specified index, (or the last item if index is not
specified):

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

[Link]()
print(thislist)

Run example »

Example
The del keyword removes the specified index:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

del thislist[0]
print(thislist)

Run example »

Example
The del keyword can also delete the list completely:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

del thislist

Run example »

Example
The clear() method empties the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

[Link]()
print(thislist)

Run example »

Copy a List
You cannot copy a list simply by typing list2 = list1, because: list2 will only be
a reference to list1, and changes made in list1 will automatically also be made
in list2.

There are ways to make a copy, one way is to use the built-in List
method copy().

Example
Make a copy of a list with the copy() method:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

mylist = [Link]()
print(mylist)

Run example »

Another way to make a copy is to use the built-in method list().

Example
Make a copy of a list with the list() method:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

mylist = list(thislist)
print(mylist)

Run example »

Join Two Lists

There are several ways to join, or concatenate, two or more lists in Python.

One of the easiest ways are by using the + operator.

Example
Join two list:

list1 = ["a", "b" , "c"]

list2 = [1, 2, 3]
list3 = list1 + list2
print(list3)

Run example »

Another way to join two lists are by appending all the items from list2 into list1,
one by one:

Example
Append list2 into list1:

list1 = ["a", "b" , "c"]

list2 = [1, 2, 3]

for x in list2:
[Link](x)

print(list1)

Run example »

Or you can use the extend() method, which purpose is to add elements from one
list to another list:

Example
Use the extend() method to add list2 at the end of list1:

list1 = ["a", "b" , "c"]

list2 = [1, 2, 3]

[Link](list2)
print(list1)

Run example »

The list() Constructor

It is also possible to use the list() constructor to make a new list.
Example
Using the list() constructor to make a List:

thislist = list(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-

brackets
print(thislist)

Run example »

List Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on lists.

Method Description

append() Adds an element at the end of the list

clear() Removes all the elements from the list

copy() Returns a copy of the list

count() Returns the number of elements with the specified value

extend() Add the elements of a list (or any iterable), to the end of the current list

index() Returns the index of the first element with the specified value
insert() Adds an element at the specified position

pop() Removes the element at the specified position

remove() Removes the item with the specified value

reverse() Reverses the order of the list

sort() Sorts the list

Python Tuples
PreviousNext

Tuple
A tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable. In Python tuples are
written with round brackets.

Example
Create a Tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(thistuple)

Run example »
Access Tuple Items
You can access tuple items by referring to the index number, inside square
brackets:

Example
Print the second item in the tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(thistuple[1])

Run example »

Negative Indexing
Negative indexing means beginning from the end, -1 refers to the last item, -
2 refers to the second last item etc.

Example
Print the last item of the tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(thistuple[-1])

Run example »

Range of Indexes
You can specify a range of indexes by specifying where to start and where to
end the range.

When specifying a range, the return value will be a new tuple with the specified
items.

Example
Return the third, fourth, and fifth item:

thistuple =
("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")
print(thistuple[2:5])
Run example »

Note: The search will start at index 2 (included) and end at index 5 (not
included).

Remember that the first item has index 0.

Range of Negative Indexes

Specify negative indexes if you want to start the search from the end of the
tuple:

Example
This example returns the items from index -4 (included) to index -1 (excluded)

thistuple =
("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")
print(thistuple[-4:-1])

Run example »

Change Tuple Values

Once a tuple is created, you cannot change its values. Tuples
are unchangeable, or immutable as it also is called.

But there is a workaround. You can convert the tuple into a list, change the list,
and convert the list back into a tuple.

Example
Convert the tuple into a list to be able to change it:

x = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

y = list(x)
y[1] = "kiwi"
x = tuple(y)
print(x)

Run example »

Loop Through a Tuple

You can loop through the tuple items by using a for loop.

Example
Iterate through the items and print the values:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

for x in thistuple:
print(x)

Run example »

You will learn more about for loops in our Python For Loops Chapter.

Check if Item Exists

To determine if a specified item is present in a tuple use the in keyword:

Example
Check if "apple" is present in the tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

if "apple" in thistuple:
print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits tuple")

Run example »

Tuple Length
To determine how many items a tuple has, use the len() method:

Example
Print the number of items in the tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(len(thistuple))

Run example »

Add Items
Once a tuple is created, you cannot add items to it. Tuples are unchangeable.

Example
You cannot add items to a tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

thistuple[3] = "orange" # This will raise an error
print(thistuple)

Run example »

Create Tuple With One Item

To create a tuple with only one item, you have add a comma after the item,
unless Python will not recognize the variable as a tuple.

Example
One item tuple, remember the commma:

thistuple = ("apple",)
print(type(thistuple))

#NOT a tuple
thistuple = ("apple")
print(type(thistuple))

Run example »

Remove Items
Note: You cannot remove items in a tuple.

Tuples are unchangeable, so you cannot remove items from it, but you can
delete the tuple completely:

Example
The del keyword can delete the tuple completely:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

del thistuple
print(thistuple) #this will raise an error because the tuple no longer
exists

Run example »

Join Two Tuples

To join two or more tuples you can use the + operator:

Example
Join two tuples:

tuple1 = ("a", "b" , "c")

tuple2 = (1, 2, 3)

tuple3 = tuple1 + tuple2

print(tuple3)

Run example »
The tuple() Constructor
It is also possible to use the tuple() constructor to make a tuple.

Example
Using the tuple() method to make a tuple:

thistuple = tuple(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-

brackets
print(thistuple)

Run example »

Tuple Methods
Python has two built-in methods that you can use on tuples.

Method Description

count() Returns the number of times a specified value occurs in a tuple

index() Searches the tuple for a specified value and returns the position of

where it was found

Python Dictionaries
PreviousNext
Dictionary
A dictionary is a collection which is unordered, changeable and indexed. In
Python dictionaries are written with curly brackets, and they have keys and
values.

Example
Create and print a dictionary:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(thisdict)

Run example »

Accessing Items
You can access the items of a dictionary by referring to its key name, inside
square brackets:

Example
Get the value of the "model" key:

x = thisdict["model"]

Run example »

There is also a method called get() that will give you the same result:

Example
Get the value of the "model" key:
x = [Link]("model")

Run example »

Change Values
You can change the value of a specific item by referring to its key name:

Example
Change the "year" to 2018:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict["year"] = 2018

Run example »

Loop Through a Dictionary

You can loop through a dictionary by using a for loop.

When looping through a dictionary, the return value are the keys of the
dictionary, but there are methods to return the values as well.

Example
Print all key names in the dictionary, one by one:

for x in thisdict:
print(x)
Run example »

Example
Print all values in the dictionary, one by one:

for x in thisdict:
print(thisdict[x])

Run example »

Example
You can also use the values() function to return values of a dictionary:

for x in [Link]():
print(x)

Run example »

Example
Loop through both keys and values, by using the items() function:

for x, y in [Link]():
print(x, y)

Run example »

Check if Key Exists

To determine if a specified key is present in a dictionary use the in keyword:

Example
Check if "model" is present in the dictionary:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
if "model" in thisdict:
print("Yes, 'model' is one of the keys in the thisdict dictionary")

Run example »

Dictionary Length
To determine how many items (key-value pairs) a dictionary has, use
the len() method.

Example
Print the number of items in the dictionary:

print(len(thisdict))

Run example »

Adding Items
Adding an item to the dictionary is done by using a new index key and assigning
a value to it:

Example
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict["color"] = "red"
print(thisdict)

Run example »
Removing Items
There are several methods to remove items from a dictionary:

Example
The pop() method removes the item with the specified key name:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
[Link]("model")
print(thisdict)

Run example »

Example
The popitem() method removes the last inserted item (in versions before 3.7, a
random item is removed instead):

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
[Link]()
print(thisdict)

Run example »

Example
The del keyword removes the item with the specified key name:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
del thisdict["model"]
print(thisdict)

Run example »

Example
The del keyword can also delete the dictionary completely:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
del thisdict
print(thisdict) #this will cause an error because "thisdict" no longer
exists.

Run example »

Example
The clear() keyword empties the dictionary:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
[Link]()
print(thisdict)

Run example »

Copy a Dictionary
You cannot copy a dictionary simply by typing dict2 = dict1, because: dict2 will
only be a reference to dict1, and changes made in dict1 will automatically also
be made in dict2.

There are ways to make a copy, one way is to use the built-in Dictionary
method copy().
Example
Make a copy of a dictionary with the copy() method:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
mydict = [Link]()
print(mydict)

Run example »

Another way to make a copy is to use the built-in method dict().

Example
Make a copy of a dictionary with the dict() method:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
mydict = dict(thisdict)
print(mydict)

Run example »

Nested Dictionaries
A dictionary can also contain many dictionaries, this is called nested
dictionaries.

Example
Create a dictionary that contain three dictionaries:

myfamily = {
"child1" : {
 "name" : "Emil",
"year" : 2004
},
"child2" : {
"name" : "Tobias",
"year" : 2007
},
"child3" : {
"name" : "Linus",
"year" : 2011
}
}

Run example »

Or, if you want to nest three dictionaries that already exists as dictionaries:

Example
Create three dictionaries, than create one dictionary that will contain the other
three dictionaries:

child1 = {
"name" : "Emil",
"year" : 2004
}
child2 = {
"name" : "Tobias",
"year" : 2007
}
child3 = {
"name" : "Linus",
"year" : 2011
}

myfamily = {
"child1" : child1,
"child2" : child2,
"child3" : child3
}

Run example »
The dict() Constructor
It is also possible to use the dict() constructor to make a new dictionary:

Example
thisdict = dict(brand="Ford", model="Mustang", year=1964)
# note that keywords are not string literals
# note the use of equals rather than colon for the assignment
print(thisdict)

Run example »

Dictionary Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on dictionaries.

Method Description

clear() Removes all the elements from the dictionary

copy() Returns a copy of the dictionary

fromkeys() Returns a dictionary with the specified keys and values

get() Returns the value of the specified key

items() Returns a list containing a tuple for each key value pair
keys() Returns a list containing the dictionary's keys

pop() Removes the element with the specified key

popitem() Removes the last inserted key-value pair

setdefault() Returns the value of the specified key. If the key does not exist: insert

the key, with the specified value

update() Updates the dictionary with the specified key-value pairs

values() Returns a list of all the values in the dictionary

Python If ... Else

PreviousNext

Python Conditions and If statements

Python supports the usual logical conditions from mathematics:

 Equals: a == b
 Not Equals: a != b
 Less than: a < b
 Less than or equal to: a <= b
 Greater than: a > b
  Greater than or equal to: a >= b

These conditions can be used in several ways, most commonly in "if statements

An "if statement" is written by using the if keyword.

Example
If statement:

a = 33
b = 200
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")

Run example »

In this example we use two variables, a and b, which are used as part of the if s
test whether b is greater than a. As a is 33, and b is 200, we know that 200 is g
and so we print to screen that "b is greater than a".

Indentation
Python relies on indentation (whitespace at the beginning of a line) to define sc
Other programming languages often use curly-brackets for this purpose.

Example
If statement, without indentation (will raise an error):

a = 33
b = 200
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a") # you will get an error

Run example »

Elif
The elif keyword is pythons way of saying "if the previous conditions were not
this condition".

Example
a = 33
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
elif a == b:
print("a and b are equal")

Run example »

In this example a is equal to b, so the first condition is not true, but the elif co
so we print to screen that "a and b are equal".

Else
The else keyword catches anything which isn't caught by the preceding conditio

Example
a = 200
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
elif a == b:
print("a and b are equal")
else:
print("a is greater than b")

Run example »

In this example a is greater than b, so the first condition is not true, also the el
not true, so we go to the else condition and print to screen that "a is greater th

You can also have an else without the elif:

Example
a = 200
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
else:
print("b is not greater than a")

Run example »

Short Hand If
If you have only one statement to execute, you can put it on the same line as t

Example
One line if statement:

if a > b: print("a is greater than b")

Run example »

Short Hand If ... Else

If you have only one statement to execute, one for if, and one for else, you can
the same line:

Example
One line if else statement:

a = 2
b = 330
print("A") if a > b else print("B")

Run example »
You can also have multiple else statements on the same line:

Example
One line if else statement, with 3 conditions:

a = 330
b = 330
print("A") if a > b else print("=") if a == b else print("B")

Run example »

And
The and keyword is a logical operator, and is used to combine conditional statem

Example
Test if a is greater than b, AND if c is greater than a:

a = 200
b = 33
c = 500
if a > b and c > a:
print("Both conditions are True")

Run example »

Or
The or keyword is a logical operator, and is used to combine conditional statem

Example
Test if a is greater than b, OR if a is greater than c:
a = 200
b = 33
c = 500
if a > b or a > c:
print("At least one of the conditions is True")

Run example »

Nested If
You can have if statements inside if statements, this is called nested if state

Example
x = 41

if x > 10:
print("Above ten,")
if x > 20:
print("and also above 20!")
else:
print("but not above 20.")

Run example »

The pass Statement

if statements cannot be empty, but if you for some reason have an if

statement with no content, put in the pass statement to avoid getting an

error.

Example
a = 33
b = 200
 if b > a:
pass

Run example »

Python Loops
Python has two primitive loop commands:

 while loops
 for loops

The while Loop

With the while loop we can execute a set of statements as long as a condition is
true.

Example
Print i as long as i is less than 6:

i = 1
while i < 6:
print(i)
i += 1

Run example »

Note: remember to increment i, or else the loop will continue forever.

The while loop requires relevant variables to be ready, in this example we need
to define an indexing variable, i, which we set to 1.

The break Statement

With the break statement we can stop the loop even if the while condition is
true:

Example
Exit the loop when i is 3:

i = 1
while i < 6:
print(i)
if i == 3:
break
i += 1
Run example »

The continue Statement

With the continue statement we can stop the current iteration, and continue
with the next:

Example
Continue to the next iteration if i is 3:

i = 0
while i < 6:
i += 1
if i == 3:
continue
print(i)

Run example »

The else Statement

With the else statement we can run a block of code once when the condition no
longer is true:
Example
Print a message once the condition is false:

i = 1
while i < 6:
print(i)
i += 1
else:
print("i is no longer less than 6")

Python For Loops

A for loop is used for iterating over a sequence (that is either a list, a tuple, a
dictionary, a set, or a string).

This is less like the for keyword in other programming languages, and works
more like an iterator method as found in other object-orientated programming
languages.

With the for loop we can execute a set of statements, once for each item in a
list, tuple, set etc.

Example
Print each fruit in a fruit list:

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in fruits:
print(x)

Run example »

The for loop does not require an indexing variable to set beforehand.

Looping Through a String

Even strings are iterableobjects, they contain a sequence of characters:

Example
Loop through the letters in the word "banana":

for x in "banana":
print(x)

Run example »

The break Statement

With the break statement we can stop the loop before it has looped through all
the items:

Example
Exit the loop when x is "banana":

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in fruits:
print(x)
if x == "banana":
break

Run example »

Example
Exit the loop when x is "banana", but this time the break comes before the
print:

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in fruits:
if x == "banana":
break
print(x)

Run example »
The continue Statement
With the continue statement we can stop the current iteration of the loop, and
continue with the next:

Example
Do not print banana:

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in fruits:
if x == "banana":
continue
print(x)

Run example »

The range() Function

To loop through a set of code a specified number of times, we can use
the range() function,

The range() function returns a sequence of numbers, starting from 0 by

default, and increments by 1 (by default), and ends at a specified number.

Example
Using the range() function:

for x in range(6):
print(x)

Run example »

Note that range(6) is not the values of 0 to 6, but the values 0 to 5.

The range() function defaults to 0 as a starting value, however it is possible to

specify the starting value by adding a parameter: range(2, 6), which means
values from 2 to 6 (but not including 6):
Example
Using the start parameter:

for x in range(2, 6):

print(x)

Run example »

The range() function defaults to increment the sequence by 1, however it is

possible to specify the increment value by adding a third parameter: range(2,
30, 3):

Example
Increment the sequence with 3 (default is 1):

for x in range(2, 30, 3):

print(x)

Run example »

Else in For Loop

The else keyword in a for loop specifies a block of code to be executed when
the loop is finished:

Example
Print all numbers from 0 to 5, and print a message when the loop has ended:

for x in range(6):
print(x)
else:
print("Finally finished!")

Run example »
Nested Loops
A nested loop is a loop inside a loop.

The "inner loop" will be executed one time for each iteration of the "outer loop":

Example
Print each adjective for every fruit:

adj = ["red", "big", "tasty"]

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in adj:
for y in fruits:
print(x, y)

Run example »

The pass Statement

for loops cannot be empty, but if you for some reason have a for loop with no
content, put in the pass statement to avoid getting an error.

Example
for x in [0, 1, 2]:
pass

Run example »