GAD 27 BLACKFORDBY COLLEGE

ENERGY SYSTEMS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS TO AGRICULTURE

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICITY

Electricity is a form of energy that can produce heat, light, or force that causes motion.
- It simply refers to the movement of electrons within a closed circuit.
BASICS OF ELECTRICITY
TYPES OF ELECTRICITY
Electricity can either be Ac or Dc
-Alternating current (AC) moves in both directions. Cables are lives and neutral. Sources
includes: AC generators, Grid electricity, or photovoltaic cells(solar)/batteries through
inverters.
- Direct current (DC) moves in one direction. The cables for DC are positives and negatives.
Sources includes: DC generators, batteries and photovoltaic cells
AC ELECTRICTY
Phases can be used to determine the consumer type. Single phase or domestic use which is
for household use. Voltage range 220-240V
Three Phase or commercial use which is for industrial appliances. Voltage range is 380-415V
NB Phase refers to the live connections on the electric network.

Insulators and Conductors

In conductors, electrons are able to move freely from one atom to another whereas in
an insulator the electrons are firmly bound to their atoms and will not move on their
own accord. Generally metals are good conductors of electricity. Most non-metals are
bad conductors. Substances with conductivity intermediate between that of conductors
and insulators are called semi-conductors eg. mica, sulphur and fibrous materials such
as silk, cotton and paper.
The Electric Current
An electric current in a wire is a drift of electrons and the quantity of electricity,
which passes any point in a circuit, depends on the strength of the current and the time
for which it flows.
A Coulomb is the quantity of electricity which passes any point in a circuit in 1sec
when a steady current of 1A is flowing.
Q = It, where Q = quantity of charge (C), I = current (A), t = Time (s)
When a current flows through a conductor/ load, electrical energy is used and there is
a potential difference (pd) across the load or conductor. The unit of potential
difference is volt. Two points are at a potential difference of 1 volt if 1 joule of work
is done per coulomb of electricity passing from one point to another
Electromotive force

The e.m.f. of a cell in volts is the total work done in joules per coulomb of electricity
conveyed in a circuit in which a cell is connected. It is measured in volts and may be
regarded as the sum total of the potential difference across all various components of
a circuit in which it is connected including the potential difference required to drive
the current through the cell.
Resistance
The resistance of a material is its ability to resist the flow of current. The number of
free electrons available determines the ease with which current flows through a
material.
The resistance of a wire depends on its thickness, temperature of the resistor,
length and the material from which it is made.
Ohm’s Law (V =IR)
The current passing through a metallic conductor at constant temperature is
proportional to the potential difference (pd) across its ends. A conductor for which
this is true is said to obey the Ohm’s Law. The resistance of a conductor is the ratio of
the p.d across it to the current flowing through it. The unit of resistance is the Ohm(Ω)
Electrical Power
When electrons flow in a circuit, work is done. The e.m.f. causes electron to flow.
Power is the rate of doing work and is measured in watts (W).
1 Watt is the rate of work done in a circuit of one Ampere due to an emf of 1 volt.
Kilowatt (kW) is the commonly used unit of electrical power.
In dc circuits the electrical power is found by any of the following formulae: -
P = IV Where P = Power, I = current, V = voltage
From Ohm’s Law; V= IR,
P=I*I*R = I2R or P = V2/R
The energy consumed in electrical circuits is measured in Watt-hours (Wh),
which is the amount of energy consumed when one watt is used for one hour.
1Kilowatt-hour (kWh) = 1000watt-hours
Cost of energy consumed
Cost = power x hours used x cost per kWh
Efficiency is the ratio of power output to power input. Input = Output + Losses.

The Electrical Circuit

 An electrical circuit consist of a source of energy connected by conductors to the load,
or is any combination of a conductor and source of emf, which permits electrons to
flow round in a continuous stream.
The conditions of current to flow are:
(i) A source of emf
(ii) A continuous path for electrons to flow from –ve to tve terminal source of
emf. The current will continue to flow as long as the circuit is closed. The
introduction of a resistor in a circuit slows down the electron movement. The
circuit is normally broken by use of a switch.

An alternative path of very low resistance in a circuit is called a short circuit. For
example, if the two-wire leading to the lamp come into contact with each other on
naked or exposed portions, a path of practically zero resistance is formed. When this
happens, there is a very large current in the wires leading to the place of contact and
overheating of wires will occur.
Open circuit – occurs when some part of the circuit is open such as a switch, or
malfunctioning, such as a burnt fuse or a broken wire. There is no current anywhere in
the circuit.
Types of Electrical Circuits
(i) The series circuit
Two or more resistors are connected end to end in a circuit in a way
that there is only one path of current flow, and therefore they carry the same current.
The sum of the voltage across individual resistors in a series circuit is equal to the
total applied voltage.
V=V1 + V2+ V3+ ..... Vn
The value of current flowing through a series circuit is always the same at every point
in the circuit since only one path of current exists.
I = I1 = I2 =I3
The total resistance in a series circuit is equal to the sum of individual resistances of
all parts of the circuit.
R = R 1 + R2 + R3
A series circuit containing two or more resistances can often be usefully simplified
into an equivalent circuit containing a single resistance having a value equal to the
sum of all the actual resistances in the circuit.
(i) The Parallel Circuit
Resistors are said to be parallel when they form branches of a circuit, and when
the total current fed to them is divided between them.
 An example of a parallel connection is that in the electrical wiring in a house
where every one of the various electrical appliances used in the house is
connected in parallel across the supply “ mains”
The voltage across all resistors connected in parallel is the same; a device
should never be placed in a parallel circuit when the voltage rating is less
than the source voltage.
V = V1 = V 2 = V 3
The total current in a parallel circuit is equal to the sum of the currents in the
separate devices:
I = I1 + I2 + I3
Resistance: 1/R=1/R1 +1/R2 +1/R3

(ii) Series & Parallel circuits combined

It is necessary to combine series and parallel circuits to meet electrical
requirements and to group devices in a load circuit to obtain a particular value of
resistance.
Equivalent circuits

The methods which are used to determine current, voltage and resistance for series and
parallel circuits, apply to combination of circuits as well. Resolve circuits into equivalent
circuits. Once the total resistance of the circuit is found, the total current as well as current in
other parts of the circuits may be found according to Ohm’s Law. 1.4 Atmospheric
Electricity
Lightning is a gigantic electric spark discharge occurring between two clouds or
between a cloud and earth.
Lightning Conductor
It takes the form of a thick copper wire strip fixed to an outside wall, reaching above
the tallest part of the building /roof and ending in several sharp spikes. When a
negatively charged thundercloud passes overhead it acts inductively on the conductor,
charging the points positively and the earthed plate negatively. The negative charge
on the plate is immediately dissipated into earth. Without the protection of a lightning
conductor, the lightning normally strikes the highest object, usually a chimney, and
the current passes to the earth through the path of least resistance.

Kirchhoff’s Laws
These define the current relationship at a junction, or branch of several
conductors and the voltage relationship around a closed loop.
(i) Current Law

The sum of all currents towards a junction is equal to the sum of all currents
flowing away from the junction. Alternatively, the algebraic sum of all the
currents towards the junction is zero (0)
 (ii) Voltage law or Loop law
Round any closed loop of an electric current, the algebraic sum of the emf
acting in the loop is equal to the algebraic sum of voltage drops.

Tutorial
1. The current through a certain lamp is 0.5A. if this current remains constant for four
hours, what is the quantity of electricity, in coulombs, that flows through the lamp
during that time.
2. What current is drawn by a lathe machine with resistance 50Ω when connected to a
380V supply?
3. Determine the weekly cost of running an irrigation pump rated 80hp for 10 hrs daily if
electricity costs 9,88cents per kWh (1hp =0.75kW 0r 750W).
4. If a DC motor takes 4.2a on a 120V line and is producing 0.5hp, what is its
efficiency?
5. What is the power in a house circuit if a 13A fuse protects a 240V circuit.
6. A resistor is rated 1200Ω, 2W. What is the greatest P.D that can be applied across the
resistor?
7. Two coils connected in parallel (12Ω and 15Ω), are connected in series with a third
coil with 8Ω resistance across a 24supply. Find (i) the resistance of the combined
circuit. (ii) the current in each coil.
8. A generator is supplying 80 lamps, each taking 60w at 240V. Calculate
(i) The total current supplied by the generator
(ii) The number of kilowatt hours consumed in 4hrs
(iii) The output of the engine driving the generator, if the efficiency of the latter is
85%.

TRANSFORMERS
Definition:
A transformer is an electrical machine which is used to change the value of alternating
voltage. It will only work when an alternating voltage is connected, not from a DC
source. Transformers vary in size from miniature units used in electronics to huge
transformers used in power (input) winding produces an alternating current, which
sets up an alternating magnetic flux throughout the core. The magnetic flux then
induces an EMF into the secondary winding. Since both windings are linked by the
same magnetic flux, the induced emf per turn will be the same for both windings, and
the emf in both windings is proportional to the number of turns.
Voltage per turn (primary) = Voltage per turn(secondary)
Vp/Np = Vs/Ns, Assuming 100% efficiency, Power input = Power output.
VpIp = VsIs Therefore, Vp/Vs = Np/ Ns = Is/ Ip
Transformers on the supply side can be step-up or step-down transformers.
 For transmission of electricity, the voltage is increased so that the power can be
distributed over long distances at reduced currents. This allows for small use of
conductors and pylons.
Cooling of Transformers
When the transformer is supplying a load, heat is generated in the windings and core.
The unit is housed in a metal container and cooled by the following:
 Air cooled
 Oil cooled

Air Cooled Transformers

The casing is fitted with a perforated base and louvered sides. Air circulates through
the unit by convection. This construction is suitable for dry dust free conditions and is
usually confined to small transformers of about 5kVA or less.
Oil cooled Transformers
The transformer is housed in the casing containing insulating oil, which completely
cover the core and windings. The oil acts as a cooling and insulating medium. Pipes
are fitted around the casing and the air passing over these pipes carries away the heat
that has been transferred from the core through oil. This is the most common
construction.
1. A transformer has 840 turns on one winding and 120 on the other. If this is to be used
as a step-up transformer and the input voltage is 240V, what will the out-put voltage
be?
2. A 220V to 22V transformer is constructed with 400 turns on the primary winding.
Calculate the number of secondary turns and the primary and secondary currents
when the transformer supplies a 22V 18W battery charger.

ELECTRICAL MACHINES

Three phase power supply

Alternating current generators are built with three stator coils (the phase windings),
equally spaced 1200 apart on the periphery of the stator, so that when the rotor (pole wheel
with north and south pole) spins through 3600, the generator produces three alternating
voltages in each winding. Three-phase circuits are usually symmetrical and balanced.
The generators of electric power stations are connected to the consumers by means
of a four-wire supply line through transformers. The supply line consists of 3 outer
wires and the earthed neutral. Between any two outer wires, there is a voltage of
380V, and between any one wire and the neutral wire there is an alternating voltage
of 220V.

Colours identify the three phases: Red, Yellow and Blue. Single-phase loads can be
connected to any of the three phases and the neutral wire, and three-phase loads
connected to all three phases.
Supplies to premises are always connected to different phases to balance the loads:
 If the consumer is small, the supply cable contains two conductors, a live and
a neutral. The supply voltage is 240V, and the system is known as a single-
phase, two-wire system.
 Large consumers receive three-phase, four-wire supplies. The higher voltage
is used generally for motors, and loads across the three phases are reasonably
balanced, so that no one carries a greater current than the other two.

Network formations

i. Star or Y connection
The ends of the phase windings are connected to a common point and the beginnings are
brought out as the three line leads. It is the most commonly used way of connecting
single-phase windings of three –phase generators.

ii. Delta or mesh connection

With a delta-connected system:

Electric Motors

Electric motors are used to convert electrical energy to mechanical energy. If a carrying
conductor is placed in an electro-magnetic field, a force is exerted on the conductor to
push it out of the magnetic field. This results in a rotation (Right hand motor rule).
AC motors
Two basic types of motors are designed to operate on polyphase alternating current:
synchronous motors and induction motors.
i. Synchronous motor
When a three-phase supply is applied to windings equally distributed around the
stationary part of an electrical machine, an alternating current circulates in the coils
and establishes a magnetic flux, which rotates at the same speed as the supply. If the
 supply frequency were 50Hz, the flux would rotate at 50*60rps = 3000rpm. This is
called the synchronous speed; the rotor rotates at the same speed as the rotating field.
The constant speed of the synchronous motor is advantageous in certain devices.
However, in applications where the mechanical load on the motor becomes great,
synchronous motors cannot be used, because if the motor slows down under load it
will ‘fall out of step’ with the frequency and come to a stop.

Industrial application:
 Used to drive large air and gas compressors which are operated at fixed speeds
to maintain a constant output at the maximum efficiency.
 Used to drive fans, blowers and water pumps in pumping stations.

ii. Induction motor

An induction motor consists of a stator or stationary windings (in which the rotating
magnetic flux is established) and a rotor (the rotating part of the motor).
According to the type of rotor used, induction motors are classified as follows:
 Squirrel cage motors
 Wound-rotor or slip-ring motors

Advantages of wound-rotor motor over squirrel-cage motor

 High starting torque and low starting current
 Variable speed
 Smooth acceleration under heavy loads e.g. cranes, elevators, pumps

Disadvantages of wound-rotor motor over squirrel-cage motor

 Greater initial cost
 Higher repair and maintenance cost

Starting three phase motors

i. Direct-on-line (DOL) method

The DOL method provides a quick starting at maximum torque but takes heavy current from
the supply system. General applications include small drives, fans and small machines.
The motor is connected directly to the full supply voltage by means of a hand-operated
switch or contactor starter. The supply is connected to the motor stator windings. Since the
motor is at standstill when the supply is switched on, the initial starting current is heavy, of
the order of 6 – 9 times full-load current. Because the torque is proportional to the product of
the rotor current and power factor (which is very low on starting), the starting torque is not
particularly high. If the motor is starting on no-load or light loads, the starting current falls
rapidly with acceleration, with little or no disturbance to the supply system. If the motor is
started against a heavy load, the starting period will be prolonged with a lengthening of time
during which the peak current will flow. In this instance, the motor windings will heat up.
The general limit for DOL connection of motors is 2kW.
ii. Star-delta starting
The star-delta method uses a reduced starting current and is suitable for drives with light
loadings, but which require heavy running torques. Applications include line shafting, pumps
and fans of the centrifugal type.
First, the windings are connected in star formation to accelerate the rotor from standstill. The
second position connects the windings in delta for running.
When the windings are connected in star, the voltage applied to each winding is reduced to
58% of at starting (1/3 of line current). The starting torque is correspondingly reduced to 1/3
of the full-voltage (direct switching) torque.
After the motor has reached a certain steady speed on star connection, the switch is placed in
the delta formation. The changeover can be done by hand or automatically by a timing
device. There is no variation available to the torque produced at starting, as it is fixed by the
star connection.
On the machine side, there is the added cost of having the six terminals of the stator winding
brought out of the terminal box.
POWER FACTOR
- Power factor is a measure of how efficiently electrical power is used. It is the ratio
between kW and kVA
- kW is the actual load power and the kVA is the apparent load power.
- kVAr is the reactive power is necessary to provide the magnetising effect required by
electric motors and inductive loads to perform their desired functions. Reactive power
can be interpreted as wasted power and an extra burden on the electricity supply
network
- the ideal power factor is a unit slightly less than one or 100%. This means that extra
power is required to perform actual task at hand.
- An ideal benchmark power factor is 0.95 and above.
- A load with a power factor one (1.0) results in the most efficient loading of the supply
whereas a power factor of 0.5 will result in much higher losses in the supply system.
- Poor factor is generally as a result of inductive load such as an induction motor,
power transformer, lighting ballasts, welding etc.

POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

- Power factor correction is the science to restore the factor to as close to unity as is
economically possible.
- Power factor can be improved by putting power factor correction capacitors in the
electrical network.
 - Capacitors compensate for the active power demand of the inductive load. This
reduces the burden on the supply.

Table showing the resultant kVA demand for a 100kW motor operating at various power
factors

Power Factor kVA Demand

0.95 105
0.7 143

0.5 200

0.3 333

BENEFITS OF POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

- Reduced power consumption hence reduced electricity bills.
- Electrical energy efficiency improved.
- Extra kVa capacity released into the network hence reduced load shading..
- Transformer and distribution equipment losses reduced.
- Reduced voltage drop.
- Downsizing of electrical equipment such as cables due to reduced line current.

EARTHING
Means connections of the neutral point of supply system or the non-current parts of electrical
apparatus, such as metallic frame work, metals covering cables, stay wires etc. To the general
mass of the earth in such a manner that at all times ensures and immediate discharge of
electrical energy takes place without danger.
Earthing ensures that no current carrying conductor rises to the potential with respect to
general mass of earth than its designed insulation.
o To avoid electric shock to humans.
o To avoid risk of fire due to earth leakage through unwanted path.

o POWERLINE DISTURBANCES
Ideally the voltage supplied by a utility should be perfect sinusoidal wave without any
harmonics at its normal frequency of 50cycles per second and at its normal magnitude. For a
three-phase system, the voltage should be balanced with each phase displaced by 120° with
respect to others.
Types of Power-line Disturbances
 Overvoltage: the voltage magnitude is substantially higher than the nominal value for
a sustained period of few cycles. This may be caused by a decrease in system load
which results in utility voltage going up.
 Under- voltage (Brownout): the voltage is substantially lower than its nominal value
for a few cycles. May result from overload, or starting up big induction motors.
 Outage (Blackout): the utility system collapses for a few cycles or more.
 Electromagnetic interference: this refers to high frequency noise which may be
conducted on the power-line or radiated from a source. This is produced by most
power electronics equipment due to rapid switching of voltages and currents.

USES TO AGRICULTURE
Provides energy for:
- Running of pumps
- Running of fans for curing barns or grain driers
- Electric fence for control of livestock movement
- lighting

SOLAR ENERGY/ PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS

PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS/ SOLAR PANELS
BACKGROUND
Sunlight is made up of charged particles called photons that originates from the collision of
hydrogen atoms in the sun’s core. As these photons impact the semi-conductive service of the
panels (the solar cells), they impart their energies into the electrons in the cell. Once these
electrons are excited to a higher energy state, they move around and are ultimately collected
and channelled into a stream of electrons.
Solar panels, an integral component of any solar power system, consist of individual solar
cells made from silicon. These cells effectively convert sunlight into direct current
(DC) electricity.
Stand-alone solar System
SOLAR PANEL SPECS
Voc – Open circuit voltage
Vmp – Voltage at maximum power
Imp – Current at maximum power
Isc – short circuit current
FILL FACTOR = Vmp x Imp ÷ (Voc xIsc)
Fill factor ˂ 1, the closer the value is to 1, the higher the efficiency of the panel.
MAIN COMPONENTS OF A SOLAR SYSTEM.

Solar cell Solar Module Solar array

CHARGE CONTROLLERS
Primary functions is to:
1 Regulate charging:- prevents overcharging by controlling the flow of energy from the
panels to the battery
2 Prevents over-discharging:- stops the battery from being drained too low, which can
damage battery.
3 Maximises energy harvesting by ensuring solar panels operates at maximum power
point.
Types of Charge controllers
PWM – pulse with modulation controller
- Simple, cost effective option suitable for small systems.
MPPT – maximum power point tracking controller
- More advanced efficient system ideal for large set ups
MPPT is at least 30% more efficient than PWM. ie. With MPPT there is approximately 30%
more solar output.
SOLAR BATTERIES

- store the energy produced by solar in the form of DC

Types of Solar Power Batteries

When exploring solar power batteries for your home, you’ll generally encounter three main
types: Lead-Acid, Lithium-Ion, and Flow Batteries. Each kind has distinctive
characteristics regarding capacity, maintenance, and lifespan.
Lead-Acid Batteries

Lead-acid batteries are some of the oldest and most established types of solar batteries on the
market. They are separated into two categories:

1. Flooded Lead Acid (FLA): They require regular maintenance, including water top-ups
and ensuring they are kept upright to avoid leaks.
2. Sealed Lead Acid: Including Gel and Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) variants, these
batteries are maintenance-free but have a lower energy density compared to their
flooded counterparts.
Both types offer a lower upfront cost but have a shorter lifespan and a higher total cost of
ownership over time due to maintenance and replacement.

Lithium-Ion Batteries

Lithium-ion batteries, which include varieties like Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4 or
LFP) and Nickel Manganese Cobalt (NMC), are the more modern choice for solar energy
storage. Their benefits include:

 Higher energy density: They can store more electricity in a smaller space.
 Longer lifespan: They typically last longer than lead-acid batteries.
 Minimal maintenance: These batteries do not require regular upkeep.
 Efficiency: They have a higher discharge and charge efficiency.
Lithium-ion batteries tend to have a higher upfront cost but may offer better long-term
savings and convenience.

Flow Batteries and Other Alternatives

Flow batteries are a less common but promising alternative for solar energy storage. They
separate energy storage from the conversion process, using liquid electrolytes flowing
through an electrochemical cell. Flow batteries such as Vanadium Redox and Zinc-Bromine
offer the advantage of:

 Scalability: Their capacity is determined by the amount of electrolyte fluid used.

 Long cycle life: They can be charged and discharged repeatedly with minimal
degradation.
 Non-flammable: They are inherently safer as they are less prone to catching fire.
While not yet as commonplace as other types, they represent a growing niche in solar energy
storage solutions.

Other Key Considerations on solar batteries

State of Charge(SoC)
-refers to the percentage of the battery’s capacity that is currently charged.
(Current capacity/Total capacity) x 100
Factors affecting SoC
- Charging/discharge rate
- Depth of discharge (DOD)
- Battery age and health
- Temperature
- Solar irradiance(amount of sunlight)
Solar battery maintenance
- Monitor SoC, voltage and temperature.
- Control charging and discharging
- Protect batteries from over or under charging
- Optimise energy harvesting and storage.

Depth of discharge
Is the battery’s capacity that has been discharged or used relative to its total capacity.
DOD =(discharged capacity/ Total capacity)x 100
Recommended DOD limits
Lead acid batteries : 50% max
Absorbed glass mat(AGM) 50% max
Lithium ion batteries: 80% max
Effects of exceeding recommended DOD
- reduced life span
- decreased capacity
- increased resistance
- Thermal runaway nor over heating
Deep cycle batteries
Designed to provide steady flow of energy over an extended period of time, allowing deep
discharging(upto 80%).
Characteristics of deep cycle batteries
High capacity: measured in ampere- hours(Ah)
Deep discharge capability: can withstand repeated discharge /charge cycles
Long life cycle
High durability: withstands vibrations, temperature fluctuations and corrosion.
Other key considerations for a Solar system.
[Link] days of autonomy(DOA)
These are days a solar powered system can operate without sunlight relying solely on stored
energy.
Calculating days of autonomy
Consider:
- Battery capacity- the total energy storage capacity of battery bank
- Daily consumption: the amount of energy used in the system per day
- Depth of discharge: the percentage of the battery’s capacity that can be safely used
DOA = (Battery capacity/DOD)/daily consumption

Load audit
Calculate daily energy consumption.

FACTORS AFFECTING EFFICIENCY OF SOLAR SYSTEMS

1. SHADE
Shade affects the efficiency of solar panels. Professional solar installers will do
thorough analysis of shading on a specific situation.
Shading should be avoided, especially from any tress or buildings to the south of the
array.
2. ORIENTATION
For best efficiency solar panels should be positioned to maximise the input of
sunlight.
Generally solar panels should face due north for the southern hemisphere.
Solar trackers were invented in-order to adjust the orientation of solar panels to follow
the sun’s trajectory throughout the day. For most home owners, solar trackers are not
affordable.
The pitch of the roof can be altered by use of racks. In many cases these will allow the
panels to stay longer on the sun.
3. TEMPERATURE
Temperature is not something that can be considered most unless it’s to install panels
in very hot areas. Increased temperatures reduce efficiency of solar panels slightly.
Solar panels are installed with space to receive sufficient amounts of air flow. This
induces natural cooling which helps to keep efficiency rate.
4. LIFETIME
 The efficiency of solar panels does degrade a little bit over time. Generally, the power
output drops by 0.5% every year. Solar manufacturers often warranty that the power
output stays above 80% after 25years.
5. MAINTENANCE
Solar system requires very little maintenance. However, cleaning the solar panels on a
regular basis is recommended
Dust and dirt affect efficiency of solar panels if not taken care off. Wiping of dust
with water is ideal at times rains do the cleaning.
NB clean the panels when necessary. Output of panels may have a reflection on the
need.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SOLAR ENERGY

ADVANTAGES
- provides clean energy thus environmentally friendly
- solar energy is supplied by nature- its thus free and abundant.
- can be made available everywhere where there is sunlight
- operation and maintenance cost for solar panels are low, almost negligible compared
to costs of other renewable sources.
- photo-voltaic (PV) have no mechanically moving parts, consequently have less
breakages.
- pv panels are silent, producing no noise at all.
- residential panels are easy to install on rooftops or ground without any interference to
residential lifestyle.
DISADVANTAGES
- has intermittency issues, not shining at night or during daytime there maybe cloudy or rain
weather if there is no storage battery.
- solar energy requires additional equipment (inverters)to convert DC to AC in order to be
used on the power network.
-although panels have no considerable maintenance or operating costs, they are fragile and
can be damaged easily.

USES OF PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS IN AGRICULTURE

-energy source for heat pumps or blowers for green houses to regulate temperatures.
- lighting of premises
- security systems (electric fencing) ie paddocks etc
- provide energy for water pumping especially in boreholes.
- energy for running electric equipment like fridges and computers
Agricultural Applications of Solar Energy Solar energy can supply and/or supplement many
farm energy requirements.
Crop and Grain Drying: Using the sun to dry crops and grains is one of the oldest and most
widely used applications of solar energy. The simplest and least expensive technique is to
allow crops to dry naturally in the field, or to spread grain and fruit out in the sun after
harvesting. The disadvantage of these methods is that the crops and grains are subject to
damage by birds, rodents, wind, and rain, and contamination by windblown dust and dirt.
More sophisticated solar dryers protect grain and fruit, reduce losses, dry faster and more
uniformly, and produce a better quality product than open-air methods.
Space and Water Heating: Livestock and dairy operations often have substantial air and
water heating requirements. Modern pig and poultry farms raise animals in enclosed
buildings, where it is necessary to carefully control temperature and air quality to maximize
the health and growth of the animals. These facilities need to replace the Academic
Excellence 3 indoor air regularly to remove moisture, toxic gases, odors, and dust. Heating
this air, when necessary, requires large amounts of energy. With proper planning and design,
solar air/space heaters can be incorporated into farm buildings to preheat incoming fresh air.
These systems can also induce or increase natural ventilation levels during summer months.
Solar water heating systems can provide low to medium temperature hot water for pen
cleaning. Commercial dairy farms use large amounts of energy to heat water to clean
equipment, as well as to warm and stimulate cows’ udders. Heating water and cooling milk
can account for up to 40% of the energy used on a dairy farm. Solar water heating systems
may be used to supply all or part of these hot water requirements.
Greenhouse Heating: Another agricultural application of solar energy is greenhouse heating.
Commercial greenhouses typically rely on the sun to supply their lighting needs, but are not
designed to use the sun for heating. They rely on gas or oil heaters to maintain the
temperatures necessary to grow plants in the colder months. Solar greenhouses, however, are
designed to utilize solar energy for both heating and lighting. A solar greenhouse has thermal
mass to collect and store solar heat energy, and insulation to retain this heat for use during the
night and on cloudy days. A solar greenhouse is oriented to maximize southern glazing
exposure. Its northern side has little or no glazing, and is well insulated. To reduce heat loss,
the glazing itself is also more efficient than single-panel glass, and various products are
available ranging from double panel to "cellular" glazing. A solar greenhouse reduces the
need for fossil fuels for heating.
Water Pumping: When properly sized and installed, Photovoltaic (PV) water pumps are
very reliable and require little maintenance. The size and cost of a PV water pumping system
depends on the quality of solar energy available at the site, the pumping depth, the water
demand, and system purchase and installation costs. PV-powered drip irrigation systems
are finding increasing niche markets. There are several companies that manufacture systems
designed for pumping water from wells, ponds, or streams. Although today’s prices for PV
panels makes most crop irrigation systems too expensive, PV systems are very cost-effective
for remote livestock water supply, pond aeration, and small irrigation systems. They are
exceptionally well-suited for grazing operations to supply water to remote pastures. Simple
PV power systems run pumps directly when the sun is shining, so they work hardest in the
hot summer months when they are needed most. Generally, batteries are not necessary
because the water is stored in tanks or pumped to fields and used in the daytime. Larger
pumping systems may include batteries, inverters, and tracking mounts to follow the sun.
Lighting Small Motors: Even when utility power is available nearby, using PV panels to
charge batteries for lighting may be the cheapest option for outbuildings. The cost of a
transformer and running wires to where the light is needed can add up. A simple PV system
can operate low- or high-pressure sodium lights, as well as fluorescent and incandescent
bulbs. Electric motors with small power needs can be very handy in remote areas or in places
where running an electrical line is a problem. PV panel is also used to run aeration fans in
grain storage bins and to power automatic supplement feeders.
Solar Home Systems (SHS) are still the dominant PV application in rural areas /farms and
their main use is for lighting and radio/TV in households.

BIOGAS

Reduce your farm’s environmental footprint

Biogas production helps enhance a farm’s environmental stewardship. Capturing and using
methane through anaerobic digestion can significantly reduce greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions from manure systems, mitigating the impacts of climate change.

Most organic matter begins the process of decomposition when it is exposed to oxygen and
sunlight. However, organic matter can also decompose without any oxygen, by the process of
anaerobic fermentation. This happens due to the bacteria present in the matter which acts
during the absence of oxygen. Landfills see a lot of such decay, especially when the waste
material becomes wet and receives little sunlight. As a result, a lot of methane and nitrous
oxide is produced and released into the atmosphere. Biogas is the result of this decay, and it
is an energy source like no other.

One may find the structure of biogas to be a little confusing. Comprising mainly of methane
and carbon dioxide, one has to wonder how these greenhouse gases are helping anybody.
However, the magic happens when the gas is burnt. The use of biogas as a fuel happens
because it reacts with oxygen and releases energy, which is clean in nature.

The resulting reaction uses up the gases and prevents them from rising into the atmosphere.
Biogas plants are slowly becoming popular due to the many benefits associated with them.
They are already being used for industrial heating and many more applications.

Other environmental advantages:/ Applications to Agriculture

 Produces nutrient-rich digestate that boosts crop production

 Provides green energy sources (renewable heat, electricity, natural gas) for farm
activities
 Creates a sustainable loop of food, waste and energy
 Removes odour compounds from raw manure
 Reduces pest populations (anaerobic digestion destroys weed seeds and kills
pathogens)
 Recovers and transforms lost nutrients into soil amendments, reducing commercial
fertilizer requirements and costs
 Indirectly protects ground water
 Supports the sustainability of the farm community
Disadvantages of Biogas

1. Little Technology Advancements: First of all, the current systems in place used to create
biogas are not as efficient as they get. Little new technology has been introduced for
streamlining the process and making it more cost effective. As a result, large scale industrial
production of biogas is still not on the energy map. Although it could solve the energy issues
being faced by countries all over the world, very few investors are willing to put in the start-
up capital. It is also not the best idea to construct one biogas plant per house, which means
that a central system will have to be put into place.

2. Contain Impurities: Biogas contains a number of impurities even after refining

processes have been put into place. When compressed for use as fuel, these can become
corrosive to the metal parts of engines.

3. Not Attractive on Large Scale: The process of using biogas on a large scale is not
economically viable and it is very difficult to enhance the efficiency of biogas systems.

4. Unstable: It is also somewhat unstable, making it prone to explosions if the methane

comes in contact with oxygen and become flammable in nature.

Even with all of the disadvantages present, countries have started to apply the uses of
biogas in everyday life. Public transportation has been renewed and made efficient
with the help of CNG. Remote locations that are off the electric grid receive a steady
supply of power from these plants. The future use of biogas is bright, even with the
problems it faces
Advantages of Biogas
1. Renewable Source of Energy: To begin with, biogas is considered to be a renewable
source of energy. Since it often produced from materials that form sewage and waste
products, the only time it will be depleted is when we stop producing any waste.

2. Non-Polluting: It is also considered to be non-polluting in nature. The production of

biogas does not require oxygen, which means that resources are conserved by not using
any further fuel.

3. Reduces Landfills: It also uses up waste material found in landfills, dump sites and even

farms across the country, allowing for decreased soil and water pollution.

4. Cheaper Technology: Applications for biogas are increasing as the technology to utilize
it gets better. It can be used to produce electricity and for the purpose of heating as well.
Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is biogas that has been compressed and can be used as a fuel
for vehicles. Production can be carried out through many small plants or one large plant.
5. Large number of Jobs: Either way, work opportunities are created for thousands of
people in these plants. These jobs are a blessing in rural areas, which are the targeted grounds
for the use of biogas. In fact, biogas can easily be decentralized, making it easier to access by
those living in remote areas or facing frequent power outages.

biogas is used as fuel for combustion engines, which convert it to mechanical energy,
powering an electric generator to produce electricity. The design of an electric generator is
similar to the design of an electric motor. Most generators produce alternating AC electricity;
they are therefore also called alternators or dynamos. Appropriate electric generators are
available in virtually all countries and in all sizes. The technology is well known and
maintenance is simple. In most cases, even universally available 3-phase electric motors can
be converted into generators. Technologically far more challenging is the first stage of the
generator set: the combustion engine using the biogas as fuel. In theory, biogas can be used as
fuel in nearly all types of combustion engines, such as gas engines (Otto motor), diesel
engines, gas turbines and Stirling motors etc.

Refrigeration system
A refrigeration system is comprised of four main parts:
1. Compressor
2. Condenser
3. Expansion valve or other restriction in the refrigeration line
4. Evaporator
The components are connected in a complete circuit in the order listed. In addition there may
be a receiver(small tank) between the condenser and the expansion valve.

When the system is charged with a refrigerant, operating the compressor reduces the pressure
in the evaporator and causes the refrigerant to boil, evaporate and absorb heat. This causes
drop in temperature. At the same time the compressor is pumping the evaporated vapour into
the condenser at high pressure. This causes the refrigerant to condense back into liquid while
giving out heat. The temperature in the condenser will rise. The receiver serves as the
reservoir for liquid refrigerant. The evaporator is installed on the room to be refrigerated and
the condenser is placed where ambient air can easily absorb the heat produced. The
expansion valve is the temperature control mechanism of the system. If it is adjusted to
further restrict the refrigerant flow, both the pressure and boiling temperature of the in the
evaporator will drop and within the limit of the system’s capacity, the room temperature may
be maintained at a lower level.
The pressure on the condenser side is determined largely by ambient conditions. If the air
temperature is relatively low, the condenser discharges its heat easily at normal pressures.
However, in very hot weather or if air flow through the condenser becomes restricted by dust
or other debris, the temperature and pressure may rise to levels dangerous to the system,
unless a high pressure safety switch has been installed.

TROUBLE SHOOTING OF REFRIGERATOR

i. Refrigerator runs but fails to cool
ii. Refrigerator runs without stopping
iii. Refrigerator Hammers and cuts
iv. Refrigerator fails to start
FARM BOILERS
Boilers are apparatus designed or used to convert any liquid to steam at atmospheric pressure
or higher.
When discussing farm boilers one should think of heat, hot water, steam and pressure.

The basic ingredients of fire, hot water, steam and pressure are individually dangerous to
humans and property. When combined to form a boiler the safety risk is enormous, possibly
worse than high explosives because of heat factor.
Governments and insurance companies throughout the world recognize the inherent potential
for disaster always present when using a boiler and have drawn up very strict regulations
governing the use of boilers. The regulations are known to constructors of boilers and they
obey them. But once the boiler is commissioned and brought into service then the
responsibility for safe use rests on the person in overall charge of it
Boilers as defined in the “Act” have to be registered. There is usually a plate fixed to the
boiler giving such information as working pressure, test pressure maker’s number date of
construction, the manufacturers’ name and government number. This plate should be kept
clean and not painted over during maintenance work. Boilers should be inspected by a
properly authorized person every year. (Inspector from NSSA). The detail examined each
year varies but this is laid down in the regulations.

BOILER PRINCIPLES
Object: The object of a steam boiler is to evaporate hot water into steam at high pressure.
Heating Area: A boiler should be so arranged that as large area as possible is exposed to the
hot gases from the grate, while water is in contact on the other side with every portion of
metal so exposed, to prevent overheating of the metal.
Material: Due to economic and strength reasons boilers are made of various grade steel. For
high pressure boilers it may be a requirement that samples of steel either tested by an
authorized agency or warranted by the manufacturer to be to the correct specification.
Likewise welding must be carried out by a “coded welder” and the welds may be subject to
x-ray examination. On no account should unqualified personnel or unsuitable materials be
used in attempting to repair a boiler. The regulations are such that boilers are constructed
with a factor of safety that takes into account the effect of corrosion on both sides of the
plates or tubes. A boiler inspector will condemn a boiler that has been rendered unsafe by
corrosion.
Water Circulation: It is essential that water circulates freely within a boiler to ensure that
the steam forming on the hot plates is immediately replaced with water. The circulation
pattern is built into the boiler at the design stage. Lack of circulation can result in
characteristic bumping sound which is a danger signal. This is because the plate may have
suffered local overheating and when water touches it there is a violent burst of steam.
Rating of Boilers: Boilers are rated in terms of the mass of water at boiling point (100°) that
is converted to steam also at boiling point in one hour.
Types of Boilers: There are three main types of boilers: - Shell boilers, fire tube boilers,
water tube boilers.
i. Shell Boilers: The combustion chamber is usually circular and is placed inside the shell.
They may be vertical or horizontal. They contain a large volume of water and they are slow
steaming. They can be fired by less skilled attendants than more complex boilers. The
statement particularly applies to vertical boilers.
ii. Fire Tube Boilers: A fire tube is a tube so placed that hot gases that have left the
combustion chamber must pass through it on their way to the chimney, the tube is surrounded
by water. These tubes are of comparatively small diameter and there may be many of them,
depending on boiler size, say up to seventy in medium size boiler. On small boilers there may
be as few as twenty.
Fire tube boilers may be use on locomotives and in both types of shell boiler; they may be
single or double pass.
iii. Water Tube Boilers: the water is inside the tube and the hot gases are on the outside.
They may be utilized with shell type boilers to extract more heat from the flue gases or they
may be used in very large systems working at high pressure where the entire heat transfer
takes place through the metal of the tubes. They are not likely to be found on farms.

The care, Working and Management of Boilers.

Responsibility of the attendant:

This must be very clearly defined by the person in overall charge of the boiler particularly
bearing in mind the possibility that the attendant may not have a very high standard of
education, he may not be able to read or write. The must be clear instructions as to what the
attendant duties are particularly what action to take in case of emergency.
Emergencies should clearly be defined.

The boiler working pressure must in no account be exceeded and the safety valve must be set
to blow at that pressure. Safety valves must also be locked that they cannot be tampered with.
They should be tested daily to se that they are working freely.

Care must be taken to ensure that the pipe connecting the gauge to the boiler is kept clear.
Pressure gauges should be compared with standard gauges at half yearly (6months) intervals.
The working pressure should be marked with red line.

The water level must be steadily maintained. Water gauges must be kept free and in good
order. They must be tested frequently by blowing through.

Water level cocks must be operated at least once per day.

At least two separate means should be provided for supplying feed water.

Fusible plugs where fitted must be kept free of scale and should be replaced every year.

Feed water must be clean and must on no account contain any oil, grease or fats as many of
these decompose at high temperature to form acid.

Boilers must be blown down as recommended by the water treatment specialists. Likely twice
per day.

As a good general rule boiler should be heated and cooled slowly.

When laying a boiler of for a long time seek the advice of the water treatment specialist.

BOILER FITTINGS
Mention has been made of several fittings, those likely to be found on Farm boilers are as
follows.
1. Safety valves: normal practice is to fit two.
2. Pressure gauge: Its accuracy must not be in doubt and its action should be
checked twice daily.
3. Anti-priming pipe or steam dome: this is built into the boiler and its function is
to prevent any water spray in the steam from passing into the main outlet valve.
4. Water gauges: Should be maintained in good working order.
5. Water level cocks: so spaced on the end plate that the correct water level is
between them. When testing steam should come out of the top one and water out
of the bottom one.
6. Fusible plug: if the water level falls below the minimum level the low melting
point metal melts, the plug is blown out and the wet steam then escaping puts off
the fire.
7. Blow down valves: these are situated at the lowest part of the boiler and normally
twice a day they are opened for a certain period so that any sludge that has
collected in the bottom of the boiler is blown out. Water treatment specialists
advise on this.
8. Feed pump: normally on a small farm boiler the pump that feeds water into the
boiler is operated by hand through a lever. The pipes have automatically operated
inlet and outlet valves and the supply pipe into the boiler should be fitted with a
valve.
9. Main stop valve: this is a suitable size of steam valve so placed that it
controls the steam flow into the outlet pipe. It should be opened very slowly when the
system is first put into use.

Boiler Auxiliaries
In respect of the farm boiler these may include: -
1. An automatic stoker.
2. A forced draught fan.
3. An induced draught fan on larger types.
4. High and low water alarms are not usually found on farm boilers but such devices are
available.

BOILER MAINTENANCE
This aspect can be conveniently grouped into three categories:
1. Those performed during normal operation.
2. Those performed when the fire is out but without access to the inside of the boiler.
3. Those performed when the boiler is empty and all access manhole and cleaning hole
covers have been removed, usually at the annual inspection.
1. During normal operation- water treatment should be as specified for that boiler and
water. All of the control valves and steam cocks should be tested at least daily to see
that they function correctly. This includes the steam and water cocks to the pressure
gauges, water gauges and water level indicators.
The boiler should be blown down as directed. The safety valves should be tested for
freedom of operation. Both systems of feeding water into the boiler should be tested.
It may be possible to clean the fire tubes while the boiler is in use. Clean fire tubes are
critical to the efficiency of the boiler; 2mm of soot in the fire tube has a drastic effect
on the ability of the tube to transmit heat.
2. When the fire out- any damage to the grate or brickwork can be made good.
 Special fire bricks should be used and special mortar is available for such brickwork
or repair work. All of the fire tubes can be cleaned as well as other heat transmitting
surfaces; automatic stockers should be cleaned and checked.
3. During annual inspection- all the scale inside the boiler should be cleaned off.
All fittings should be overhauled by a competent person. The outside of the boiler
should be cleaned and painted.
Emergency Drill
This depends on the nature of the problem but as a general rule:
-shut off fans.
-remove the fire
-blow off steam but maintain the correct water level.
- if the safety valves are functioning close the main outlet valve in order to maintain the
correct water level.
- watch the pressure gauge.
- if control of the situation is lost, low water level, feed pump not operating, fire still
burning, it may be imperative that the area be vacated.