Introduction to Environmental Studies

B. Tech 3rd Semester

Ecosystem

Department: Chemistry
Subject: IES (CHM 2041)
 Ecology
The term Ecology was coined by Earnst Haeckel in 1869.
• It is derived from the Greek words Oikos- home + logos- study.
• So ecology deals with the study of organisms in their natural home and interacting with their
surroundings
• According to Tansley (1935): An ecosystem is a group of biotic communities of species interacting
with one another and with their non-living environment exchanging energy and matter.
What is Ecosystem
 An ecosystem is a community of living organisms (plants, animals, and
microorganisms) interacting with each other and with their physical
environment (air, water, soil). It functions as a system where energy flows
through food chains and materials are recycled by decomposers,
maintaining balance in nature.
 Both biotic (or living) and abiotic (or nonliving) elements make up
ecosystems.
 A balanced ecosystem is one in which energy flow and nutrient cycles
operate smoothly, without disruption by human or natural interference.
 Function of Ecosystem
The major functions of ecosystems are as follows:
i)Primary function: Photosynthesis
ii) Secondary function: Transfer of energy (Energy flow) to all consumers
iii) Tertiary function: Food chain, food webs, and trophic structure
 Nutrients flow (Biogeochemical cycles)
 Primary and Secondary production
 Ecosystem development and regulation
 Control species gradient
 Pollution control, such as CO2 by plants, Nitrogen fixation by Rhizobium
bacteria
Types of Ecosystem
 Structure of Ecosystem
Non-Living components Living components

Macro-consumer
1. Atmosphere 2. Hydrosphere 3. Lithosphere Micro-consumer

Plant

Parasite,
Malaria parasite

Cow, elephant, deer Cockroach, Human

1st tropic level Frog, Dog, Cat, Jackal Lion, Tiger, Hawk 4th tropic level
2nd tropic level 3rd tropic level
Main components of ecosystem
The ecosystem is made up of two main components:
 Non-living components (Abiotic)
 Living components (Biotic)
 Non-Living Components (Abiotic)
It includes everything in the environment that is not alive. The sun, soil,
water, minerals, climate, rocks, temperature, and humidity are a few
examples of the abiotic elements.
 Atmosphere (Air): Provides oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen.
 Hydrosphere (Water): Essential for survival, habitat for aquatic
organisms.
 Lithosphere (Soil): Provides minerals, nutrients, and a base for plants to
grow.
Abiotic factors are further divided into:
 Climatic factors: Rain, light, wind, and temperature.
 Edaphic factors (soil-related): Soil type, pH, minerals, topography.
They supply organic and inorganic materials like protein, fat,
carbohydrates, and minerals, which are the raw materials for life.
 Living Components (Biotic)
Biotic components are the living organisms in an ecosystem, including
plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms. They interact with each other
and with the abiotic components to maintain the balance and functioning
of the ecosystem. They can be classified into:
(a) Producers (Autotrophs)
Producers
Producers, also known as autotrophs, are organisms that can produce
their own food through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis. They form
the base of the food chain by converting energy from sunlight or
inorganic compounds into organic matter.
Example: Plants
• They produce food by photosynthesis using sunlight, CO₂, and water.
• They form the base of the food chain.
(b) Consumers (Heterotrophs)
Consumers are any heterotrophs, mostly animals, that rely on producers or
other living things. They can be herbivores, carnivores, or omnivores. The
following groups comprise these:
• Primary consumers
(Include all Herbivores means they rely on plants and plant-based
products): Cow, elephant, deer, rabbit, grasshopper
 Secondary consumers
Secondary consumers are organisms that obtain energy by feeding on
primary consumers.
They can be either carnivores (that consume only meat) or omnivores(that
eat both plants and animals).: Frog, dog, cat, jackal
 Tertiary consumers (Any animals that rely on organisms at
the secondary level for sustenance, i.e., Larger Carnivores):
e.g., Lion, tiger, hawk
 Quaternary consumers (Refers to those creatures that eat
only tertiary-level organisms, i.e., Omnivores).
They sit at the top of the food chain and help maintain
ecosystem balance by controlling populations of other
species, eg. Human, eagle
Consumers are also classified as:
• Macro-consumers: Larger animals (herbivores & carnivores).
• Micro-consumers: Parasites, bacteria, fungi, etc.
(c) Decomposers (Saprotrophs)
• Example: Bacteria, fungi, parasites like the malaria parasite.
• They break down dead plants and animals into simpler substances,
recycling nutrients back into the ecosystem.
 Function of Ecosystem
The major functions of ecosystems are as follows:
 It regulates different life processes.
 The various components of an ecosystem are designed to support the life
systems.
 It regulates various types of nutrient cycles.
 It maintains the balance of energy flow between various levels of the
ecosystem.
 It regulates the cycling of nutrients between abiotic and biotic factors.
 Pollution control, such as CO2 by plants, Nitrogen fixation by Rhizobium
bacteria
 Food Chains
Food chain: A food chain is the sequence of organisms through which energy and
nutrients flow in an ecosystem, where each organism feeds on the one before it and is
eaten by the one after it.
It always starts with producers (plants), which prepare food using sunlight.
Then comes primary consumers (herbivores) that eat plants.
Next are secondary and tertiary consumers (carnivores/omnivores) that eat other
animals.
Finally, decomposers (bacteria and fungi) break down dead plants and animals,
recycling nutrients back into the environment. Example of a Food Chain:
Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Eagle
Here, energy flows step by step from plants to herbivores to carnivores.
Types of Food Chains
1. Grazing Food Chain (GFC)

It starts with green plants (producers) as the base.

Energy flows from plants → herbivores → carnivores → top
carnivores.
Example:
Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake
→ Eagle
2. Detritus Food Chain (DFC)
• It starts with dead and decaying organic matter such as fallen leaves,
dead animals, and waste products.
• Decomposers (fungi, bacteria) and detritivores (earthworms, termites)
feed on detritus.
• Energy flows from detritus → decomposers/detritivores → small
carnivores → larger carnivores.
Example:
Dead leaves → Earthworm → Hen → Fox
3. Parasitic Food Chain( Parasite is taking food from living host)
 In this chain, small organisms (parasites) like lice, ticks, fleas, tapeworms,
mosquitoes, etc., derive their food and energy from larger living organisms
(hosts). Here, parasites do not kill their hosts immediately, but they
weaken them by taking nutrients.
 Example of Parasitic Food Chain:
 Grass → Cow → Human → Lice/ Tapeworm
 Grass is the producer.
 Cow (herbivore) eats the grass.
 Human (omnivore) drinks cow’s milk or eats its meat.
 Parasites like lice, tapeworms, or mosquitoes feed on humans.
 In a parasitic food chain, the shape of the pyramid of numbers is inverted. The
pyramid below is called the pyramid of numbers. In this, the number of
producers is least.
 Primary consumers (herbivores) have comparatively more organisms, followed
by secondary consumers (carnivores).
 The bacteria and fungi are maximum in number in the parasitic food chain.
The base of the pyramid represents the producers in a parasitic food chain.
A parasitic food chain ends with parasites instead of top
carnivores, and it shows how even tiny organisms depend on
larger hosts for energy.
 Food web
Food web: A food web is a collection of many interconnected food chains in which energy
flows along multiple pathways, making the ecosystem more stable. A food web can be
composed of multiple food chains,
Significant of Food chains and Food webs
• The flow of Energy-It shows how solar energy captured by plants flows step by step
through herbivores, carnivores, and decomposers.
• Nutrient Cycling – They help in the recycling of nutrients like carbon, nitrogen, and
phosphorus through different trophic levels and back to the soil by decomposers.
• Ecosystem Balance – They maintain balance between producers, consumers, and
decomposers. If one population increases or decreases, the food web adjusts
naturally.
• Interdependence of Organisms – They highlight how all living beings are connected
(“who eats whom”) and depend on each other for survival.
• Stability of Ecosystem – Food webs (more than food chains) provide stability,
because organisms have multiple food options and can survive even if one source is
scarce
• Human Importance – They help humans understand biodiversity, conserve wildlife,
and manage natural resources more sustainably
Energy Flow in an Ecosystem
The diagram shows how energy flows in nature through a food chain.
 The Sun gives energy to plants.
 Plants (producers) make food using sunlight.
 A primary consumer (mouse) eats the plant and gets energy.
 A secondary consumer (eagle) eats the mouse and gets energy.
 When plants and animals die, decomposers (fungi, bacteria, etc.) break them
down and return nutrients to the soil.
 The energy keeps moving in one direction, from the sun to plants, then to
animals, and finally to decomposers.
 4. Some food energy stored in the consumer
Energy flow in an Ecosystem system & plant moves to decomposer bacteria
and stops flow of energy

3. Living organisms break down organic molecules to

release energy for metabolic activities, but a
significant portion of this energy is lost as heat, in
Dead body
Respiration
the consumer system, called the respiratory Energy
Decomposer bacteria

Excretory material

2. Plants’ biochemical energy (Food energy) is

Respiration consumed by primary, 2ndary, and tertiary
Dead body consumers, where food energy is converted to
Excretory material mechanical energy(for movement), heat
energy(through metabolic process), sound
energy(speaking), potential energy(for body function),
Respiration etc. Each step 90% energy loss in the form of heat,
sound, and respiration energy
Dead body
Follow 2nd law of thermodynamics
Excretory material
1. Solar radiation energy is trapped by plants through the
Energy flow is unidirectional but nutrient flow is cyclic process of Photosynthesis, which is converted into
biochemical energy (Food energy)
Follow 1st law of thermodynamics
Energy Flow
Primary production
 Primary productivity: Primary production in an ecosystem refers to the process by
which producers (mainly green plants, algae, and some bacteria) capture solar
energy through photosynthesis (or chemical energy through chemosynthesis) and
convert it into chemical energy in the form of organic matter, i.e., biomass.
 Biomass is any organic material from plants or animals that can be used as a fuel
source. It includes things like wood, crop waste (like straw), animal waste (like manure),
and even algae.
Types of Primary Production:
 Gross Primary Production (GPP): Gross primary production (GPP) is the amount of
chemical energy ( biomass) that a producer creates in a given period of time.
 Net Primary Production (NPP): It is the amount of chemical energy that is not
consumed by respiration.
 Respiration(R): The energy that remains after producers use for their own respiration.
 Net Primary Production (NPP) = Gross Primary Production (GPP) – Respiratory energy
(R).
Formula: NPP = GPP -R
 This is the usable energy available
to herbivores and higher trophic
levels.
Secondary Production:
 Secondary productivity is defined as
the rate at which consumers convert
the chemical energy in their food into
their biomass.
 Secondary production may also be
categorised according to gross (total)
and net (usable) amounts of biomass.
 GSP is the amount of energy that
consumers absorb from their food.
 NSP=GSP – {R(energy lost through
respiration)+faeces}
Example Calculation

Calculate Gross Secondary production(GSP):

Q1.A consumer eats 2,000 kJ of food but loses 1,200 kJ as feces. The
consumer uses 600 kJ for respiration. Calculate GSP and NSP.

Ans: GSP= 2,000 kJ - 1,200 kJ = 800 kJ

NSP = 800 kJ (GSP) - 600 kJ (R) = 200 kJ

Nutrient cycle
 The cyclic movement of essential nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen, oxygen,
phosphorus, Sulphur, and water between the living (biotic) and non-living
(abiotic) components of the environment is called a nutrient cycle or
biogeochemical cycle.
 These cycles ensure that vital elements of life are continuously reused and
recycled in nature, maintaining ecological balance.
Two Main Types of Nutrient Cycles
Nutrient (biogeochemical) cycles are broadly classified into two main types
based on where the major reservoir of the element is located:
 Gaseous Cycle
 Sedimentary Cycle
Gaseous Cycles Definition:
 In this type, the main reservoir of the nutrient element is the atmosphere
or hydrosphere (water bodies).
 The elements circulate between living organisms and the air or water in a
relatively rapid and balanced manner.
Major Gaseous Cycles:
 Nitrogen Cycle
 Carbon Cycle
 Oxygen Cycle
 Water (Hydrological) Cycle
Nitrogen Cycle
 The nitrogen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which nitrogen is
converted into multiple chemical forms as it circulates
among atmospheric, terrestrial, and marine ecosystems. The conversion
of nitrogen can be carried out through both biological and physical
processes. Important processes in the nitrogen cycle
include fixation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification.
 The nitrogen cycle refers to how nitrogen flows from the
atmosphere → soil → plants → animals → decomposers → back to
the atmosphere, ensuring nitrogen is continuously recycled in the
ecosystem.
1. Nitrogen in the Atmosphere (N₂):
➢ The atmosphere contains about 78% nitrogen gas (N₂), but it is inert and
cannot be directly used by plants or animals.
2. Nitrogen Fixation:
➢ This is the process of converting atmospheric nitrogen gas (N₂) into
ammonia (NH₃) or ammonium (NH₄⁺).
➢ This is primarily done by bacteria, but also by lightning and industrial
processes.
➢ Rhizobium are nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
➢ Rhizobium: These bacteria form symbiotic relationships with
leguminous plants (e.g., peas, beans). They convert atmospheric N₂ into
ammonium (NH₄⁺), which plants can use.
➢ This makes nitrogen available in a usable form for plants.
3. Nitrification:
 Nitrifying bacteria are responsible for the process of nitrification.
 Nitrifying Bacteria in the soil convert ammonia into nitrites (NO₂⁻) and
then nitrates (NO₃⁻).
 The bacteria convert ammonium in two steps:
NH₄⁺ → Nitrites (NO₂⁻)
Nitrites → Nitrates (NO₃⁻).
 Nitrates are the most usable form of nitrogen for plants.
4. Assimilation:
 Plants absorb the available nitrates (NO₃⁻) and ammonium ions from the
soil through their roots, incorporating them into their own organic
compounds.
 Animals get their nitrogen by eating plants or other animals.
5. Ammonification:
 When plants and animals die, or animals excrete waste,
decomposers (bacteria & fungi) break down the organic nitrogen
compounds into ammonium (NH₄⁺).
6. Denitrification:
 Pseudomonas: A common and widely studied genus of bacteria
known for its ability to perform denitrification.
 Certain bacteria convert the nitrates in the soil back into nitrogen
gas, which is then released into the atmosphere, completing the
cycle.
 This closes the nitrogen cycle.
Carbon Cycle
 The carbon cycle is the continuous movement of carbon atoms
between the atmosphere, oceans, land, and living organisms.
 The carbon cycle maintains the balance of CO₂ in the atmosphere,
ensuring life can survive. It also links living organisms,
atmosphere, oceans, and rocks in a continuous flow.
 It is a fundamental biogeochemical process that involves several key
steps, including photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, and
combustion.
 This cycle is essential for life, as carbon is the basis of all organic
molecules, and it also plays a critical role in regulating Earth's
climate by moving carbon between long-term stores like rocks and
short-term stores like the atmosphere.
.
 Carbon cycle
Cyclic movement of carbon from biosphere through lithosphere,
hydrosphere and atmosphere called carbon cycle
1. Photosynthesis
 Plants, algae, and some bacteria absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
and use it to create food (sugars) for their own energy and growth. This process
moves carbon from the atmosphere into living organisms.
 They convert it into glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) and other organic compounds.
 This is the entry point of carbon into the food chain.
2. Respiration
 Plants, animals, and other living organisms break down organic carbon
compounds for energy through respiration.
 They release CO₂ back into the air through respiration.
 This process releases carbon dioxide (CO₂) back into the atmosphere as a
byproduct.
 This maintains a continuous exchange of CO₂.
3. Consumption
 When an animal eats a plant, the carbon in the plant is transferred to the
animal, moving through the food chain.
 Herbivores eat plants and obtain carbon.
 Carnivores then obtain carbon by eating herbivores
 This carbon is used to build the animal's own organic molecules.
 In this way, carbon flows through the food chain.
4. Decomposition
 When plants and animals die, decomposers (bacteria, fungi) break
down organic matter.
 This releases CO₂ and methane (CH₄) back into the atmosphere or
soil.
5. Fossil Fuels & Combustion
 Dead plants and animals buried for millions of years form coal,
oil, and natural gas (fossil fuels).
 Burning these fuels releases large amounts of CO₂ into the
atmosphere.
 This is a major factor in the increase of atmospheric carbon,
largely due to human activities.
Hydrological Cycle
 The seven steps of the water cycle are evaporation, condensation,
precipitation, transpiration, sublimation, runoff, and infiltration. These
steps describe the continuous movement of water as it changes from
liquid to gas and back, and how it travels over and through the Earth's
surface.
 This cycle describes the continuous movement of water between the
atmosphere, land, living organisms, and oceans.
1. Evaporation
The sun's energy heats surface water in oceans, lakes, and rivers, causing it to turn into water vapor
and rise into the atmosphere.
2. Transpiration
Plants absorb water through their roots and release it as water vapor from their leaves, contributing
water to the atmosphere.
3. Condensation
As water vapor rises, it cools and condenses back into tiny liquid water droplets or ice crystals,
forming clouds.
4. Precipitation
When clouds become too saturated, water falls back to Earth in the form of rain, snow, sleet, or
hail.
5. Runoff
Water that falls on land flows over the surface, collecting in streams and rivers, and eventually
returns to larger bodies of water, such as oceans.
6. Infiltration
Precipitation soaks into the ground, becoming groundwater. This water can be stored in aquifers or
eventually seep back into rivers, lakes, or oceans.
7. Sublimation:
A less common process where ice or snow turns directly into water vapor without first becoming a
liquid.
Hydrological cycle
 Ecological Pyramids
 Ecological pyramids, also known as trophic pyramids or energy pyramids,
are graphical representations that show the relative amounts of various
parameters (like biomass, energy, and number of organisms) across
different trophic levels in an ecosystem.
 It illustrates how energy, biomass, or the number of organisms decreases
as you move from the producers (plants) at the base to the top consumers
(predators) at the apex.
 There are three main types: the pyramid of numbers, the pyramid of
biomass, and the pyramid of energy
There are three main types of ecological pyramids:
1. Pyramid of Numbers
2. Pyramid of Biomass
3. Pyramid of Energy
Pyramid of Numbers
 Graphical representation showing the number of
individuals at each trophic level.
 It illustrates how the number of organisms
decreases as you move from the producers (plants) at
the base to the top consumers (predators) at the
apex.
 This pyramid can be upright (e.g., grassland) or
inverted (e.g., a single large tree supporting many
insects).
Example:
In a grassland, the pyramid is upright (many grasses
→ few herbivores → fewer carnivores).
In a parasitic food chain, it may be inverted (one tree
→ many insects → numerous parasites).

Inverted Pyramid Upright Pyramid

Pyramids of Biomass

 It shows the total dry weight of living matter (biomass)

at each trophic level.
 The biomass generally decreases as one moves up the
pyramid.
 It is usually upright but can be inverted in aquatic
ecosystems where phytoplankton (producers) have a
fast turnover rate.
Example:
Forest ecosystem: Upright (large biomass of trees → smaller biomass of
herbivores → least biomass of carnivores).
Aquatic ecosystem: Inverted (small biomass of phytoplankton → larger
biomass of zooplankton → larger fish).
In most land ecosystems,
this pyramid is upright, with
a broad base of producers
and progressively less
biomass at higher consumer
levels, reflecting the energy
loss that occurs up the food
chain.
UPRIGHT PYRAMID

Forest Ecosystem
 An inverted pyramid of
biomass in an aquatic
 A pyramid of biomass in an aquatic system
system is inverted because primary
producers (like phytoplankton) have a
short lifespan and high reproductive
rate, resulting in a low total biomass at
the base compared to the higher trophic
levels (such as zooplankton and fish)
that feed on them.
 The rapid growth and turnover of
producers allow them to support a larger
total biomass of consumers above them,
even though the biomass at any given
moment is small.

INVERTED PYRAMID
Pyramid of Energy
 Energy pyramids display how much energy is present at each trophic level
and how much is transferred from one level to the next.
 This pyramid is always upright because energy is lost as heat at each
transfer between trophic levels, with only about 10% of energy being
passed on to the next level.
 Energy transfer between trophic levels is inefficient, and according to the
Ten Percent Law, only about 10% of the energy is typically transferred
from one level to the next.
Ecological succession
 Ecological succession is the process of how species compositions change in an ecological
community over time.
 It begins in a bare area with pioneer species and progresses through seral communities
until reaching a stable climax community.
 Succession can be primary, starting in lifeless areas, or secondary, following disturbances
like wildfires or deforestation.
Classification
(i) Hydrarch or Hydrosere: Starting in watery area like a pond, swamp, or bog
(ii) Mesarch: starting in an area of adequate moisture.
(iii) Xerarch or Xerosere: Starting in a dry area with little moisture.
iv)Lithosere: starting on a bare rock
v)Psammosere: starting on sand
vi)Halosere: starting on saline soil
The two main categories of Ecological Succession are:
a)Primary succession
b) Secondary succession
1. Primary Succession
 Primary succession is the process of
community development that starts on a
bare surface or lifeless area, where no
living organisms previously existed.
 In simple terms, primary succession begins
from scratch — on land or water bodies
where no soil, vegetation, or life was
present before.
 In these places, the process of soil
formation and colonization of living
organisms starts for the first time.
Ex. Volcano, Rock, Desert, drought, glaciers
 Primary Succession
 Insects and small birds make this their habitat.
 The vegetation grows closer together, reducing the
amount of space available for growing.
 Competition between lichen and shrubs for the same
space.

Eventually, one species (lichen)

will die out (or move), and the
other species will survive
(shrubs).
Primary Succession
 These plants die, and they add more nutrients to the soil
 Shrubs and tress can survive now

Mammals have begun to move in

What was once bare rock now
supports a variety of life
 Primary Succession
Lichens begin growing on the rocks.
Over many years lichens produce acid
and break down rock into sand.
Weathering and erosion break down
rock into sand.

Lichens that do not need soil and grow in

dry condition to survive Called PIONEER
SPECIES
 Primary Succession
Lichens grow larger. And death decompose of
lichen increases the organic content of the sand
with organic content. Nitrogen cycle begins.
Eventually enough nutrients enter the sand and
it becomes soil.

Seeds are blown in by the wind or carried in

by animals.
Simple plants, such as mosses, can grow in
the new soil. The plants grow, and the soil
gets enriched as plants die.
Primary Succession

67
2. Secondary Succession
• It occurs in areas where life once existed but has been
disturbed (e.g., after a forest fire, flood, or agricultural
activity).
 Soil is already present, so succession is faster than
primary succession.
 Example: Regrowth of vegetation after a forest fire.
The process of re-growth
after a disturbance in an area
Corn field
with existing soil where life
has formed again into an
ecosystem.
Example Corn field

68
 Secondary succession occurs after a major disturbance, such as a wildfire,
flood, or human activity, wipes out part of a landscape.
 The process is similar to primary succession, with insects and weedy
plants first recolonizing the area, followed by hardier species over time.
 If undisturbed, the ecosystem can eventually regain stability.
 Although disturbances can devastate landscapes, the soil often retains
seeds that sprout after the event, allowing recovery through secondary
succession.
 However, severe disturbances like volcanic eruptions or glaciers can
destroy biological activity entirely, requiring primary succession for the
ecosystem to redevelop.
Ecological Succession Example
Ecological succession occurs in various natural environments, showcasing
how ecosystems recover and evolve. From coral reefs to tropical forests and
even after disturbances like wildfires, different types of succession
demonstrate nature's resilience. These are explained below in detail:
 Coral Reefs: Small coral formations settle on rocks, growing into larger
colonies. This attracts small fish, ultimately leading to the creation of a
thriving coral reef ecosystem.
 Tropical Forests: After deforestation, secondary succession occurs as
forests regrow, taking years to restore a fully functioning community.
 Acadia National Park: After a wildfire, small plants grew on burned soil.
Over time, the forest transitioned from mostly evergreen trees to a mix of
deciduous species.
Ecological Succession Stages/Process of Ecological
Succession
Sequential steps of Ecological succession :
(i) Nudation:
 The process starts with the development of a bare area without life, exposed to
factors like landslides, erosion, volcanic activity, or human intervention.
 The causes of nudation can be topographic, climatic, or biotic in nature. This leads
to the formation of soil.
 It starts from bare area/land without any life forms.
 The bare area may be caused by landslides, volcanic eruptions, drought, glaciers,
etc., overgrazing, disease outbreaks, and agricultural/industrial activities.
(ii) Invasion:
After the bare area is exposed, species begin to colonize the new site. This involves
three steps:
 Migration: Seeds or spores disperse to the area through air, water, etc.
 Ecesis: The species adjusts to the environment, establishing a foothold and starting
full colonization.
 Aggregation: Reproduction increases the population, and pioneer species (the first
colonizers) begin to thrive.
iii) Competition and Co-action:
 As the population grows, competition for space and resources
becomes increasingly intense. Species influence each other’s
survival, and weaker competitors are eventually displaced.
 They influence each other in a number of ways, known as co-
action
(iv) Reaction: Organisms alter the environment (soil, water,
temperature) through their activities. These changes make the
area less suitable for the existing community, leading to its
replacement by a new community, known as a seral community.
(v) Stabilization(Climax): Eventually, a stable community
develops, reaching a balance with the climate and environment.
This climax community remains largely unchanged for a long
period, marking the final stage of succession.
Difference between primary and
secondary succession
 Physical factors involving in
ecological succession
The factors involved in ecological succession are either biotic or abiotic.
1. Climatic factors
• It includes temperature, rainfall, humidity, wind, and sunlight. These factors
determine the type of vegetation that can grow in a region.
• For example, in a dry and hot region, xerophytic (drought-resistant) plants
dominate, while in moist regions, hydrophytic species develop.
2. Soil
• Soil characteristics such as texture, pH, moisture, organic matter, and nutrient
content influence the establishment of new species.
• During succession, soil quality improves — it becomes richer in nutrients due to
decomposition and accumulation of organic matter.
3. Water Availability
The amount and quality of water directly affect the type of organisms that can survive. In hydrosere
(water-based succession), aquatic plants dominate first, while in xerosere (dry habitat succession),
organisms adapt to low moisture conditions.
4. Light Intensity
Sunlight controls the rate of photosynthesis and, therefore, the growth of producers.
In early stages, plenty of light reaches the surface, but as vegetation becomes dense, shade-tolerant
species replace sun-loving species.
5. Temperature: It affects the metabolic rates of organisms and the types of species that can survive.
Temperature changes influence the transition from one community to another.
6. Wind: Influences pollination, seed dispersal, evaporation rate, and soil erosion. Strong winds may
hinder plant establishment or favor species with strong root systems.
7. Topography
The slope, altitude, and drainage pattern of land affect soil formation, water retention, and sunlight
exposure.
For example, north-facing slopes (in India) are cooler and moister, supporting different species than
south-facing slopes.
8. Disturbance Factors
Natural forces, such as floods, fires, storms, and volcanic eruptions, can destroy existing vegetation and
initiate new successional stages.
 Threats to Climax Communities
A climax community is the final and stable stage of ecological succession where the
ecosystem reaches equilibrium with its environment. However, even a climax community
is not permanent — several natural and human-induced factors can disturb or
destroy it. These are:
 Rapid urbanization and roads, railway tracks
 Mainlining activities
 Industrial establishment
 Demand for wildlife products and fuel
 Deforestation for agricultural purposes
 Construction of big Dams
 Pest and widespread diseases
 Flooding and Volcanic eruptions
 Forest Fires
 Anything that destroys the existing community
 Methods of Forest Conservation
 Regulated and Planned Cutting of Trees
 Control over Forest Fire
 Reforestation and Afforestation
 Check over Forest Clearance for Agricultural
Purposes
 Protection of Forest
 Proper Utilization of Forest Products and Forests